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Palaeostress magnitudes in the Khao Khwang

fold-thrust belt, new insights into the tectonic
evolution of the Indosinian orogeny...

Article in Tectonophysics · January 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.tecto.2017.01.008

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com

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Palaeostress magnitudes in the Khao Khwang fold-thrust belt, new insights into the
tectonic evolution of the Indosinian orogeny in central Thailand
Francesco Arboit a, ⁎, Khalid Amrouch b, Christopher Morley c, Alan S. Collins a, Rosalind King a
a

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Centre for Tectonic Resources and Exploration (TRaX), Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
b
The Australian School of Petroleum, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
c
Chiang Mai University, 239 Huaykaew Road, Tumbol Suthep Amphur Muang, Chiang Mai, Thailand

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: Using the Khao Khwang fold–thrust belt in central Thailand as case study, we handled data from calcite twinning analy-
Received 5 January 2016

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sis in order to propose the quantification of the effective principal palaeostresses magnitudes since the onset of the early
Received in revised form 10 January stages of the Indosinian orogeny. We also combined the differential stress estimates from mechanically-induced calcite
2017
twins with geochronological data in order to constrain the timing of the palaeoburial depth and subsequent uplift by
Accepted 12 January 2017
Available online xxx
folding within the Khao Khwang fold–thrust belt. The proposed mechanical scenario is based on the time-constrained
kinematic sequence of fracturing, faulting, and folding in the strata of the carbonate formations of the Saraburi Group.
Cross-checking the data on the palaeostress orientations, regimes, and differential stress magnitudes with rock mechanics
Keywords: analysis; we provided data on the principal stress magnitudes for each tectonic stage that developed during the Indosinian
Tectonics
orogeny. Further, 40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb geochronological data allowed to place reliable constraints on the amount and rate
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Calcite twins
Palaeo differential stress of vertical uplift of the carbonate formations of the Saraburi Group.
Thrust belts © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Central Thailand
Indosinian orogeny

1. Introduction were developed in the last decades (Etchecopar et al., 1981; Angelier
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et al., 1982; Armijo et al., 1982; Gephart and Forsyth, 1984; Michael,
The state of stress in rocks is generally anisotropic and is repre- 1984; Carey-Gailhardis and Mercier, 1987; Reches, 1987; Angelier,
sented by the orientations and magnitudes of the principal axes of the 1990; Gephart, 1990; Marrett and Almandinger, 1990; Will and
stress ellipsoid. In positive compression, the longest axis is the ellip- Powel, 1991; Yin and Ranalli, 1993). The dislocation creep within
soid's major stress (σ1), the intermediate axis is the intermediate stress calcite crystals is an important stress indicator, and this is possi-
(σ2), and the shortest axis is the minimum stress (σ3) (Jaeger and Cook, ble because the quantification of palaeostresses can be numerically
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1969; Sibson, 1977; Price and Cosgrove, 1990). The distribution of expressed using calcite twinning (Lacombe, 2001; Amrouch et al.,
the modern-day stress-field states (e.g. Zoback, 1992; Sandiford et al., 2011). Here, following the analysis in Arboit et al. (2015), we use cal-
2004), as well as the palaeostress orientation and differential stress cite twinning analysis using Etchecopar Method (Etchecopar, 1984)
values (Lacombe et al., 1992; Lacombe and Laurent, 1996; Lacombe, to provide estimates of maximum differential stress (Lacombe, 2007;
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2001; Lacombe et al., 2007; Lacombe, 2007; Amrouch et al., 2010a), Amrouch et al., 2010a). This contribution is aimed at presenting and
have been deeply investigated in the last decades. However, quan- constraining the effective principal stress magnitudes during the In-
titative estimates of effective palaeostress magnitudes through geo- dosinian orogeny, in order to better understand the complicate geody-
logical time are difficult to make and have been well studied only namic evolution of the Khao Khwang fold-thrust belt since the Mid
in the last years (Lacombe et al., 1996; Lacombe, 2001; Lacombe Permian in central Thailand.
et al., 2009; Amrouch et al., 2011; Choi, 2013; Choi et al., 2013;
Kulikowski et al., 2016). Nevertheless, estimates of the palaeostress
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2. Tectonic framework
states from rocks affected by tectonic events are of fundamental im-
portance for addressing unsettled problems such as the mechanical The Khao Khwang fold-thrust belt (KKFTB) (Fig. 1) lies in the
behaviour of geological materials and deciphering various tectonic Saraburi Province in central Thailand, and it is tectonically located
mechanisms, from those related to plate motions at a large scale on the SW margin of the Indochina Block (Bunopas, 1982; Metcalfe,
to those causing jointing and faulting or even microstructures at a 2011; Morley et al., 2013). It is bounded to the north and to the
smaller scale (Lacombe, 2007; Amrouch et al., 2010a, 2010b). For east by the Khorat Plateau, which trends NW-SE, and to the south
these purposes, several analytical methodologies by the Cenozoic Mae Ping strike-slip fault (Morley, 2007; Morley et
al., 2013). This region has undergone a complex geological history,
⁎
Corresponding author. which mainly developed during the Indosinian tectonic event, this is
Email address: arboit.francesco@gmail.com (F. Arboit) characterized by two different subduction and collision episodes that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2017.01.008
0040-1951/© 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

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Fig. 1. a) Geological map of the Khao Khwang fold and thrust belt, (modified from Warren et al., 2014); 1 stereonet of poles to bedding for the region, 2 stereonet of poles to main
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thrusts along Highway 21. b) N-S oriented regional cross-section H-H′ through the southern portion of the Saraburi Region, the Khao Khwang fold-and-thrust belt (see a for location).
Stereonets on the sides of b are of the stress tensors representing each stress stage, and are deduced from the analysis of the calcite twin.

