EDUC 1O1 MID TERM HANDOUT

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital defects.

* Greek word “Tera” which means “monster”

CLUSTERS OF HAZARDS TO PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Prescription and Nonprescription

Drugs

Ex .Prescription drug that can be harmful – antibiotics

Non-prescribed drugs that can be harmful- diet pills, aspirin, coffee.

Thalidomide (tranquilizer)- alleviate morning sickness (NAUSEA).

2. Psychoactive Drugs- nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such

as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.

* pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee can also harm the child.

Effect : preterm deliveries, lower birthweight of newborns

* pregnant women(heavy drinkers)- will result to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of
abnormalities
Environmental Hazards

* This includes radiation in jobsites and x-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged
exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.

4. Other Maternal Factors

Ex. Rubella (German measles)

syphilis , nutrition
, genital herpes, high anxiety and stress
AIDS

Age (too early or too late, beyond 30)

SIGMUND FREUD

According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along the way
there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will
develop a healthy personality or not.
Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific
“pleasures areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area,
a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.

Five Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)
the erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality,
which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral
receptive.
That is why ... a person has a stronger tendency to:
smoke, bite his nails, use curse words, gossip
As a result, these persons may become too dependent to others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become
pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.

2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)

The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating
and retaining feces. The child needs to have toilet training in this stage. Between one year and a
half, the child’s favorite word is “No!”. Therefore, there may be difficulties in toilet training for
the parents. When the child retains feces when asked to eliminate or choose to defecate when
asked to hold it for some reason.
Fixation during this stage can result in being
Anal Retentive.... an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control.
Anal Expulsive.... where the person becomes messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6)

The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the Pre-school age, children are
interested in the differences of boys and girls. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling
their genitals. At this stage Freud believed that boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their
mother and sees his father to be his rival for his mother’s affection. Boys may fear that his father
will punish him for this feeling (castration anxiety). this was called by Freud as Oedipus Complex.
For girls.... Electra Complex
Out of fear of castration and a strong competition to their father boys eventually decide to
identify themselves with their father than fight them. they develop their masculine
characteristics and repress their feeling toward their father. a fixation during this stage could
result in sexual deviances, weak or confused sexual identity.

The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more
with boys and girls relate more with girls.
 It focuses on the immediate gratification and satisfaction of its
needs. The id wants it now and it wants it fast!
e.g. The baby is hungry. Its Id wants food or milk, so the baby will cry. The Id
speaks up until his or her needs are met.

THE EGO
The ego is the psychological component of the personality that is represented by
our conscious decision-making process.

One of the characteristics of EGO is its strength. The ability of the ego to deal
effectively with the demands of the id, the superego, and reality.

THE SUPEREGO
Near the end of the Pre-school years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego
develops. It embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the
parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence impart to be good or
moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what
is right or wrong.

Topographical model
According to Freud, the mind could be broken down into three components: the
conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious contains all
thoughts and ideas that are immediately received by the mind: it is the active site
of the mind.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development is truly a classic in the field of Educational Psychology. Its
focus is on how individuals construct knowledge. He examined the implication of his theory not only to
aspects of cognition but also to intelligence and moral development.

BASIC Cognitive Concept

Schema
It refers to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.

Assimilation
This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
Ex. If a child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is
seeing by Accommodation

Accommodation

This is a process of creating a new schema.

Example: If the child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He
might try to fit it into his schema of a dog and say, “look mom, what a funny looking dog.” “That’s a
goat!” with mom’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat.
adding this new information (a diff. looking dog in his schema of a dog).
 Equilibration
Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how the world works and to find
order, structure and predictability in their life (achieving proper balance between Assimilation and
accommodation).When our experiences do not match our schemata or cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium.

Object Permanence (fr birth to 2 yrs old)

This is the ability of the child to know that the object still exists even when out of sight.Symbolic
functions – this is the ability to represent objects and events.

PRE- OPERATIONAL STAGE (2- 6 YRS. OLD)

Symbolic functions – this is the ability to represent objects and events.

Ex. Pretends drinking water from a glass.

Egocentrism - this is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone
also has the same point of view.

Ex. A boy would insists to buy toy truck for his mother’s birthday.

Centration - this refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
exclude other aspects.

Ex . when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will
say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to
an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child must say that there is more water in the taller glass.

Irreversibility – children has still have the inability to reverse their thinking.

Ex. 2+3=5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2

Animism - this is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate
objects.

Ex. Mr. sun is asleep.

Transductive reasoning.

This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular.

Ex. Since her mom come homes every six o’clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the
child will say, “because my mom is already home.”

