Reviewer in Philippine Indigenous Communities

Prepared by: Ms. Allison Antonio Santos

Trust in the LORD with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own understanding.
In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths. (Proverbs 3:5-6 KJV)

Call unto me, and I will answer thee, and show thee great and mighty things, which thou
knowest not. (Jeremiah 33:3 KJV)
I can do all things through Christ which strengtheneth me. (Philippians 3:14 KJV)

If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not;
and it shall be given him. (James 1:5 KJV)

You’ve come a long way; I know you got this! God bless!

Lesson 1 Philippine Indigenous Language and Literature

Why do we need to study Indigenous Language?

● Linguistic diversity enriches our human ecology;
● Languages are expressions of identity;
● Languages are repositories of history; and
● Languages contribute to the sum of human knowledge and each language provides a
matrix of wisdom of a particular group of people.

An Indigenous Peoples Language can be defined:

● The language spoken uniquely by a group of people who affiliates with a particular
indigenous group and/or with origins in the particular group.
● It refers to a language identified with and unique to a particular indigenous community.
● The language that can either be used as the only language, as mother tongue, as the
habitual means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred,
habitual, general or considered normal language.

Ideas to ponder!
● According to the United Nations General Assembly, IP language must not be regarded
as second-rate or indifferent.
● It is a significant part of indigenous people’s ways of life, culture and identity.
● A particular language embodies the ideas, beliefs, values, and abstraction that contain
their sense of history, psychology and mindset, understanding of the world, spirituality,
and the vision of their community.
● It is the most essential symbol of their uniqueness and interconnection with each other.
The two constant threat to the preservation and conservation of IP languages:

1. National Language - the official language/s adopted by a particular state or nation. It

unites a country, promotes nationalism, and a symbolic representation of a nation.

2. Dominant Regional Language - the language spoken by dominant ethnolinguistic groups

in a particular geographical location. It is usually adopted by the IP community to be able
to communicate and establish trade with non-IP.

Example scenarios
A. In the case of the Aetas in Pampanga, the regional language that they need to adapt
and learn is Kapampangan. This language enables them to establish communication
and trade with the “tigapatag” or lowlanders.

B. In the case of the Manobos in Mindanao, Cebuano is a language that also encroaches
on their symbolic communication and interaction, and which influences the status and
utility of their native language.

Status of Philippine IP Language

According to Ethnologue (2022), of the 175 indigenous languages ​of the Philippines, 35 are
considered endangered (31 threatened, 4 shifting), 11 are on the brink of extinction (5 moribund,
5 nearly extinct, 1 dormant), and two are extinct.

Mother Tongue – Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)

MTBMLE is education, formal or non - formal, in which the learner’s mother tongue and
additional languages are used in the classroom. Learners begin their education in the language
they understand best - their mother tongue - and develop a strong foundation in their mother
language before adding additional languages.

Surviving Ancient Syllabic Script among IP Languages

The Buhid-Mangyan, Hanunuo-Mangyan and the Tagbanua of Palawan have maintained the
ancient pre-Hispanic syllabic script.

1. The Buhid and Hanunuo Mangyans have been able to preserve their indigenous way of
writing due to natural borders provided by the mountains against the influence of modern
living. The traditional poem “ambahan” is engraved on bamboo plants, boards and
containers with the use of a knife.

● All consonant letters in the alphabet contain the default vowel /a/, and to represent
another vowel other than /a/, the “kulit” mark is used.

● A horizontal line or “kulit” above the letter denotes the vowel /i/ or /e/; on the other hand,
if it is positioned below the letter, it denotes the vowel /o/ or /u/.
● One may notice the absence of separation between the vowels /i/ and /e/ and in the
same manner the vowels /o/ and /u/. The script is written from left to right and is read
from bottom to top. To be able to read the text, you need to rotate the bamboo canister
90 degrees counterclockwise.

2. There are three IP groups associated with the Tagbanwa: the Aborlan Tagbanwa,
Calamian Tagbanwa and the Central Tagbanwa. All of these IP communities and
languages can be found and are spoken in Palawan in the Philippines and it uses the
same ancient syllabic writing system known as Tagbanua script.

● The features of Tagbanua script are the same as the Mangyan script: All
consonants carry the vowel /a/. An accent mark on top of the letter denotes the
vowel /i/ or /e/, and at the bottom the vowels /o/ or /u/. Notice again the lack of
separation between the vowels /i/ and /e/ and the vowels /o/ and /u/.
● The script is traditionally written on bamboo cylinders from bottom to top, and left
to right. It is also read in the same manner.
Why do we need to study Indigenous Literature?
● The epics, stories, folk tales and legends give us a glimpse of the worldview of the IP
group.

● These literatures provide the IP’s explanation of the origin of a significant source of food
and livelihood like hills, mountains, lakes and rivers.