covered the period from ca. 260 to 200 Ma (Late Permian to Late Tri- event on the Indochina margin has been recently constrained as result-
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assic) (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Morley, 2007; Morley et al., 2013; ing from the latest Permian (255– 4 Ma; Arboit et al., 2016a) collision
Arboit et al., 2015). The resulting tectonic belts and suture zones in as the Sukhothai Terrane re-amalgamated with Indochina, with the re-
Thailand have a dominant N-S trend. The Indosinian orogeny in Thai- lated closure of the Permian back-arc basin (Metcalfe, 2005; Sone and
land has been considered to involve two stages of collision during the Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, 2013). Subsequently, in the Late Triassic,
Triassic-Early Jurassic between the three main terranes, which, from during the late stages of the Indosinian collision, the Sibumasu Ter-
east to west, are: Indochina, Sukhothai and Sibumasu (Fig. 1a) (Sone rane is thought to have collided with the now combined Indochina/
and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, 2013). Additionally, beyond Thailand, Sukhothai Terrane, causing the complete closure of the Paleo-Tethys
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to the NE, coeval Triassic collision also occurred between both the in this region. The Indosinian orogeny has usually been thought as re-
Indochina/South China Blocks (Cai and Zhang, 2009) and the South/ sulting from the collisions between these two strongly linear terranes
North China Cratons (Dong et al., 2015). and Indochina. However, despite the common N-S trend of the su-
The Sukhothai Terrane is believed to have been a volcanic arc ture zones (Nan-Sra Kaeo and Changning-Menglian S.Z.) (Fig. 1a)
that rifted away from the south-western margin of Indochina in the between the blocks involved in the collision, in some areas the tec-
Early Permian, as consequence of rollback above the subducting Pa- tonic trend diverges from simply N-S to NW-SE and E-W trends.
leo-Tethys, and opening of the back-arc basin between the volcanic The most prominent of these regions is the Saraburi region (Morley
arc (Sukhothai) and the Indochina Terrane (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). et al., 2013; Arboit et al., 2014). One explanation for the different
However, the geodynamic evolution on the southwestern margin of trend is that the belt was rotated from a N-S direction to a more
the Indochina terrane has been poorly understood. The first tectonic E-W orientation by motion along the NW-SE trending Cenozoic Mae
 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx 3

Ping Fault Zone; Tapponnier et al. (1986) proposed sinistral displace- of the atoms in the crystal lattice along a plane (e); which for un-
ment of about 150 km on this fault. However, even after restoring this metamorphosed calcite are ei:{01 2}. Twin gliding in calcite requires
offset, and applying a relative clockwise rotation of about 25°–30° a resolved shear stress (RSS) that exceeds the yield stress value for
(Charusiri et al., 2006; Cung and Geissman, 2013; Singsoupho et al., twinning (τs) of 10 ± 4 MPa in order to develop (Turner et al., 1954;
2014) to the northern side of the fault, the boundary does not restore Lacombe and Laurent, 1996; Ferrill, 1998; Laurent et al., 2000;
to a N-S orientation (Anchuela et al., 2012; Mochales et al., 2012;

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Lacombe, 2007, Lacombe, 2010; Amrouch, 2010). Resolved shear
Morley et al., 2013). Alternatively, the deflection may be due to the stress is the component of stress that is aligned with the twinning di-
original orientation of the continental margins, or possibly due to a rection. The yield stress value has a very small sensitivity to temper-

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poorly documented intra-Indochina suture, that strikes east-west, and ature and confining pressure but depends mainly on grain size and in-
lies close to the southern margin of the Khorat Plateau (Hutchison, ternal twinning strain (Tullis, 1980; Rowe and Rutter, 1990; Lacombe
1975; Morley et al., 2013). The principal stress orientation of each tec- et al., 2007).
tonic event that took place within the KKFTB during the Indosinian
orogeny has been recently constrained (Arboit et al., 2015), and re- 3.1.1. Palaeodeviatoric stress
lies on the determination of the paleostress orientations by comput- The inversion of calcite twin data yields the four parameters of
erised inversion of calcite twin data (Etchecopar, 1984), this technique the reduced stress tensor, as well as a non-dimensional differential
has proven to be suitable for identifying geologically superimposed stress. The analysis of both the twinned and untwinned planes leads di-

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stress regimes in a polyphase tectonic setting (Lacombe et al., 1990, rectly to the simultaneous computation of principal stress orientations
1992).The oldest system of conjugated fractures is correlated with rift- (with: σ1-maximum principal stress; σ2-intermediate principal stress;
ing of the Sukhothai Terrane off the Indochina margin, and is limited σ3-minimum principal stress) and stresses (Tourneret and Laurent,
to the southern part of the KKFTB, while the second set of conjugate 1990; Lacombe and Laurent, 1992; Amrouch et al., 2010a), which also
fractures is the more widespread throughout the Saraburi region; and yields data on the ellipsoid shape ratio Φ = (σ2 − σ3)/(σ1 − σ3), and
most likely took place during initial Indosinian compressional stress the peak differential stress (σ1 − σ3) (with σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 as a compres-
(LPS event) and was probably coeval with the Sukhothai-Indochina sive stresses, positive in value). The tensor solution is calculated as a

