Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus was the

pioneer of animal classification

By ThoughtCo.com, adapted by Newsela staff on 10.15.19
Word Count 951
Level 1180L

Image 1. An engraving depicting the Linnaean classification of plants into 24 orders from Simeon Shaw's "Nature Displayed," which was
published in 1823 in London, England. Photo by: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images

For centuries, the practice of naming and classifying living organisms into groups has been a key
part of the study of nature. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) developed the first
known method of classifying organisms, grouping them by their means of transport, whether air,
land or water. A number of other naturalists followed with other classification systems. However,
it was Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus (1707-1778) who is considered to be the pioneer of
modern taxonomy, the science of classifying organisms.

In his book "Systema Naturae," first published in 1735, Linnaeus introduced a way to classify and
name organisms. This system, now referred to as Linnaean taxonomy, has been used to varying
extents ever since.

About Linnaean Taxonomy

Linnaean taxonomy categorizes organisms according to ranks in a hierarchy, a family tree of

relatedness. Linnaean taxonomy today includes eight ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
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order, family, genus and species.

Groups at the top of the hierarchy (domain, kingdom, phylum, class) are more broad in definition.
They contain a greater number of organisms than the more specific groups that are lower in the
hierarchy (families, genera, species).

With each group of organisms assigned to a domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus and
species, they can be uniquely characterized. Their membership in a group tells us about the traits
they share with other members of the group and also about traits that make them unique
compared to other groups.

Many scientists and textbooks still use the Linnaean classification system to some extent today,
but it is no longer the only system.

To best understand the science of classification, it will help to first understand a few basic terms.
Classification is the systematic grouping and naming of organisms based on shared structural
similarities, functional similarities or evolutionary history. Taxonomy is the science of classifying
– describing, naming and categorizing – organisms. Systematics is the study of the diversity of life
and the relationships between organisms.

Types Of Classification Systems

Phenetics is a method of classifying organisms that is based on their overall similarity in physical
characteristics or other observable traits. Phenetics does not take phylogeny – evolutionary history
of the group – into account.

Cladistics, which is also called phylogenetics or phylogenetic systematics, determines relationships

between organisms that are based on their evolutionary history. It is a method of analysis and
classification that includes genetic analysis, biochemical analysis and morphological analysis
(based on size, shape, color, etc.).

In general, Linnaean taxonomy relies on phenetics. Similar physical characteristics studied in

phenetics, however, can well be the product of shared evolutionary history. Linnaean taxonomy,
therefore, can indeed reflect the evolutionary background of a group of organisms.

Biological Classification

Biological classification is in a continual state of flux. As our knowledge of organisms expands, we

gain a better understanding of the similarities and differences among various groups of living
things. In turn, those similarities and differences shape how we assign animals to the various
groups, or taxa. Taxa is the plural form of taxon, which refers to a taxonomic unit, a group of
organisms that has been named.

Factors That Shaped High-Order Taxonomy

The invention of the microscope in the 16th century revealed a minute world, one filled with
countless new organisms that had previously escaped classification because they were too tiny to
see with the naked eye.

Throughout the past century there have been rapid advances in understanding evolution and
genetics, as well as cell biology, molecular biology, molecular genetics and biochemistry, to name

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just a few life sciences. These advances continue to reshape our understanding of how organisms
relate to one another, while new understandings shed new light on previous classifications. As a
result, science is constantly reorganizing the branches and leaves of the tree of life.

The history of taxonomy stretches back to the 4th century B.C., to the times of Aristotle and the
natural philosophers. Since the first classification systems emerged, scientists have wrestled with
the task of how to organize life into various groups.

Below, we will examine how the highest-level taxa (domain, kingdom, phylum) have changed
throughout history.

Classification Systems Based On Phenetics

Two Kingdoms - Aristotle

In the 4th century B.C., Aristotle introduced a two-kingdom classification system. He was among
the first to document the division of life forms into animals (animalia) and plants (plantae).