● The characteristics and origins of certain plants and animals are also elaborated on in
these narratives. They convey their beliefs in supernatural beings and their spirituality.

● Some stories capture significant events in their community, their form of governance, the
adventures of their heroes and the legacy of their group.

● Through IP literature we gain the knowledge of their past, their mental life and their
customs, beliefs and traditions. These are a fundamental aspect of their identity and
must be ensured to be inherited by their future generations to preserve and conserve
their uniqueness as groups of people.

IP literature provides different functions in an IP community.

● a form of entertainment during ordinary days and special occasions .
● serves as a non-material artifact that contains the group’s history.
● the stories and legends can be a form of instructional tool and define the cultural and
ethnic identity of the IP group to future generations.
● also meant to justify rituals and institutions, and guides the members of the group to
follow its prescribed norms.

IP literature provides different functions in an IP community.

● In contemporary times, they are narrations of the struggle of the IP groups to assert
their rights for self-preservation and self determination.
● IP literatures serve as a vehicle of cultural transmission to the future generations of IPs
of particular customs, beliefs and practices.
● The primary role of these literatures is the preservation and conservation of the identity
of the Indigenous Peoples as a distinct and unique group.

Conventional literary forms - These include epics, stories, “bugtong” or riddles, folk tales,
mythology, legends and oration. However, elaborate prayers and ritual chants can also be
considered as forms of IP literature. These literatures are told, memorized and retold in oral
form.
In some groups, selected individuals are tasked to be storytellers and they pass on this
vital responsibility through inheritance within the family.
The privileged “binukot” of the Tumanduk group of Panay Island. Keeping a “binukot,” a
cloistered young girl in the family who learns to chant the epic of the community, gives the family
prestige, exempts her from labor, and commands a high bride price.
 In certain IP groups there is the retelling of the myths and legends—among the Igorots,
the elders and the priests or “mumbaki” are known to be the storytellers.

Among the Hanunuo-Mangyan in Mindoro, the “ambahan” is not limited to a single

individual or family. It can be learned and sung by all members of the community. The pitch and
the words can differ from one person to another.

Several researches suggest that the storyteller can unconsciously retell the stories and
add their own or the group’s current experiences, contemporary beliefs of the tribes and contact
with outsiders.

Thus, one of the major characteristics of IP literature is that it is constantly evolving and
adapting to the changes in the way of life and beliefs of the community.

Lesson 2
1. Philippine Indigenous Arts and Crafts
2. Indigenous Filipino Psychology: Kapwa at Pakikipagkapwa

Each region of the Philippines has its own indigenous communities. Similarly, each of
these communities has its own unique arts and crafts. Whether it be visual arts, song and
dance, handicrafts, tapestries and clothing or pottery, each region boasts of exceptional talent,
skill and creativity. Unfortunately, these masterpieces have been “downgraded” by outsiders to
merely crafts or handicrafts that are only worthy of being sold in tourist shops.

Traditional Art reflects the following specifics:

● Art is not separated from its other values and functions such as “religious, moral,
spiritual, social and ecological concerns”.
● Sensory modes are cultivated holistically and have to be developed together.
● Art is assimilated into life.
● The community is involved in the work of art; thus, one artist is rarely recognized and
remains anonymous most of the time.
● There is no dichotomy of the artist and society.
● No rigid standards dictate materials, forms or techniques.
● Process of creation is valued over the work of art.
● Conceptualization and realization is simultaneous.

Example of Philippine Indigenous Arts and Crafts

The Ilocanos are known for the craftsmanship of the cotton fabric inabel and the folk
dance binatbatan. “Abel” is the Ilocano word for weave, and “inabel” can be interpreted to mean
any kind of woven fabric. It is made of cotton and may be plain or patterned.
Magdalena Gamayo is one of the country’s National Living Treasures. She was born on
August 13, 1924 in Pinili, Ilocos Norte. She learned to weave at the age of 16, informally from
her aunt by copying her patterns.
 Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan or the National Living Treasures Awards are conferred to
traditional and folk artists who have achieved a “high level of technical and artistic excellence” in
their respective fields.
It was created in 1992 by virtue of Republic Act No. 7355. The National Commission for
Culture and the Arts, in particular through the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan Committee and
panel of experts, are designated to search for the best traditional artists in the country.
Additionally, said Committee is responsible for ensuring the continuation of their
craft by passing it to others and raising appreciation and pride among the Filipino people for
their brilliance.

The war dance interwoven in Igorot rituals, the Ifugao funeral dance, and the Benguet
victory dance are examples of the dances in pure indigenous form. Other dances represent the
daily affairs of the community such as planting, fishing, and pounding rice.

In the Mountain Province, “shields, spoons, ladles, bowls” and figurines are infused with
art through wood carving.