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collision (Arboit et al., 2015). This set of fractures in the southern por- normalized reduced stress tensor, such that (σ1 − σ3), and is scaled to
tion of the KKFTB seems to have formed under the same stress tensor [(σ1 − σ3)* = 1].
that is responsible for the formation of conjugate sets of newly formed Lacombe (2001) brought to light the approximation of using a con-
reverse faults that strike parallel to the major anticlines in the area. The stant value of CRSS for determining the scalar (σ1 − σ3), which does
majority of the folds in the southern portion of the KKFTB developed not take in consideration the grain-size dependence of twinning. How-
in response to thrusting as fault bend, detachment, and fault propaga- ever, we proceeded with a constant CRSS value since the homoge-
tion folds (Morley et al., 2013; Arboit et al., 2014); hence, thrusting neous grain-size (Table 2) within all the analysed samples. Thus, tak-
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is interpreted as coeval with the growth of the major anticlines. The ing in consideration the strain hardening of the crystals after the defor-
third stage of fractures developed during the Indosinian event with a mations, once the four parameters of the reduced stress tensor were de-
general low angle and striking 200° to 240° appear to be almost syn- termined the calculation proceeded under the assumption of a constant
chronous to, or to have formed just after, the main LPS event (Fig. 1b). CRSS (τa = 10 ± 4 MPa), and a fifth scalar parameter such as the dif-
The subsequent stress tensor is associated with a stage of fold-tighten- ferential stress magnitudes were determined as follows (Etchecopar,
ing (Warren et al., 2015; Arboit et al., 2015). This stage is character- 1984; Lacombe and Laurent, 1996; Laurent et al., 2000):
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ized by the reactivation of fracture set-2, which was developed during

the main LPS event, and by the newly formed fractures striking 070°
to 090° mainly detected on the hinge zones parallel to the fold axis,
and probably developed in response to the fold-tightening. The fifth
stage of fracturing is the latest brittle event that seems to have affected
the southern portion of the KKFTB, it is marked by strike-slip faults, where τa′ is the smallest resolved shear stress applied on the twinned
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tail-cracks associated with shear veins and the reactivation of reverse planes accounted for by the stress tensor and therefore the normalized
faults previously emplaced during the main LPS event (Fig. 1). value of the CRSS when (σ1 − σ3) is scaled to 1. Occurrence of a very
low number of untwinned planes (< 10–15% of the whole data set)
due, for instance, to polyphase tectonism may lead to underestimated
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3. Methodologies
τa′ values and hence to overestimated (σ1 − σ3) values. The existence
The palaeostresses that affected central Thailand since the Mid of such a bias towards high values when the number of untwinned
Permian were correlated to the stress that developed mainly during the planes is not sufficient has led to discard two samples (T020, T029)
Indosinian event (Morley et al., 2013; Arboit et al., 2015). The ori- where high differential stress values (double than its expected values
entations and regimes were determined at both macroscopic and mi- based on sample T019b) were obtained. Since the values of both the
croscopic scales, we carried out a study from fractures, faults, and reduced stress tensors and the scalar (σ1 − σ3) are known for each tec-
calcite twinning analysis using the Calcite Stress Inversion Tech- tonic phase (Arboit et al., 2015), we quantified the deviatoric stress
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nique (CSIT) (Etchecopar, 1984; Lacombe and Laurent, 1992, 1996; tensor following (Lacombe, 2001):
Lacombe, 2001; Amrouch et al., 2010a)

3.1. Calcite twin analysis

(1)
In terms of deformation, an individual e-twin can be considered as
a zone of perfect simple shear resulting from the slide of the position with the parameters of the deviatoric stress tensor that can hence
4 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

be determined as (Lacombe, 2001):

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(2)

However, following Eqs. (1), (2) one parameter is still missing

in order to define the complete stress tensor (e.g. Lacombe, 2001;
Amrouch, 2010a). This parameter corresponds to the isotropic compo-

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nent that can't be determined using calcite twin data only, since twin-
ning does not depend upon isotropic stress. Hence, the palaeostress
orientations and regimes were here combined with rock mechanics
data; these data were successively plotted as a Mohr circle in order
to extrapolate the effective principal stress magnitudes (Lacombe and
Laurent, 1996; Lacombe et al., 2007, 2009; Amrouch et al., 2011).
The values of the differential stresses (Table 1) were estimated from
calcite twin analyses (Arboit et al., 2015). For each specific tectonic

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event, the quantification of the complete stress tensor consists in de-
termining the effective values of the vertical stress (σveff), σe1, σe2,
and σe3, required for consistency between newly formed faulting/frac-
turing (Mohr-Coulomb criterion), and sliding on pre-existing planes
(Byerlee's friction law; Byerlee, 1978) (Lacombe and Laurent, 1992;
Lacombe, 2001; Amrouch et al., 2011).
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The mechanical properties of the limestones that crop out in the
Fig. 2. a) Crack development curve (CDC) (red circles) from rock mechanic tests. b)
southern and eastern portion of the KKFTB (Khao Khad formations Mohr circle representation of the orientations of planes explained by methodology ap-
and Saraburi marble) were here used to describe the intrinsic failure plied in this manuscript, which consist on finding the values of the principal stresses σ1,
envelope of the Khao Khad Formation (Fig. 2a) (Tepnarong, 2001). σ2 and σ3 required for consistency between newly formed faulting/fracturing (β), fric-
The objective of the triaxial compressive strength tests were to deter- tional sliding along pre-existing planes (α), and differential stresses estimated from cal-
cite twinning. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
mine the compressive strengths of Saraburi limestones under various
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
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confining pressures. The sample preparation and test procedure fol-

