Waves and Oscillations Two

Waves and Oscillations Two:
Superposition of Waves
De nition: When two waves (or pulses) meet at a point in space their displacements are added
together.
The principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the
individual displacements due to each wave. After superposition, each wave continues to behave
as it did before.
Interference: When two continuous waves meet the resultant displacement is continuously
changing, the waves are said to be interfering.
The resultant displacement at a point depends on the phase relationship between the interfering
waves, he symbol φ ( Phi ) is often used for phase.
When two waves meet at a point and they are in phase then they will
interfere constructively, as shown in the diagram.
Φ = 0, Waves have same phase or are ‘in phase’
The black line shows the resultant wave (with amplitude larger than the
two initial waves).
This is constructive interference, or reinforcement.
The amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the
two initial waves. If both initial waves have a maximum amplitudes of
size A; then the resultant wave will have a maximum amplitude of 2A.
If the two waves meet when they have an anti-phase relationship

then they interfere destructively. Φ = π (or 180°): Waves are anti-
phase.
The black line shows the resultant wave (with zero amplitude –
this is completely destructive interference).
The red and blue waves combine to give the at black line. This
is destructive interference, or cancellation.
The amplitude of the resultant wave is zero if the two waves have
the same amplitude. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Waves ‘cancel’ each other out during destructive interference.
Consider two waves with equal frequencies, ω, equal

amplitudes, A, and they are out of phase by φ radians. Their
displacements are given by the equations.
The resultant wave is given by the

superposition principle
(add the two waves and use trigonometric
identities) which nally gives the below.
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Stationary Waves
De nition: a wave is produced that is trapped in the string and is re ected back and forth along
it, resulting in superposition.
CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR STATIONARY WAVES ( COHERENCE )
• The waves have the same frequency

• The waves have similar amplitude
• The waves travel in opposite directions in the same medium
Shots 1, 3 and 5 have a zero resultant (waves are anti-phase).

Shots 2 and 4 have a maximum resultant (the waves are in phase).
The points of zero amplitude (nodes), and the points of

maximum amplitude (antinodes) are xed.The points marked
N are points where the resultant displacement is always
zero.The points marked A are where the oscillations
have maximum amplitude.
Only certain frequencies are allowed on a stretched string. This is because the standing wave
must t exactly in between the xed ends. So the only standing waves possible are ones with
nodes at either end.
So a whole number of half wavelengths must t between the ends of the string.
The frequencies which t are called the resonant frequencies, or the modes of vibration.They can
also be called the harmonics or overtones.
Harmonics
The fundamental harmonic has a wavelength λ = 2L, where L
is the length of the string.
The rst overtone has a wavelength λ = L.
Subsequent harmonics have a wavelength given by where n
is the number of the harmonic.
The frequencies, f, of each mode can be calculated using the equations.
Where the velocity of a wave in a stretched string is given by.

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fi
fi
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fl
where is the tension (force) in the string and is its mass per unit
length. therefore, the frequency is as given.
Note that the fundamental frequency is 385 Hz.
Di raction
De nition: when a wave passes through a gap or past an obstacle, it can bend.
• The amount of di raction (or bending) depends on the wavelength of

the waves and the size of the gap.
• Note that there is more di raction when the width of the gap is similar
to the wavelength.
• The wavelength does not change.
All waves di ract. As light has a very small wavelength, you need very
small gaps to see it di ract. For waves passing through a small gap there
are angles where the wave has been cancelled out – minima and other positions where the
wavefronts have maxima.
Notice that the maximum intensity occurs for

angle θ = 0. This is called the central maximum,
around 80% of the intensity is focussed here.
The rst minimum occurs at sin(θ) = λ / b , where
b is the gap width.
The second minimum at sin(θ)= 2λ / b, and so
on. It can be seen from these equations that if
the wavelength is shorter the rst minimum will
be at a smaller angle to the middle of the central
maximum.
Resolution
Two images will be just resolved if the central maximum of one image lies directly over the rst
minimum of the other, and vice versa.This is called ‘Rayleigh’s Criterion’.
Interference
When waves from two separate sources superpose they will form a stable interference pattern if
the following conditions apply; in order for coherence:
• The waves have the same frequency.

• The waves have a constant phase relationship.
• Similar A
These two conditions mean the sources are coherent, it is also necessary for the amplitudes to be
similar.
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𝝁
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Consider the point P (and other equivalent points):
• here a crest meets a crest or a trough meets a trough, so
we have constructive interference (φ = 0).
Consider the point Q (and other equivalent points):

• here a crest meets a trough so we have destructive
interference (φ = 180 )̊ .
Constructive interference occurs when the di erence

between the distance travelled by each wave S1P – S2P is
equal to a whole number of wavelengths. The two waves
are in phase.
Destructive interference occurs when the di erence

between the distance travelled by each wave S1Q – S2Q,
is equal to an odd number of half wavelengths at that
point. The two waves are anti-phase.
• The condition for bright fringes (constructive interference) is: Path Di erence = mλ (where m =
1, 2, 3…); if integer then in phase
• The condition for dark fringes (destructive interference) is: Path Di erence = (m ± 1 ⁄ 2)λ (where
m = 1, 2, 3…); if added or subtracted 0.5 then out of phase
The path di erence from the two slits is:
The central bright fringe is midway between the two slits.

The brightest fringe closest to the
midpoint occurs at the angle:
The linear distance between fringes is given by:
So for a small angle θ (m = 1) the wavelength is approximately given by:

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Young’s Experiment
Because light has an extremely short wavelength, the slits have to be extremely narrow to obtain
a noticeable di raction pattern, however, narrow slits do not let much light through, so it is hard to
measure the distance between maxima and minima.
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Waves and Oscillations Two:

If the two waves meet when they have an anti-phase relationship

Consider two waves with equal frequencies, ω, equal

The resultant wave is given by the

CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR STATIONARY WAVES ( COHERENCE )

• The waves have the same frequency

Shots 1, 3 and 5 have a zero resultant (waves are anti-phase).

The points of zero amplitude (nodes), and the points of

The frequencies, f, of each mode can be calculated using the equations.

Where the velocity of a wave in a stretched string is given by.

• The amount of di raction (or bending) depends on the wavelength of

• The wavelength does not change.

Notice that the maximum intensity occurs for

• The waves have the same frequency.

Consider the point Q (and other equivalent points):

Constructive interference occurs when the di erence

Destructive interference occurs when the di erence

The path di erence from the two slits is:

The central bright fringe is midway between the two slits.

The linear distance between fringes is given by:

So for a small angle θ (m = 1) the wavelength is approximately given by:

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