In Mindanao, original Muslim art can be recognized through certain motifs, colors and
patterns. These stylized elements are evident through brasswork, tools, weaponry and musical
instruments.

Indigenous Filipino Psychology: Kapwa at Pakikipagkapwa

● In the Filipino context, relations are very important.

● In English, the term that is closest to “kapwa” is “others,” but this term recognizes the self
as something that is separate and distinct. Kapwa refers to a shared identity of self and
others.
● Kapwa is a core value of Filipino Psychology where other important Filipino values are
connected.
● Pakikipagkapwa refers to the social manifestations of kapwa.

Filipino values were classified by Enriquez according to interpersonal values and socio-personal
values. These interpersonal values are manifested in the personal relations of Filipinos with
others, while societal values are manifested on a more macro level in society.

The interpersonal values are further classified according to:

● colonial or accommodative surface values;
● confrontative surface values; and
● pivotal interpersonal value

The accommodative surface values includes hiya, utang na loob and pakikisama.
● Hiya - sense of propriety (a way of behaving appropriately and accordingly in different
situations.
● Utang na Loob - debt of gratitude or principle of reciprocity
 ● Pakikisama - smooth interpersonal relations, being along with, and companionship

Confrontative surface values includes bahala na, lakas ng loob and pakikibaka.

● Bahala na - determination and risk taking

● Lakas ng loob - prepared to face difficult situations and do his best to overcome these
situations.
● Pakikibaka - to wrestle, to fight for what you think is right.

Pakikiramdam - it is a shared inner perception and heightened awareness that the person
should possess prior to experiencing good interpersonal relations.

Societal values are classified according to linking socio-personal values and associated societal
values. - Kalayaan, Karapatan, Karangalan.
Indigenous People in Region I and CAR (Cordillera Administrative Region)

Provinces in Region I
Ilocos Norte
Ilocos Sur
La Union
Pangasinan

Provinces in CAR
Abra
Apayao
Benguet
Ifugao
Kalinga
Mountain Province

In Region I and CAR, the northern mountain ranges of the Cordillera are home to the Tingguian,
Isneg, Kalinga, Bontoc, Sagada, Ifugao, Ibaloi and Kankanaey.

These groups occupy the watershed areas near the Abulag, Tineg and Chico rivers, or interior
of the hills, narrow strips of flat land along deep valleys, and plateaus.

1.TINGGUIAN/ITNEG

NUEVA ERA Ilocos Norte - Live the TINGGUIAN way! Culture and Natural Beauty [T…

Tingguian, pronounced ‘tee-ng-yan,’ originates from the Malaysian word Tinggi/Tingue whose
meaning encompasses mountains/elevated places and mountaineers. Another spelling variation
of Tingguian is ‘Tinguian.’ The Tingguian are also called Itnegs. Itneg derives from the
combination of Malaysian words I (from) and Tineg (the name of a place and river).

History of the Tingguian people

● Spanish colonization of the Ilocano started in Vigan in 1572, but it was not till 1598 that
the Spaniards initiated contact with the Tinguian when they invaded Abra and used the
village of Bangued as their garrison. In 1760, the villages of Santiago, Magsingal, and
Batac in Ilocos Sur were established for 454 Tinguian. In Abra, at least 1,000 Tinguian
were resettled near Bangued, Abra, in 1753 and, by the 1850s, there were five more
Tinguian settlements.
 ● There is some evidence that Gabriela de Estrada, wife of Diego Silang who led the
Ilocos revolt of December 1763, was a Tinguian mestiza born in Barangay Endaya,
Vigan City. Gabriela’s brother, Benito Estrada, was among Silang’s followers who
practiced anito worship and head taking. They celebrated their victory over the Spanish
troops with ceremonial wine drinking over the enemies’ heads.

Tingguians are known for:

● The indigenous highland people called Tingguian Tribe or Itneg are famous in terms of
natural dye making, production of bamboo crafts, and weaving colorful textiles.

● The Tingguians still practice their traditional ways, including wet rice and swidden
farming.
● Weaving - the weavers produce the multicolored tapis, aside from other articles of
clothing. The balwasi (female blouse) is made from abel (woven cloth). This is basically
white, with polychrome stripes at the center.

● The Tingguian makes galong-galong, a wooden baby’s swing, which can also alternate
as a walker. This is made of a bamboo frame with a flat wooden seat, to which bamboo
reeds, cut at even lengths, are vertically attached to one another with split rattan. It is
hung from the house’s roof beam.

The ancestral domain of the Tinguian covers a mountainous region, which has four valleys and
four river systems joining up with Abra River, which empties into the West Philippine Sea.
The Tinguian are found mainly in the towns of Tubo, San Quintin, Luba, and Boliney in Abra.
Socio-cultural changes started when the Spanish conquistadors ventured to expand their reach
to the settlements of Abra. The Spaniards brought with them their culture, some of which the
Tingguians borrowed.