lowed the applicable ASTM (ASTM D2664-86) and ISRM suggested 4. Palaeostress conditions
method (Brown, 1981). A total of 5 specimens have been tested un-
der various confining pressures. The length/diameter of the specimen Bergerat (1987), and Angelier (1989) proposed that palaeostress
equals 2.0. The samples underwent compression under confining pres- could be estimated based on determining the most easily derivable
sures of 1.7, 3.4, 6.9, 13.8 and 20.7 MPa, the deviatoric stresses nec- stress value, which is the vertical stress (σv). This value is controlled
essary to obtain failure within the samples were calculated at each step
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by the thickness of the overburden -in our case 2 km-, the average den-
(Table 2). sity of the rock column (ρ = 2500 kg/m3) under hydrostatic fluid pres-
sure conditions, and gravitational acceleration (g = 9.82 ms− 2). With
an effective vertical stress ~ 30 MPa ± 6 MPa (based on the uncer-
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tainties between burial thickness, rock density and non-coaxiality of

Table 1
Experimental determination of the brittle strength of the Saraburi limestone formations.
the high dip stress and the gravity). Jaeger and Cook (1969), Byerlee
Sizes of the samples during the Brazilian test: diameter = 22.5, 38.5, 54.0, 67.4 mm, (1970, 1978) and Sibson (1994) demonstrated that at intermediate
length/diameter = 0.5. pressures (5 < σn < 200 MPa; and τ = 50 MPa + 0.6 σn) rock type does
not influence friction coefficient values in the failure criteria for reac-
Saraburi limestone and marble
tivation of pre-existing shear surfaces. Additionally, the initial surface
roughness has little effect on friction values and the failure criteria for
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Load at Confining Axial stress at

Diameter Length D/L failure pressure failure pre-existing shear surfaces can be approximated by Eq. (3):
(mm) (mm) ratio (kN) (MPa) (MPa)

See capt. See 0.5 0 0 − 8.5 (3)

capt.
53.9 100.7 0.5 174 1.7 76.2
53.9 100.8 0.5 250 3.4 109.5 where τ, μk and σn are respectively the shear stress, the coefficient
54.1 100.1 0.5 274 6.9 119.8 of static friction and the normal stress. Palaeostress analysis of reac-
54 102.8 0.5 284 13.8 124.4 tivated faults is based on the kinematic theory of reactivation for a
54 100.3 0.5 386 20.7 169.1
 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx 5

Table 2
Parameters and data set used in the construction of the Mohr's circles to quantify effective principal stress magnitudes. EXT: extensional; PC: pure compressive; SS: strike-slip. In
square brackets values obtained from samples with insufficient untwinned planes.

Stress Sample Bedding (Dip Vein (Dip Stress Differential stress Grain size CRSS Stress Magnitude of Magnitude of Magnitude of
stage number Dir - Dip) Dir - Dip) ratio (Φ) (σ1 − σ3) (MPa) (μm) (MPa) regime σ3 (MPa) σ2 (MPa) σ1 (MPa)

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SI T020 174/14 068/88 0.6 84 ± 17 150–170 10 ± 4 EXT [− 2] [42] [78]
SI T029 352/39 235/80 0.4 76 ± 15 150–170 10 ± 4 EXT ″ ″ ″
SI T019b 160/40 251/72 0.3 37 ± 7 150–170 10 ± 4 EXT −5 8 38

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SII T029b 352/39 358/82 0.4 58 ± 12 150–170 10 ± 4 PC −4 26 54
SII T083b 175/59 HOST 0.9 35 ± 7 150–170 10 ± 4 SS −4 ± 30 40
SII T018vb 160/40 138/25 0.8 38 ± 7 150–170 10 ± 4 SS ″ ″ ″
SIII T011b 178/60 HOST 0.5 66 ± 13 150–170 10 ± 4 SS 13 21 87
SIII T019 160/40 322/71 0.2 62 ± 12 150–170 10 ± 4 PC ″ ″ ″
SIII T018v 160/40 322/71 0.5 68 ± 13 150–170 10 ± 4 SS ″ ″ ″
SIII T011 178/60 HOST 0.5 72 ± 15 150–170 10 ± 4 SS ″ ″ ″
SIV T081 175/59 140/78 0.3 71 ± 14 150–170 10 ± 4 PC 12 16 66
SIV T082 175/59 217/75 0.1 55 ± 11 150–170 10 ± 4 PC ″ ″ ″

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SIV T080b 175/59 255/52 0.8 38 ± 7 150–170 10 ± 4 SS 12 55 66
SV T081b 175/59 281/42 0.4 51 ± 10 150–170 10 ± 4 SS 46 30 72
SV T082b 175/59 261/49 0.3 46 ± 9 150–170 10 ± 4 SS ″ ″ ″
SV T083 175/59 045/87 0.6 52 ± 11 150–170 10 ± 4 PC ″ ″ ″
SV T080 175/59 337/85 0.7 70 ± 14 150–170 10 ± 4 PC ″ ″ ″

given state of stress. This theory predicts: (I) the favourable orienta- ing and an opening during this stage (Fig. 3a). After unfolding calcu-
tions of the fault planes for reactivation, and (II) the direction along lations (Arboit et al., 2015) the veins are almost normal to the bed-