Three Kingdoms - Ernst Haeckel

In 1894, Ernst Haeckel added a third kingdom, Protista, to the two long-standing kingdoms
Plantae and Animalia. Protista included single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria, which are
prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are those with a nucleus and prokaryotic cells are those without a
nucleus. All life is composed of either eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells.

Four Kingdoms - Herbert Copeland

Herbert Copeland introduced an important change to the classification scheme in 1956. It was the
introduction of the kingdom Bacteria. This reflected the growing understanding that bacteria
(single-celled prokaryotes) were very different from single-celled eukaryotes.

Five Kingdoms - Robert Whittaker

Robert Whittaker's 1959 classification scheme added a fifth kingdom to Copeland's four; this was
the kingdom Fungi. Fungi include single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes. Osmotrophic
describes life forms that absorb nutrients by osmosis.

Classification Systems Based On Cladistics/Phylogeny

Six Kingdoms - Carl Woese

In 1977, Carl Woese extended Whittaker's Five Kingdoms to replace the kingdom of Bacteria with
two kingdoms, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria differ from each
other in many complex ways. These distinguishing characteristics were revealed by molecular
genetic analysis.

Three Domains - Carl Woese

In 1990, Carl Woese put forth a classification scheme that greatly overhauled previous
classification schemes. The three-domain system he proposed is based on molecular biology
studies and resulted in the placement of organisms into three domains: bacteria, archaea and
eukarya.

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Quiz

1 Read the following paragraph from the section "Types Of Classification Systems."

In general, Linnaean taxonomy relies on phenetics. Similar physical characteristics studied in

phenetics, however, can well be the product of shared evolutionary history. Linnaean taxonomy,
therefore, can indeed reflect the evolutionary background of a group of organisms.

Which idea is BEST supported by this paragraph?

(A) Linnaean taxonomy is best described as using a cladistic method of analysis for the foundation of its
classification system.

(B) Despite being two different methods of analysis, phenetics and cladistics are not entirely distinct
methods of classification.

(C) Linnaean taxonomy successfully merges cladistic and phenetic methods of analysis into a single
classification system.

(D) To best understand the relationships between organisms, cladistic and phenetic methods of analysis
should always be used together.

2 Read the list of selections from the article.

1. The invention of the microscope in the 16th century revealed a minute world, one filled with
countless new organisms that had previously escaped classification because they were too
tiny to see with the naked eye.
2. The history of taxonomy stretches back to the 4th century B.C., to the times of Aristotle and
the natural philosophers. Since the first classification systems emerged, scientists have
wrestled with the task of how to organize life into various groups.
3. In the 4th century B.C., Aristotle introduced a two-kingdom classification system. He was
among the first to document the division of life forms into animals (animalia) and plants
(plantae).
4. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria differ from each other in many complex ways. These
distinguishing characteristics were revealed by molecular genetic analysis.

Which two selections taken together provide the BEST evidence to support the idea that advances in science and technology
enable more nuanced systems of classification?

(A) 1 and 2

(B) 2 and 3

(C) 1 and 4

(D) 3 and 4

3 How does the author connect Linnaean taxonomy with later classification systems?

(A) The author contrasts Linnaean taxonomy's use of phenetics as the primary method of analysis with later
classification systems' use of cladistics as the primary method of analysis.

(B) The author highlights the continued use of Linnaean taxonomy's hierarchy of relatedness and specifies
that later classification systems refined the highest level of taxa within this system.

(C) The author outlines the limitations of the Linnaean taxonomy for accurate classification of animals and
explains how later classification systems address and correct these limitations.

(D) The author describes how Linnaean taxonomy's use of both phenetics and cladistics enabled later
classification systems to advance using both methods of analysis.

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4 How does the article introduce the idea that modern classification systems have evolved over time?

(A) by describing the process of classification as constantly changing with new scientific knowledge

(B) by summarizing the progression of classification systems in chronological order

(C) by describing Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus as a pioneer in the classification of organisms

(D) by explaining that Aristotle developed the first method for classifying organisms

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