Spirituality of the Tingguians

In Tingguian cosmogony, supernatural beings, collectively called anito, fall under three
general categories:
❖ spirits who have existed through all time,
❖ spirits of inferior rank which are neither benevolent nor evil,
 ❖ spirits of ancestors and other mortals who are invisible but who may enter the bodies of
shamans so that they can communicate with the living.

There is only one person who has the power and ability to communicate with the sasailo.
(Sasailo are spirits that dwell in the natural surroundings, move among human beings, and exert
influence on events and activities in human society). The alopogan (shaman), usually a
middle-aged woman.

Tingguians’ Language
Itneg is a South-Central Cordilleran dialect continuum found in the island of Luzon,
Philippines. This language and Ilocano are spoken by the Itneg people (sometimes also referred
to as the "Tingguian people") in Abra.

Challenges in the lives of the Tingguians

The Tingguians who are the natives of Abra Province have their own culture which is distinct
from other Filipino ethnolinguistic groups. Studies on the Tingguians however, show that many
of their customs, traditions, practices and beliefs are no longer observed or done.

The first language or mother tongue of the learners is Ilocano thus the medium of instruction for
kindergarten to Grade 3 is Ilocano; some of the teachers are not Tingguians and cannot speak
the dialect; there is no working orthography of the Tingguian dialects; there are no available
teachers guide, reading and instructional materials in Tingguian.

2.ISNEG
The Isneg, also Isnag or Apayao,
live at the northwestern end of
northern Luzon, in the upper half
of the Cordillera province of
Apayao. The term “Isneg” derives
from a combination of “is” meaning
“recede” and “uneg” meaning
“interior.” Thus, it means “people
who have gone into the interior.
History of the Isneg people
 ● The Isneg’s ancestors are believed to have been the proto-Austronesians who came
from South China thousands of years ago.

● They later also came into contact with Chinese traders plying the seas south of the Asian
mainland. From the Chinese they bought the porcelain pieces and glass beads which
now form part of the Isneg’s priceless heirlooms.

Isnegs are known for:

● The Isneg have been known to be a headtaking society since recorded history.
● The Isneg were notorious for headhunting and were among the last of the Cordilleran
peoples to be brought under colonial control.
● The Isneg have always built their settlements on the small hills that lie along the large
rivers of the province. This
whole territory used to be
two subprovinces, Kalinga
and Apayao, when the whole
of the Cordillera region was
still a single political
subdivision.
● In ceremonies,
women wear a lot of
colourful ornaments and
clothings, and men wear
G-strings (usually of blue
color), abag, and bado
(upper garment). Men don't
wear pendants but they wear
an ornament called sipattal,
made of shells and beads,
used only on special
occasions.

● The Isneg woman traditionally gives birth in a kneeling position, using a mushroom as a
talisman to ensure a successful delivery. The umbilical cord, cut with a bamboo sliver, is
 mixed with the rest of the afterbirth, tied up with ginger and herbs, and buried in a
coconut shell under the house.
● The Isnegs don't follow rituals on the adolescence of the child. They, however, have
rituals on marriage, like the amoman (or the present-day pamamanhikan), and death,
like the mamanwa which is done by the widowers.

● Unlike other groups, the Isneg have no traditional or indigenous knowledge of cloth
weaving or pottery making. Instead, they have procured articles of clothing, pots, and
other materials from the lowland Ilocano traders, in exchange for their honey, beeswax,
rope, baskets, and mats.

● The only decorative art that the Isneg have developed from earliest times is tattooing.
There are names for the various types of tattoos. There are tattoos for men and tattoos
for women. Isneg males tattoo their forearms down to the wrist and the middle part of the
back of their hands. This basic type is called hisi, generally black in color and of no
particular design.

Isnegs’ Language

Isnag (also called Isneg) is a language spoken by around 40,000 Isnag people of Apayao
Province in the Cordillera Administrative Region in the northern Philippines. Around 85% of
Isnag are capable of reading the Isnag language. Many Isnag speakers also speak Ilocano.

Spirituality of the Isnegs

● The spiritual world of the Isneg is populated by more than 300 anito or spirits who
assume various forms.
● There are no gods or hierarchical deities in the otherworld of the Isneg, only good or bad
spirits.
● The chief spirits are: Anlabban, who looks after the general welfare of the people and is
recognized as the special protector of hunters; Bago, the spirit of the forest; and Sirinan,
the river spirit.
Challenges in the lives of the Isneg
Their continued struggle with deforestation, climate change and the loss of traditional livelihoods
make them particularly vulnerable to new infectious diseases.

3.KALINGA
Ullalim; The Story of Kalinga

“Kalinga” comes from the common noun kalinga, which means “enemy,” “fighter,” or
“headhunter” in the Ibanag and Gaddang languages. The inhabitants of Cagayan and Isabela
considered the Kalinga as enemies, since they conducted headhunting attacks on Ibanag and
Gaddang territory.