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which slip is likely to occur on a given fault surface (Wallace, 1951; ding with a θ angle of about 25°. Two stress tensors out of the three
Bott, 1959). Therefore, the methodology applied in this manuscript that provided data consistent with extensional setting have an insuf-
consists on finding the values of the principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 re- ficient number of untwinned planes and this might be the reason for
quired for consistency between newly formed faulting/fracturing (β), the anomalously high differential stress values (Rocher et al., 2004).
frictional sliding along pre-existing planes (α), and differential stresses In the few samples with insufficient untwinned planes (values be-
estimated from calcite twinning (Fig. 2b). tween square brackets, Table 2), the calculated differential stress val-
ues appear to be overestimated. Hence, these high differential stresses
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4.1. Fracture sets have not been taken in consideration, and for Stage 1, only the low-
est differential stress value with a magnitude of 43 MPa is taken in
The interpretation of the data collected within the KKFTB was account in the following observations. The geometrical representation
based on the statistical analysis of fracture orientations and their rel- of the maximum differential stress (σe1 − σe3 = 43 MPa) is tangent to
ative ages (Arboit et al., 2015). The analysis of these fractures was the crack development curve, with effective principal stress values be-
carried out both with a field based study at the meso-scale, and at the ing σe1 (σe1 = σveff) = ~ 38 MPa and σe3 = ~−5 MPa. The value of the
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micro-scale in 27 thin sections. The Permian carbonate of the Khao stress ratio “Φ” drives σ2 towards values of ~ 8 MPa. The Mohr circle
Khad Formation contains a great variety of fractures, many filled with is tangent at the point representing the two sets of conjugate fractures
calcite, which developed during the Indosinian Orogeny (Warren et Set-AI (65°/163°) and Set-AII (60°/350°), which lies at an angle β of
al., 2014; Hansberry et al., 2015). The term “fractures” is here used ~ 22° to σ1 (Fig. 3a).
in a general sense to refer to either (Type I) opening-, (Type II & III)
sliding-, or closing-mode displacement discontinuities along surfaces.
4.3. Stage 2
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We differentiate five major regionally systematic phases of deforma-

tion, composed of 12 fracture sets – classified from AI to BX. The
fracture sets form at both low and high angles to bedding (NE-SW The second tectonic stage is interpreted to be the main compres-
and NW-SE), and when the fractures occur near to inter-layered shale, sive tectonic event in SE Asia during the Early Triassic and corre-
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it is difficult to identify clear patterns in the fracture orientations sponds to the formation of a new set of faults (pure compressive
throughout the KKFTB, or, at a smaller scale, to follow them over the stress regime) and to two new fracture sets (strike-slip stress regime):
same layer, because of intensive dissolution (burial pressure-solution), Set-AIII (80°/050°) and Set-AIV (90°/080°) (Arboit et al., 2015). The
which significantly affected the thickness of the bedding. In these ar- stress tensors detected with calcite twin analysis describe both the de-
eas, the relationship to local and regional structures is uncertain as a formations observed in the field, both with a horizontal σ1 axis ori-
result of these conditions. Field evidence also shows that the carbon- ented NE-SW that trends perpendicular to the mean fold hinge ori-
ate layers of the Khao Khad Formation are often interlayered with thin entation. The emplacement during the Early Triassic throughout the
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shale layers. In these cases, veins and joints developed within a single KKFTB of newly formed conjugate fractures and of newly formed re-
bed and joint/vein spacing increases with the increasing bed thickness. verse faults containing the σ2 axis and at an angle β of 20° to 28° to the
σ1 axis requires the Mohr circle to be tangent to the CDC (Fig. 3b1).
4.2. Stage 1 Differential stress in compressive conditions (sample T029b, Table 2)
reaches the value of ~ 58 MPa with the effective principal stress val-
The samples yielding the effective principal stress tensor related ues σe1 = 54 MPa and σe2 = 27 MPa and (σveff) σe3 = − 5 (Fig. 3b1).
to the first tectonic stage of the Indosinian orogeny represent an ex- Taking into account the estimated value of the expected vertical stress
tensional event, and is well constrained by the conjugated newly in hydrostatic conditions, the drop of the vertical stress value by over
formed combined mode I and mode II veins characterized by a shear ~ 30 MPa indicates an important increase of fluid overpressure during
this compressive phase of the Stage 2.
6 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

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Fig. 3. Kinematic and mechanical scenario of development of the Khao Khwang fold-thrust belt. For each stage are shown: sketches representing the microstructures formed, Mohr
circles and the relative stress regime (all data coming from the Khao Khad Formation, within the southern part of the KKFTB). Mohr circles construction corresponding to each
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tectonic stage within the KKFTB since the beginning of the Indosinian orogeny (Mid-Permian, Stage 1), Early Triassic (Stage 2), to the latest stage of the Indosinian orogeny (Stage
4, latest Triassic), until the latest deformation that affected the KKFTB in the Cenozoic (Stage 5), (Modified from Arboit et al., 2015). For details on these kinematic and mechanical
scenarios, see Tables 1 and 2.

A second strike-slip phase was recorded during this stage. With 4.4. Stage 3
two strike slip regime tensors, presenting a very similar differential
stress respectively of ~ 35 MPa (sample T083b, Table 2) and The third stress event caused the left lateral reactivation of the
~ 38 MPa (Sample T018vb, Table 2). These two samples have a pre-existing set of fractures formed during the extensional phase
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nearly identical value of the stress ellipsoid shape ratio (σ2 − σ3)/ (Stage 1), and the LPS (Stage 2) under strike-slip regime, these reac-
(σ1 − σ3) (Table 2) that leads to similar values of vertical effective tivated veins are often associated with wing cracks and Riedel arrays
stress for both tensors (σveff) σe2 = ~ 35 MPa. The values of the σ2 − σ3 (R and R′) when reactivated under a strike-slip regime. The only pure
differential stress obtained after CSIT calculation are the same for compressive stress tensor yields a quite low stress ratio (Φ = 0.2) that
both the stress tensors (~ 30 MPa) with only the maximum horizontal might permit σ2 − σ3 stress permutation. The reactivated strike-slip
stress (σe1) being higher in the pure compressive tensor. In both the fractures sets are vertical and contain the principal stress σ2. The Mohr
geometrical construction the Mohr circles corresponding to the two circle representing the stress tensors in Stage 3 is tangent to the re-
differential stresses present a similar minimum principal stress, with activation friction curve (τ = 0.85 σn), with the fractures being reac-
the pure compressive stage (T029b) σe3 = − 3 MPa and the strike-slip tivated under a strike-slip regime. The differential stress has same
(T083b and T018vb) σe3 = − 4 MPa.
 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx 7

