Course Title: Production Process

Course Code: 1201

Topic: Fundamentals of Production Process
 Production Process
The production process is defined as the process in which the factors of production, i.e.
inputs of resources, are turned into products or services. Factors of production means
capital, labor, technology, land, and other resources that are used to create output, or
goods and services.

There are four basic production processes for producing desired shape of a product.
These are-

1) casting, 2) machining, 3) joining (welding, mechanical fastners, epoxy, etc.), and 4)

deformation processes
 Production Process
Inputs are the beginning of the production process and output is the end of the process.
The process may produce as joint products both goods and services and commodities
such as pollution.

Fig: The production process.

 Production Process
Elasticity of Production:

The elasticity of production can be defined as the ratio of the percentage change
in output (product Q) to the percentage change in the amount of the variable
input (labor L). It measures the degree of responsiveness of total output to a small
change in the variable input.
 Molding Process
Molding is a manufacturing process that involves
shaping a liquid or malleable raw material by
using a fixed frame; known as either a mold or a
matrix. The mold is generally a hollow cavity
receptacle, commonly made of metal, where
liquid plastic, metal, ceramic, or glass material is
Figure: Molding Process
poured. Main objective of molding is to
reproduce multiple uniform copies of the final
product.
 Molding Process

There are various types of molding process. They are given

below:
1. extrusion molding
2. compression molding
3. blow molding
4. injection molding
5. rotational molding
 Casting Process
Casting is a manufacturing process in
which a liquid material is usually
poured into a mold containing a hollow
cavity of the desired shape and then
allowed to solidify. The solidified part
is also known as a casting, which is Fig: Casting process.
ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process.
Casting Process

Fig: Types of Casting process.

 Casting Process
There are 4 – steps of casting:
1) Preparing the mold
2) injecting the mold with
molten metal
3) Ejecting the newly created
cavity from the mold and
4) Separating scrap metal
from the cavity

Fig: Steps of shell-casting process.

 Casting Defects

There are some major casting defects. They are:

1. Gas porosity
2. Shrinkage defects
3. Mold material defects
4. Pouring metal defects
5. metallurgical defects.
 Joining Processes

Joining processes are mainly used to assemble many parts to

make a system. Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering,
adhesive bonding of materials. They produce permanent joint
between the parts to be assembled.
 Welding Process

Welding is a fabrication process

whereby two or more parts are
fused together by means of heat,
pressure or both forming a join as
the parts cool.
 Different Types of Welding

There are various types of welding process. Some notable are given below:
1. TIG –Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
2. MIG –Metal Inert Gas Welding
3. Shielded-Metal Arc Welding
4. Thermite Arc Welding
5. Laser Beam Welding
6. Electron-Beam Welding
 TIG –Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

TIG welding is a stable arc welding process that

uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an
inert gas in the welding arc to create high-quality
welds. It is used to weld stainless steel, aluminum,
magnesium, nickel, and copper with ease. The
process is quite popular for industries that work
on nonferrous metal as tubing, bicycles, and
vehicle manufacturing.
 MIG – Metal Inert Gas Welding

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding is an arc welding

process that uses a continuous solid wire electrode
heated and fed into the weld pool from a welding
gun. MIG welding process used is in automotive
repair, construction, plumbing, robotics, and the
maritime industry.
 Thermite Arc Welding
Thermite Welding is a chemical welding process
using molten metal to join the conductors
permanently. It uses heat to join or merge two
metals with the help of an exothermic reaction to
form one mass or whole. The process requires no
external source of heat or current since it
employs an exothermic reaction of the powder
consists of aluminium and the oxide of a metal
such as iron which is called thermite composition.
 Laser Beam Welding

Laser Beam Welding is a fusion welding process

in which two metal pieces are joined together
by the use of laser. It is a very efficient welding
process and can be automated with robotics
machinery easily. This welding technique is
mostly used in the automotive industry.
 Electron-Beam Welding
Electron beam welding is a fusion welding
process whereby electrons are generated by an
electron gun and accelerated to high speeds
using electrical fields. This high speed stream of
electrons is tightly focused using magnetic fields
and applied to the materials to be joined.
Electron beam welding is performed in a vacuum
environment as the presence of gas can cause
the beam to scatter.
 Welding Defects
There are various welding defects we can notice.
They are given below:

1. Under Filled
2. Under Cut
3. Poor Penetration
4. Lack of Fusion
5. Spatter
6. Porosity
7. Overlap
8. Inclusions
9. Excess Reinforcement
10. Crack
Figure: Welding Defects
11. Burn Through
 Brazing
Brazing is a process for joining two pieces
of metal that involves the application of
heat and the addition of a filler metal. The
melting point of the filler metal is above
450°C, but always below the melting
temperature of the parts to be joined.