History of the Kalinga people

● The Kalinga people have a reputation for being “the strong people of the Cordilleras.”

● Kalingas greatly value family and kinship; thus, the household, extended household of
the kinship circle, and territorial region are significant units of Kalinga society.

● In the past, they gained leadership and respect through headhunting, along with other
skills at which an individual excelled. Their neighbors and even invaders feared them
due to their as headhunters.

● The Kalinga and other Cordillera peoples are believed to have arrived in separate
migrations from southeastern or eastern Asia.

● The original migrants of northern Luzon might have had a common culture, but due to
particular conditions of economy, water supply, population density, and ecology, cultural
differences began to appear among the northern Luzon mountain peoples, resulting in
the various ethnolinguistic groups: Ibaloy, Bontok, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Sagada

Kalingas are known for:

● Living in a beautiful area of rice terraces and the white water rapids of the Chico River
● For their strong sense of tribal awareness and were never subdued by Spanish
colonizers in their more than 300-year reign in the Philippines.
 ● The Kalinga have rich cultural traditions and expressions of music, dance and artisan
work.
● They continue to enforce the “bodong” or peace pacts within the sub-tribes to resolve
tribal conflicts.
● Scholars and enthusiasts worldwide now flock to the province to learn the ancient
method of “batok” or hand-tapped tattoo. (Apo Whang Od)

The last Kalinga tattoo artist, Whang Od | DW Documentary

● The Kalinga are famous for their handwoven textiles, jewelry made of colored beads
and shells, and metalwork like spears and knives.
● They also make household articles like wooden containers, bowls, dishes, ladles, and a
variety of baskets and pots.
● They have grain containers made from hardwood, rice stalk harvesters made of carabao
horn and iron, and digging sticks designed for planting rice.
● Ontad - newborn baby will be welcomed by butchering a hen and a rooster. The family
will be staying at home and on the 10thday, a pig butchered and shared with the whole
community. The pig’s meat should be eaten in the host’s residence.
● Bangungon - when someone dies in the family, relatives, friends, and neighbors help in
two- or three-day wake of the dead. It is called “bangungon.” All ricefields’ activities,
“kaingin” or clearing of land, and others are suspended until the burial.
● Paniyaw is a Kalinga dialect that is one of their three ethos, a concept of the Kalinga
values that includes ngilin and ba-in. These are values that connect heaven and earth.
Earth is the natural environment where we mortals or people live. Heaven is where God
or Kabunian lives. Sustaining their righteous relationship with God and fellowmen must
then involve respect for God and, likewise, respect for our fellow man and nature through
a value they call ba-in. These three values are then interconnected. Sustained peaceful
existence, happiness, and prosperity is the reward the Kalinga people get from living a
life with paniyaw, ngilin, and ba-in.

The Kalinga people are an ethnic group whose ancestral domain is in the Cordillera Mountain
Range of the northern Philippines. They are mainly found in Kalinga Province which has an area
of 3,282.58 sq. km.
Kalingas’ Language

The Kalinga speak mutually intelligible dialects of the same Austronesian language. The
dialects may currently be converging under the influence of a phonetically simplified, heavily
Ilocano-influenced form of Kalinga. In fact, Ilocano is so widely understood that it is used to
record the terms of peace-pacts between Kalinga groups.

Spirituality of the Kalingas

The Kalinga recognize a creator god, Kabunian, but invoke him only in moments of extreme and
sudden crisis, such as an accidental death or the destruction of the rice crop by a storm.

Although most Kalinga today are Christianized, many still adhere to such indigenous beliefs and
practices, which foreign missionaries have erroneously branded as “pagan.”

Challenges in the lives of Kalingas

They experienced financial difficulties, problems in relation to bodong, fear of Kalingas due to
political conflicts, land grabbing, health problems, tribal wars, and differences in beliefs and
religion.

4.BONTOK
Bontok meaning “mountain,” refers to the
people who share close linguistic and
cultural similarities and originate from
Bontoc, which is the place and name of a
municipality in Mountain Province.The
people of this group call themselves
Ifontok in their own language.
History of the Bontok people

● Before the Spaniards came, the Bontok practiced a religion centering on ancestral and
natural spirits. They had highly developed social and political organizations. The
 Spaniards described them as “muscular,” “light-skinned,” and “strong.” They were,
moreover, “crafty” and “astute.”
They practiced tattooing.
● The Bontoc tribe, one of the
many indigenous ethnic groups in
the Philippines, is most known for
their intricate rice terraces and their
history of headhunting. The Bontoc
people are known for their
exceptional skill in constructing
terraced fields on mountain slopes,
which are used for rice cultivation.
● The Bontoc (or Bontok)
ethnolinguistic group can be found
in the central and eastern portions
of Mountain Province, in the
Philippines.
● The Bontoc live in a
mountainous territory, particularly
close to the Chico River and its
tributaries.