value in all the stress tensors (~ 66 MPa) and the absolute values ibration between the critical resolved shear stress, twinning strain and
of the effective principal stresses are: σe1 = ~ 78 MPa, (σveff) grain size (Lacombe et al., 2009; Amrouch, 2010b). 2) It was not pos-
σe2 = ~ 12 MPa, and σe3 = ~ 46 MPa. sible to construct the CDC directly from the samples that were used
to extrapolate the stress tensors responsible for the deformation of the
4.5. Stage 4 KKFTB. Therefore, uncertainties might be induced by using a proxy
CDC from the literature (Tepnarong, 2001), in order to constraint the

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The fourth stress event is characterized by two compressive and position of the Mohr circles. 3) One principal stress is considered to
one strike-slip stress tensors, the latter of which have a similar attitude be close to the vertical position. When it is not the case that will lower

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to the strike-slip tensors of Stage 3. The differential stress value of this the value of the vertical stress. 4) The Mohr circles, representing the
stress tensor (~ 38 MPa) was high enough to allow right lateral shear fractures sets at each tectonic stage, are assumed to be representative
reactivation of the pre-existing set of strike-slip fractures formed dur- only if the fractures were coeval, either if newly formed or the results
ing Stage 1 and Stage 2. The two compressive stress tensors yield rel- of reactivation of pre-existing discontinuities (André et al., 2001).
atively low stress ratios (Φ = 0.1, 0.35), and values of high differential As consequence of these considerations, the values obtained
stress (~ 65 MPa) that reactivated some of the major north-verging re- should be considered in the order of magnitudes rather than absolute
verse faults that created the most significant fault-related folds within values (Lacombe, 2001; Lacombe et al., 2009; Amrouch et al., 2011).
the KKFTB during the LPS. The Mohr circle representing the com- However, these are the only available record for the uppermost crustal

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pressive regime is tangent to the reactivation friction curve at ~ 45° (α palaeostresses in central Thailand from the onset of the Indosinian de-
angle) that represents the reactivated thrusts throughout the KKFTB. formation. Further, the validity of the methodology has already been
The principal effective stresses are: σe1 = ~ 77 MPa, σe2 = ~ 18 MPa, shown by Lacombe (2001) and Amrouch et al. (2010a, 2011).
and (σveff) σe3 = ~ 12 MPa. The strike-slip stress tensor is associated
with reactivation of fractures with an average θ angle of ~ 25°. Consis- 5.2. Consistency of the of palaeostress results from calcite twins with
tently, the Mohr circle representing the reactivation of these fractures Thailand regional tectonics
is tangent to the friction curve at an angle α of the same amount and

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present effective stress values of σe1 = ~ 49 MPa, σe3 = ~ 11 MPa, and The relationship between the evolution of tectonic regimes, their
(σveff) σe2 = ~ 43 MPa (Fig. 3d). stress patterns and the development of complex systems of fractur-
ing, within a tectonic complex zone such as a fold and thrust belt, has
4.6. Stage 5 been observed and explained by several authors (Lacombe et al., 2007;
Amrouch, 2010; Vitale et al., 2012; Tavani et al., 2015). The same re-
This stage is associated with the peak differential stress (σe1 − σe3) lationship was observed within the KKFTB, where each stress state,
recorded by the calcite twins during the tectonic stage that has been revealed by the twinning analysis, has been correlated to a specific tec-
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interpreted as the only one not related to the Indosinian event. Both tonic event. However, we need to take in consideration that the sam-
fractures and calcite twins recorded a consistent post-folding rela- ples used for calculating the differential stress were collected within a
tionship. This stage is represented by two strike–slip and two com- fold-thrust belt, and might correspond to a local value (e.g. high stress
pressive stress tensors. The stress ratios of the latter are lower (aver- concentrations related to asperities along major thrust in the area); and
age Φ = 0.36) than those of the strike-slip tensors (average Φ = 0.66). consequently, might not be indicative of the far field stress conditions.
Arboit et al. (2015) pointed out that several fractures and faults under- However, the tight stress-strain relationships observed in Arboit et al.
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went a post-tilting reactivation with a high angle between the reacti- (2015) indicate that the palaeostress tensors can be related to regional
vated planes and the maximum horizontal stress σ1 (Fig. 3e). For the tectonic events.
sake of simplicity, we consider that all the strike-slip fractures were All the calculated maximum differential stress values (Table 2) fit
reactivated during Stage 5 with an angle α = ~ 25°, while the angle reasonably with a bracket of values between 30 MPa and 65 MPa.
of the reactivated reverse faults is around ~ 47° (Fig. 3e). The Mohr The highest values, calculated in samples deformed during compres-
circle representing the pure compressive regime is tangent to the re- sive regimes present similar magnitudes of those calculated in fold
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activation friction curve, with the pure compressive regime having and thrust belts around the world, such as in the south Aquitaine
higher differential stress (~ 61 MPa), whereas the strike-slip regime Basin (Rocher et al., 2000), in the Zagros (Lacombe et al., 2007), and
shows a lower differential stress, quite similar to the values of the in the Taiwan foothills (Lacombe et al., 1996; Lacombe, 2001) and
previous strike-slip stress tensors (~ 47 MPa). The effective principal in the Apennines (Beaudoin et al., 2016), among others. These val-
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stress values ranges from ~ 75 to ~ 60 MPa (σe1), with quite similar ues are higher than the average values in a common intraplate set-
σe3 = ~ 12 MPa (Fig. 3e). ting (Lacombe et al., 1996; Rocher et al., 2004) and possibly adequate
for an active collisional setting. Samples with insufficient untwinned
5. Discussion planes can give overestimated differential stress values (Rocher et al.,
2004). In the two samples with insufficient untwinned planes (samples
5.1. Uncertainties T020 and T029, Table 2), the calculated differential stress values ap-
pear to be overestimated; hence, these samples are not taken in con-
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Before discussing the quantification of the stress magnitude, we sideration.