Concrete operational stage (7 -11 yrs. old or Elementary)

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete
objects. It is marked by the ff.:
 Decentering

This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. This
allows the child to be more logical with dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility

During the stage of concrete operations. They can already comprehend the commutative property of
addition, and subtraction in the reverse of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped
into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.

Conservation

This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do
not change even if there is a change in appearance.

Seriation

This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as
weight, volume or size.Formal Operational Stage (12-15 yrs. Old)Formal Operational Stage (12-15 yrs.
Old)

Formal Operational Stage (12-15 yrs. Old)

Hypothetical Reasoning-

This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or judgment. The individual can now deal with “what if” questions.

Analogical Reasoning

This is the ability to perceive the relationship for in one instance and the use that relationship to
narrow down the possible answers in another similar situation or problem.

Ex. If united Kingdom is to Europe, the Philippines is to ______?

Deductive reasoning

This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.

Ex. All countries near the North pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole.

Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY

Erikson’s theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as a
foundation for the later stages.

The theory highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experiences
gradually build upon the next and result into one’s personality.

* Each stage involves psycho-social crisis of two opposing emotional forces (contrary dispositions
“versus”)
 * If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue (psycho-social strength)

ERIKSON’S PSYCHO -SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Psycho-social derived from:

“Psycho” (mind, personality)

“social” (external relationships and environment)

Like any other influential theories. Erikson’s model is simple and well designed. The theory is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for understanding
and for facilitating personal development of self and others.

This is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict,
and generally for understanding self and others.

On the other hand, if we don’t so well, we may develop maladaptations and malignancies.

Malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can’t trust others.

Maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the
negative, such as a person who trusts too much.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

STAGE 1 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (INFANCY APPROX. 1- 1 ½)

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - TRUST VS. MISTRUST

MALADAPTATION - SENSORY MALADJUSTMENT

MALIGNANCY - WITHDRAWAL

VIRTUE - HOPE

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

STAGE 2 - FR ABOUT 18 MOS.- 3 0R 4 YRS OLD

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - AUTONOMY VS. SHAME

MALADAPTATION - IMPULSIVENESS

MALIGNANCY - COMPULSIVENESS

VIRTUE - WILL POWER OR DETERMINATION

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

STAGE 3 - FR 3 0R 4 YRS OLD – 6 yrs old

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

MALADAPTATION - RUTHLESSNES

MALIGNANCY - INHIBITION

VIRTUE - SENSE OF PURPOSE

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

STAGE 4 - SCHOOL AGE( FR 6-12 YRS OLD )

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

MALADAPTATION - NARROW VIRTUOSITY

MALIGNANCY - INERTIA (INFERIORITY COMPLEX)

VIRTUE -COMPETENCY

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

STAGE 5 - ( FR 18-20 YRS OLD )

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - EGO IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION

MALADAPTATION - FANATICISM

MALIGNANCY - REPUDIATION OR REJECTION

VIRTUE - - FIDELITY

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

STAGE 6 - ( FR 18- 30 YRS OLD )

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

MALADAPTATION - PROMISCUITY

MALIGNANCY - EXCLUSION

VIRTUE - - LOVE

Stage 7: Generativity vs. StagnationSTAGE 7 - ( FR 30- 50’S MIDDLE ADULTHOOD )

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

MALADAPTATION - OVER EXTENSION

MALIGNANCY - REJECTION

VIRTUE - - CARING (NEED TO BE NEEDED)

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

STAGE 8 - OLD AGE( FR 60 UP )

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS - EGO IDENTITY VS. DESPAIR

MALADAPTATION - PRESUMPTION

MALIGNANCY - DISDAIN

VIRTUE - - WISDOM

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

MORAL REASONING

-the ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

3 Levels of Moral Development

1. Pre-conventional

2. Conventional

3. Post-conventional

Level 1: Pre-conventional

Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children
accept and believe the rules of authority figures. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet
adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses
largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment

Orientation focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.One is motivated to act by benefit
that one may obtain later.

An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child
asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Stage 2: Mutual Benefit

 One is motivated to act by benefit that one may obtain later. An example would be when a
child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer
the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their
belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

Stage 3: SOCIAL APPROVAL

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is
placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others “Good Boy, Good Girl image”

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society.

Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to
do is seen as valuable and important.

Level 3: Post-conventional

Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more
abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed
or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from
society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-
conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic
human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather
than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.

STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Those that do not
promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise.
Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal Principles

People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel
guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she
wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify
individuals who consistently operated at that level.