Bontoks are known for:

● Rice terracing is a significant tradition of the Bontoc tribe,

Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho: Patok na kayamanan ng Bontoc, Mountain Province as
they are known for their skill in constructing terraced fields on mountain slopes for rice
cultivation. The process of rice terracing involves intricate engineering and communal
cooperation, and the Bontoc people have preserved this tradition as a way of
sustainable agriculture and cultural identity.
● The Bontoc people have several rituals and ceremonies that are integral to their cultural
practices. These may include agricultural rituals, healing ceremonies, ancestor worship,
and rites of passage such as birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. These rituals and
 ceremonies often involve traditional music, dance, chants, and offerings to the spirits or
ancestors.
● The Bontoc work metal and make spear blades with double-piston bellows. Each village
has traditionally specialized in a single craft: baskets, pottery, beeswax, fermented sugar
cane juice, spear blades and breechcloths.
● Bontoc hand woven fabrics are characterized by motifs that include geometric shapes of
things around them such as man, lizard, mountain, rains and flowers. Siniwsiwan is
Bontoc’s blanket and clothing. This fabric is used for wanes or men’s G-string (Bahag)
and getup or Lufid (Tapis) among women. Married women of Bontoc and Kankanaey
wear a type of belt called ginaspala wanes with inawin which is a continuous zigzag
pattern.

Spirituality of the Bontoks

● The Bontok believe in a unique pantheon of deities, of which the supreme god is the
cultural hero, Lumawig, son of Kabunian. There are many sacred sites associated with
Lumawig and a variety of Bontoc deities.The Bontoc also believe in the anito, spirits of
the dead, who are omnipresent and must be constantly consoled.

● The pre-Christian Bontoc belief system centers on a hierarchy of spirits, the highest
being a supreme deity called Intutungcho, whose son, Lumawig, descended from the
sky (chayya), to marry a Bontoc girl. Lumawig taught the Bontoc their arts and skills.

● Bontoc spirituality emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of all living

beings and promotes a harmonious relationship with nature and the spirit world.

Challenges in the lives of Bontoks

Threats to Environment and Natural Resources - The Bontoc people, who have a strong
connection to nature and rely on natural resources for their livelihoods, face challenges such as
deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of natural resources. These threats to the
environment can negatively impact the availability of natural resources, disrupt traditional
practices, and affect the overall well-being of the Bontoc community.
5.IBALOI
The Ibaloi (also spelled Ibaloy) are an indigenous ethnic group found in Benguet Province of the
northern Philippines. Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying "pertaining to" and badoy or
house, together then meaning
"people who live in houses". The
Ibaloi are distributed in the mountain
valleys and settlements. Their
ancestors are likely to have
originated from the Lingayen and
Ilocos coasts, who then migrated
into the Southern Cordillera range
before settling. Ancestral land claims
by Ibaloi communities include parts
of Baguio.

History of the Ibaloi people

● The Ibaloi people have a long history of living in the Cordillera region, with evidence of
their presence dating back thousands of years. They had a communal way of life, with
village settlements called "ato" and a system of governance led by "datu" or village
chiefs.
● The Ibaloi traditionally
practiced mummification. The
process they used involved
smoking the corpse for
months to completely
dehydrate the dead body,
which preserved every part of
the body including tattoos and
internal organs.

● The Ibaloy are an

ethnic group indigenous to
 Baguio and the surrounding environs, which include the majority of Benguet, the
Pangasinan mountains, La Union, and Nueva Vizcaya.

● The Ibaloy inhabit a mountainous and rocky environment that provides them with small
flat floors ideal for agricultural operations. They do, however, have expertise in terracing
mountain slopes and cultivating them with rice, their staple grain from which tapey, also
known as tafey or tapuy (rice wine) is manufactured.

Ibalois are known for:

Ibaloi Day 2017
● Sweet potato slices are dried and kept before being pulverized during times of need,
such as drought or food scarcity. Rice harvesting occurs twice a year. Gabi and other
tubers are grown as a source of additional food. Animal husbandry is practiced for food
and religious purposes. For rituals, the indigenous black pig is preferred.

● Basketry is another traditional craft of the Ibaloi people. They create baskets and other
woven containers from different types of materials, such as rattan, bamboo, and
grasses. They are used for various purposes, such as carrying agricultural products,
storing food, and as household items.

● They also create intricate beadwork using glass beads, seeds, and other materials to
create jewelry, accessories, and adornments for clothing. Beadwork among the Ibaloi
people often has symbolic meanings and is used for ceremonial purposes, such as
during rituals, festivals, and special occasions.