will first review few underlying factors that are necessary to define
the complete stress tensors. There are several criteria and inaccura- 5.2.1. Tectonic scenario
cies that have to be taken in account for the final palaeostress quan-
tification. For instance: 1) the values of differential stress detected 5.2.1.1. Stage 1
with calcite twin analysis suffer of a level of uncertainties of ~ 20% The formation of pre-folding extensional veins can be related to
(Lacombe, 2001). However, the accuracy of the quantification of the the overburden stress associated with burial, predating, or coeval
differential stress values might have increased after the statistical cal
8 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

with, formation of few bedding-parallel stylolites. However, the inter- had a remarkable effect on the yield stress value of the post-fold-
pretation of the extensional stage is based on one single stress tensor, ing events (Stage 4; Stage 5). These post-folding differential stresses
therefore it is possible to imply that the validity of the results is re- range in the order of few MPa (Table 2), and might be a consequence
stricted to the southern KKFTB and is not representative of a regional of the more homogeneous tectonic framework in central Thailand after
scale. All these fractures and bedding-parallel stylolites have a more the collision of Sibumasu with the amalgamated Sukhothai-Indochina
restricted occurrence than the sets of fractures that developed during terrane during the Late Triassic ~ 220 Ma (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008;

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later stages. The relatively narrow strike of the fracture sets that took Morley et al., 2013; Metcalfe, 2013; Arboit et al., 2015; Ng et al.,
place during Stage 1 implies a uniform distribution of minimum stress 2015; Arboit et al., 2015).

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σ3 and a constant position through time of the vertical stress σ1. We :
proposed that the sets of veins developed during a Permian extensional
phase on the southwestern margin of the Indochina terrane, before the
main LPS event. This was possibly in response to the N-S oriented (4)
flexure of the foreland in front of the advancing thrust sheets, contem-
porary with burial, and possibly under high fluid pressures (Arboit et
al., 2015). Price and Cosgrove (1990) demonstrated that from Eq. (4), us-
ing a coefficient k = 4.0, that corresponds to a coefficient of friction

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(μ) of 0.75, at a given depth, the ratios of differential stress required
5.2.1.2. Stage 2
for reaching shear conditions are higher for (a) compressive condi-
The second tectonic stage is connected to a major N-S oriented col-
tions, (b) intermediate for strike-slip and lower for (c) extensional sys-
lision. This compressional stage is consistent with the direction of tec-
tems. This partially agrees with the differential stress values calcu-
tonic transport within the KKFTB (Morley et al., 2013; Arboit et al.,
lated within the KKFTB, except for the anomalous differential stress
2014), supporting the regional significance of the stress tensors, rep-
values in Stage 3. Indeed, the average differential stress values of
resented by strike-slip and compressive stress tensors. These tensors
the pure compressive tectonic stages have higher magnitudes (aver-
are linked to the formation of both strike-slip fractures, and major re-
age ~ 65 MPa) than those of strike-slip regimes (average ~ 50 MPa).

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verse faults. They were mostly recorded within the N-E striking veins
Sibson (1977) assumed that if the angle (θ) between the plane of the
and present lower differential stress values than the compression stress
fault and the principal stress (σ1) increased, the magnitude of the stress
tensors that were recorded in the N-S striking veins. The strong de-
tensor necessary to reactivate a fault plane has to be higher. This prin-
crease of the σe1 during/after folding (Table 2, Fig. 3) could be inter-
ciple is reflected on the differential stresses that acted on the KKFTB,
preted as a drop of the fluid pressure related to the development of the
where the magnitudes increased from Stage 2 to Stage 5 (Table 2) be-
bending-related reverse faults throughout the KKFTB. These fractures
cause of the tilting of the bedding, and the consequent slanting of the
increased the vertical permeability of the entire Khao Khad Forma-
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faults, after the main folding event (Arboit et al., 2015).
tion, possibly including the clastic Permian Sap Bon Formation, and
this might have caused a subsequent drop of the fluid pressure.
5.3. Relationship between palaeostress, tectonic framework and
palaeoburial in central Thailand from the Mid-Permian
5.2.1.3. Stage 3
Stage 3 is represented by three strike-slip and one compressive The values of differential stress are independent of the fluid pres-
stress tensors. The strike-slip stress tensors calculated on the cal- sure (Rowe and Rutter, 1990), and we can use this evidence in order
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cite veins present distinctive differential stress values that resemble to prove that the values of differential stress calculated herein are the
the magnitude of the average compressive stages (~ 65 MPa). These maximum values reached during the deformational cycles undergone
anomalously high strike-slip differential stress values allow us to ad- by the calcite grains during the same tectonic event. Lacombe (2001,
vance the hypothesis where Stage 3 might correspond to a compres- 2007), and Lacombe et al. (2009) demonstrated the relationship be-
sional tectonic stage; however, the high stress ratio does not justify tween increasing values of differential stresses with depth. It is then
this idea (Table 2). Also, it must be taken into consideration that the possible to infer that the main shortening event was coeval with the
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high fracturing and faulting activity in Stage 2 released fluid pressure. onset of the folding, and hence the stress tensor related to the main
This drop in fluid pressure may have shifted the Stage 3 Mohr circle folding event was probably recorded by twinning at the time of the
towards higher effective stress values (Fig. 3c). maximum burial, right before uplift.
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After CSIT calculation we obtained differential stress for Stage