Figure: Brazing
Common Lathe Operations
 Turning Calculation

Average cutting speed: Vavg = π × Davg ×N

Davg is the average diameter of work piece and N is the spindle speed inrpm
Material removal rate (MRR )= Vavg×d × f

[d is the depth of cut, f is the feed (units: mm/rev or in/rev)]

Cutting Power, Pc = Uc × MRR=Fc × V

[Uc=Specific energy consumption (W/mm3)
Fc=Cutting force, V = Cutting speed]
Machining time, tm = L/f
[Here, f is the feed rate (units: mm/min or in/min), L= Length of the job]
 Relation between Shear Angle and Rake angle
From the image,
Orthogonal Shear Angle = β0
Orthogonal Rake Angle = ϒ0

The relation between shear angle and rake angle is

given below:

𝐂𝐨𝐬ϒ
tan β0 = Ȥ −𝐬𝐢𝐧ϒ0
0

a
Here, Ȥ = a2
1
 Drilling

Drilling is a cutting process where a drill

bit is spun to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is
usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-
point. The bit is pressed against the work-
piece and rotated at rates from hundreds
to thousands of revolutions per minute.

Figure: Drilling
 Different parts of Drilling

Basically, a drilling machine has two parts.

They are:
1. Shank
2. Body

Also, there are some other parts. They are Figure: Different parts of Drilling machine

shown in the schematic diagram.

Operations Related to Drilling
a) Reaming: It is a machining operation in which a rotary tool takes a
light cut to improve the accuracy of a round hole and to reduce the
roughness of the hole surface
b) Tapping: It is a machining process for producing internal threads. A
tap is a cylindrical or conical thread-cutting tool having threads of a
desired form on the periphery. Combining rotary motion with axial
motion, the tap cuts or forms the internal thread.
c) Counterboring: Counter Boring operation basically enlarges a pre-
drilled bore. Usually counter boring is used when machine power
does not allow solid drilling of that size.
Drilling Calculation
 Milling

Milling is a type of machining process

that uses a rotating cutter to remove
material in a controlled manner from
a workpiece. This subtractive
manufacturing technique aims to
turn the workpiece into the required
shape.
Different Types of Milling
 Different Types of Milling
a) Slab Milling: Slab milling is a process which removes material to make the
surface of a workpiece flat and or to reduce the overall thickness of a part.
b) Slotting: Slot milling is an operation in which side and face milling is often
preferred to end milling. Slots or grooves can be short or long, closed or open,
straight or non-straight, deep or shallow, wide or narrow.
c) End Milling: End milling is the most versatile form of milling that can be used
to machine slots, shoulders, die cavities, contours, and profiles. An end milling
process consists of a cylindrical cutter that has multiple cutting edges on both
its periphery and its tip, permitting end cutting and peripheral cutting.
Up Milling & Down Milling
Comparison between Up Milling & Down Milling
Milling Cutter Nomenclature
 Milling Calculation
Cutting speed, V = π × D × N
D is the cutter diameter
Material removal rate is given as:
MRR = f × N × da × dr = F × da × dr
da is the axial depth of cut
dr is the radial depth of cut
f is the feed per revolution
F is the feed rate (in/min or mm/min)
Cutting power, Pc = Uc × MRR
Machining time, tm = (L + lc)/F
lc is the length of the cutter’s first contact with the work-piece
 Grinding

Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. It

is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool
whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive material
known as grit. These grits are characterized by sharp cutting
points, high hot hardness, chemical stability and wear
resistance. The grits are held together by a suitable bonding
material to give shape of an abrasive tool.
Grinding Operation
Cylindrical Grinding
Centerless Grinding
 Compositional specifications of Grinding Wheel
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional specification. Conventional abrasive grinding
wheels are specified encompassing the following parameters:
(1) The type of grit material
(2) The grit size
(3) The bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
(4) The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter grit spacing
(5) The type of bond material
(6) Other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add their own identification code prefixing or
suffixing (or both) the standard code.
Specifications of Grinding Wheel
 Process of cutting tool failure
Tool that no longer performs the desired function can be declared as “failed”
Cutting tools generally fail by :
(i) Mechanical breakage: Due to excessive forces and shocks. Such kind of tool failure is random and catastrophic in
nature and hence are extremely detrimental.
(ii)Rapid dulling: By plastic deformation due to intensive stresses and temperature. This type of failure also occurs
rapidly and are quite detrimental and unwanted.
(iii) Gradual wear: It is of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
 Gradual Wear of Cutting Tool
Tool Wear Mechanisms:
Abrasion wear: The hard inclusion having sharp edges comes in
contact with a cutting tool and removes material from the tool
surface by abrasion action. This wears are more predictable and
give a stable tool life.
Adhesion wear: Adhesion wear occurred when chip material
plucked out the microscopic fragment from the tool. At high
temperature and pressure at cutting edge, the tool-chip
interface forms a metallic bond in the form of spot welds.
Diffusion wear: This type of wear occurs due to the diffusion
process, where atoms in a crystal lattice move from a region of
high concentration to low concentration (Ficks law).
Flank wear and Crater wear are two common wear of cutting
tool.
 Tool life & Machinability

Tool life:
Useful life of a tool expressed in terms of time from start of a cut to termination point
(defined by failure criterion).
Sometimes also expressed in terms of number of the parts machined.
Machinability:
Mainly concerned with work piece material properties not the tool properties. It depends on work piece material
properties and good Machinability means:
1. Ease of machining
2. Low tool wear
3. Good surface finish produced
4. Low cutting forces
Taylor’s tool life equation
Tool Life
 Variables affecting tool life
❖ Cutting Conditions (V, d, f)
❖ Tool Geometry (all six angles, and nose radius)
❖ Work piece Material
❖ Cutting fluid
❖ Machine tool and Work piece region
❖ Tool Material