Spirituality of the Ibalois

● The religion of the Ibaloys is that of polytheism and animism. They do not worship any
god in the form of statues and carvings but they believe in spirits of ancestors whom they
call Amed and of a supreme being they generally call Kabunian or Kabunyan.
● The Ibaloi believe in two kinds of spirits (anitos).
A. The nature spirits are associated with calamities
B. The ancestral ones (ka-apuan) make their presence known in dreams or by
making a family member sick.
Ibalois’ Language

The native language of the Ibaloi people is Ibaloi, also known as Inibaloi or Nabaloi.
It has three dialects: Bokod, Daklan and Kabayan. The Ibaloi often also speak Ilocano and
Tagalog as a second language.

Challenges in the lives of Ibaloi

Cultural Erosion - the Ibaloi people, like many indigenous communities, face the challenge of
cultural erosion. With modernization and Western influence, there is a risk of losing their
traditional language, customs, and practices, as younger generations may be drawn towards
mainstream culture and lifestyles, leading to a gradual decline in their unique cultural identity.

6.IFUGAO
The term "Ifugao" is derived from "ipugo" which means "earth people", "mortals" or "humans", as
distinguished from spirits and deities. It also
means "from the hill", as pugo means hill. The
term Igorot or Ygollotes was the term used by
Spanish conquerors for mountain people. The
Ifugaos, however, prefer the name Ifugao.

Ifugao is located at the foot of the Cordillera

Mountain Ranges. It is bounded on the west by
Benguet, on the south by Nueva Vizcaya, on the east by Isabela and on the north by Mt.
Province.

History of the Ifugao people

● Ifugao was formerly known as a part of the old Mountain Province. It was created as an
independent province on June 18, 1966 by virtue of Republic Act No. 4695, otherwise
known as the Division Law of Mountain Province.
 ● The Ifugao people are the ethnic group inhabiting Ifugao Province. They reside in the
municipalities of Lagawe, Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon,
Hungduan, Kiangan, Lamut, Mayoyao, and Tinoc.

Ifugaos are known for:

● The Ifugao are known worldwide for the stunning rice terraces they have carved out of
the mountainsides. Soar Over the Lush Rice Terraces of the Philippines | National …

● They are also among the most imaginative and prolific Fililpino craftspeople in a more
general sense, especially with respect to woodworking, weaving, and basketry.

● The Hudhud RITUAL IN IFUGAO RICE TERRACES consists of narrative chants

traditionally performed by the Ifugao community, which is well known for its rice terraces
extending over the highlands of the northern island of the Philippine archipelago.

● Woodcarving, textile weaving, basketry, carpentry and blacksmithing are the most
widely-practiced of the arts.

● Ifugao metalworking is known for its skilled craftsmanship in creating metal objects, such
as tools, weapons, jewelry, and adornments. The tribe uses traditional techniques,
including casting, forging, and engraving, to create intricate and functional metalwork
that often features symbolic designs and motifs related to their mythology, folklore, and
rituals.
https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=499646267770596

Spirituality of the Ifugaos

● A complex mixture of animism, worship of ancestors, and
magic. The Ifugao believe that their faith is fully determined
by the will of the gods. In order to keep these gods pleased,
there were special occasions in Ifugao life, such as disease,
marriage, or harvest.

● The Ifugao are also Catholic and their woven ceremonial

textiles figure prominently in both these religious practices.
Ifugao’s Language
Ifugao is a Philippine language spoken mainly in Ifugao province in Luzon in the Philippines by
about 130,000 people. There are four main dialects of Ifugao: Batad Ifugao, Amganad Ifugao,
Mayoyao Ifugao and Tuwali Ifugao.

Challenges in the lives of Ifugao

● Deforestation, slash-and-burn, introduction of commercial rice, and climate change.

● Climate Change and Natural Disasters: The Ifugao people, who live in mountainous
areas, are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and natural disasters, including
landslides, flash floods, and changes in weather patterns.

7. KANKANAEY
● The Kankanaey people are an Indigenous
peoples of the Northern Philippines. They are
part of the collective group of indigenous
people known as the Igorot people.
The Kankana-ey IP Group

● The southern Kankanaey are linguistically

linked with their northern neighbors, the
northern Kankanay. In cultural terms, they
comprise a very distinct group. H. Otley
Beyer believed they originated from a
migrating group from Asia who landed on the
coasts of Pangasinan before moving to
Cordillera.

● As of 2002, the total population of the Kankanaey is 321,329, concentrated in two

provinces: Benguet and Mountain Province. In Benguet, there are 142,000 or 43% of the
province’s total population; in Mountain Province, 72,694 or 52% of its population.
Kankanaeys’ are known for:
● Kankanaey best known for their major dances include tayaw, pattong and
balangbang - Balangbang (Kankanaey)

● The Tayaw is a community dance that is usually performed at weddings; it may also be
danced by the Ibaloi people but has a different style.