5.2.1.4. Stage 4 1 of ~ 43 MPa, with effective stress as σe3 = ~− 5 MPa and
The macro deformation associated with Stage 4 is associated with σe1 = ~ 38 MPa (Fig. 3a). These values imply a possible maximum
the peak differential stress (σ1 − σ3) recorded by calcite twinning just burial depth of about 1.9 km; however, the stratigraphic thickness
before the reactivation of E-W striking thrusts, the tightening of at which the LPS occurred in the KKFTB is not well established.
pre-existing fault-propagation folds and reactivation of the fractures Nonetheless, Ueno and Charoentitirat (2011) suggested similar bur-
developed during the earlier events. During the latest Triassic, the ial depths for the Khao Khad Formation during the Early Triassic
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half-graben basins in the Khorat Plateau (NE Thailand) containing the (1800 m). Stock et al. (1985) and Morris et al. (1996) modelled that
Kuchinarai Group (Late Triassic) ceased to subside and some were within an extensional setting σ2 is 50–70% of σ1 and σ3 is 20–30%
structurally inverted. The degree of deformation associated with this of σ1, in such case the effective stresses would be σe3 = ~ 10 MPa,
event is considerably less than deformation associated with the ear- σe2 = ~ 30 MPa, and σe1 = ~ 55 MPa. Consequently the depth of bur-
lier Indosinian I event (Booth and Sattarayak, 2011). However, the ial would be ~ 2 km, and we might consider these palaeoburial es-
differential stress that was necessary to reactivate the fractures in the timates as maximum values (Lacombe, 2007; Lacombe et al., 2009,
post-folding stress states was in the order of 50–60 MPa. This might Amrouch et al., 2011). Hansberry et al. (2015) reported illite crys-
also be caused by the complex polyphase pre-folding deformation that tallinity palaeo-temperatures of ca. 160–220 °C for elsewhere in the
induced high levels of strain hardening in the crystal lattices, and this KKFTB. Noting that the high ‘temperatures’ may represent strain in
 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx 9

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PR
ED
CT
R RE
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Fig. 4. Modified from Arboit et al. (). Palaeo-geographic schematic reconstructions of SE Asia based on the GPlate software reconstruction (contour and rotation file in Supplemen-
tary data). The cross-sections show the tectonic development of the Indochina, Sukothai and Sibumasu blocks during the Early Permian to the Late Triassic; resulting in the LPS and
fold-tightening deformations, within the southern portion of the KKFTB.
10 Tectonophysics xxx (2017) xxx-xxx

duced crystallinity, the lower values are broadly consistent with palaeo-temperatures estimated by illite crystallinity data (Hansberry
depths estimated by this study, assuming relatively high geothermal et al., 2015).
gradients consistent with coeval volcanism present in the region Hence, this combination of stress data brings useful information on
(Arboit et al., 2016b). the strength and mechanical behaviour of the upper continental crust
The active folding within the KKFTB started when the flexure in central Thailand since the Mid Permian, and might be considered as
of the foreland basin shut off and collision between Sukhothai and

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valuable inputs in numerical models of the geodynamic evolution of
Indochina began in the Early Triassic. The Mid Permian structural central Thailand.
regime was, therefore, likely dominated by foreland flexure (Sone and

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Metcalfe, 2008; Morley et al., 2013) or extension due to back-arc rift- Acknowledgements
ing, so that burial stylolites and the extensional veins in the foreland
probably developed during the Mid to Late Permian. This work was funded by Australian Research Council Discovery
Thrusting/folding in the KKFTB began during the Early Triassic, Project #DP 120101460. ASC is funded by Australian Research
with maximum shortening probably at the time of the Sukhothai-In- Council grant #FT120100340. This is a contribution to IGCP pro-
dochina collision. After Morley et al. (2013), and Arboit et al. (2014) it jects #589 (Development of the Asian Tethyan Realm) and #628 (The
is possible to link the formation of the main anticlines to the first major Gondwana Map) and we gratefully acknowledge all the funding orga-
folding episode, with possibly a later reactivation coeval with a phase

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nizations. This publication forms TRaX Record #xxx.
of fold tightening that occurred during the Late Triassic after the Sibu-
masu-Indochina collision. Depending on the structural evolution dur- Appendix A. Supplementary data
ing the Triassic, the maximum burial might have been reached at dif-
ferent times through the Triassic, depending on the position within the Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
fold-thrust belt. However, it is possible to imply that the main folding doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2017.01.008.
event occurred while the KKFTB reached its maximum burial depth
in the Early Triassic. References

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