● Pattong is also a community dance from Mountain Province which every municipality has
its own style.

● They are more similar to the

Ibaloi to the south, and like
them, the Kankanaey are in the
province of Benguet in the
northwest and the rest in the
old Amburayan area in the
highlands above northern La
Union, southern Ilocos Sur,
and the southern sections of
Mountain Province.

● Traditional weaving called impagod, or pinnagod, meaning “strapped,” is done by

women when they are finished with farming. Each end of the threads is tied to a tree or a
house post while the other end is tied to a wood bar strapped around the waist of the
weaver, who becomes part of the loom by pulling the threads back and forth with her
waist, thus constantly applying tension to the threads. Threads of different colors are
woven into the base threads to add patterns and other colors. The common designs on
the Kankana-ey fabrics: (a) tiktiko; (b) matmata; (c) sopo; (d) kulibangbang.

● The Kankana-ey women

traditionally weave for clothing,
for ceremonial use, and for
exchange. They weave
decorated blankets (galey now
 referred to as ules), women's skirts (getap now called tapis) and waistband (wakes or
bakget); man's loincloth/g-string (wanes) and headcloth (bedbed).

● They are very superstitious and believe that performing rituals and ceremonies help
deter misfortunes and calamities. Some of these rituals are pedit (to bring good luck to
newlyweds), pasang (cure sterility and sleeping sickness, particularly drowsiness) and
pakde (cleanse community from death-causing evil spirits).

Kankanaey’s Language
The Kankanaey have their own language called Mankayan, which is closely related to the
languages of the lfugao and the Bontok. Bakun-Kibungan, Guinzadan, Kapangan, and
Mankayan-Buguias are classified as dialects of the Kankanaey language.

Spirituality of Kankanaey
● The supernatural world of the Kankanaey is replete with male and female god figures, as
well as spirit-beings who comprise a hierarchy of deities under one supreme entity called
Kabunian, creator of all beings and living things in the world.

● The Kankanaey utter the words “Itunin sang Kabunayen” (Thank you, Kabunian) at
every fortuitous turn of events.

Challenges in the lives of Kankanaey

Currently, Kankanaey traditional management of critical water resources is challenged by

depleted water supplies, deforestation, overlapping claims to water sources, "alternative"
development strategies, insufficient infrastructure, and cash crop extension.

8. THE INDIGENOUS TRIBES OF SAGADA

● The indigenous people of the Cordillera Mountains are referred to as the Igorot, however
there are 11 different ethnolinguistic groups making up a population of around 1.5
million.
 ● The Sagadans probably established their culture about two centuries ago in the process
of interaction with the Bontok villages to the north and east; they borrowed and adapted
much of the central Bontok culture.

● Sagada then came under the control of the Spanish military government, which resulted
in the long history of acculturation through churches and mission schools established
since the Spanish-American War.

● One of the unique aspects of life in the Cordilleras is that the Igorot people are
essentially a self-contained society running all aspects of life from businesses to politics.

They are known for:

● They were known in earlier days for
their wars and practice of
headhunting.

● The people of Sagada follow a unique

burial ritual. The elderly carve their
own coffins out of hollowed logs. If
they are too weak or ill, their families
prepare their coffins instead. Only the
Igorots who have died due to natural
causes can be hanged in the cliff.

● The Igorot tribe of Sagada, Mountain

Province in the Philippines, practice
the old funerary custom of hanging coffins in limestone cliffs. They believed that tradition
will bring the deceased closer to heaven. But the hanging coffins are only for those who
died of natural causes.
SEARCHING FOR FILIPINO MUMMIES - The Hanging Coffins of Sagada (Philippi…

● They believe in spirits, including those of ancestors, and have complex rituals to
propitiate them. There are no clans or tribes, and political organization is generally
limited to the village level.
 ● Kinship is traced on both the paternal and the maternal sides, extending as far as third
cousins.

● The traditional Igorot wood carvings were limited to human figurines like the bul-ul or
also known as the tinagtaggu.

● There were also surface carvings of human, animal, and geometric forms on house
posts, beams, doors, and walls, which were like the designs found in textiles.

Sagada Language
The Sagada dialect is called Kankanaey which is also spoken in Kapangan, Buguias, and the
Bago tribes of Ilocos region with differences in intonation and meanings of some words but more
than enough to make communication with them.

Spirituality of Sagada
While most of the peoples of the Philippines are either Christian or Muslim, the Igorot practice a
native religion often called “animism,” an anthropological term referring to the belief that spirits
permeate the material world.

Challenges in the lives of Sagada people

The national oppression against the Igorots is manifested by: oppressive land laws and
non-recognition of their rights to ancestral lands and domains; discrimination; non-recognition of
indigenous socio-political systems, commercialization and vulgarization of their culture and
militarization and ethnocide.