Experiment No: 1 Date :

CROP PLANNING IN MULTIPLE CROPPING SYSTEMS

A crop plan is basically a farmer’s guide, used to ensure maximum returns from every acre. It involves
a cropping pattern in which different crops are raised, and provide suitable, healthy environment for plants. And
it’s the most important decision-making tool available to growers. Unfortunately, less that 25% of today’s farmers
have developed a detailed crop plan for their farms and those farmers who take time to develop cropping plans
get on an average of 15-30% higher yields every year. Having a plan at the outset, however, can significantly
reduce the stress and chaos of a production season, and can contribute to the profitability and productivity of the
market farm.
A cropping plan is defined as the acreages occupied by different crops every year and their spatial
distribution (for space, sunshine, water, maturation, season of planting and tolerance for each other) within a
farming land. This definition includes two concepts on farm planning and land-use/cover. The first, crop acreage,
refers to the area on a farming land normally devoted to one or a group of crops every year (e.g. x hectares of
wheat, y hectares of winter barley); the second, crop allocation, is the assignment of a particular crop to each
plot in a given piece of land.

A complete Cropping Plan involves decisions on:

 Crop selection to meet specific needs.

 Setting HIGH performance goals (yield goals).

 Selecting multiple varieties.

 Matching specific fields to specific varieties.

 Matching specific technologies with specific production plans.

 Designing fertility programs to meet variety needs.

 Planning pesticide programs to address current problems.

 The ability to forward contract once the plan is in place.

 The ability to make decisions on commodity marketing.

 Knowing your cash flow needs far in advance.

Cropping Plans are unique because:

 They don’t base decisions on last year’s performance.

 They get the planning done earlier.

 They put the farm’s production cycle on the calendar.

 Additionally, Cropping Plans avoid planting the wrong variety in the wrong field, planting the same variety
in the same field for more than two years in a row and basing next year’s plans on last year’s results.
Multiple cropping is an agriculture system long adopted by marginalized small holder farmers especially
in hills and mountains. This practice was a meant to enhance farm productivity when farming area is limited.

1
Multiple cropping generally favors an efficient utilization of resources like air, water, light, space, and nutrients by
companion crops in both temporal and spatial dimensions due to their differential growth habits and seasonality.
Multiple cropping could be one of the viable alternatives to cope uncertainties and changes, where food and
nutritional uncertainty looming large.. Molested (1954) has mentioned that multiples cropping is a philosophy of
maximum crop production per acre of land with minimum of soil deterioration.

Cropping intensity is more that 200 per cent when the farm as a whole is considered; the Multiple
Cropping Index (MCI) is determined by the number of crops and total area planted divided by the total arable
area. When the value is three or more, it is said to be most promising farm. This is also called as intensive
cropping. 1) Rice-potato-green gram. 2) Rice-mustard-maize. 3) Rice-potato-sesame.4) Jut-rice-potato.

Types of multiple cropping Systems

1. Intercropping means “Growing of two or more crops in the same field in a year, when one (major) crop is
planted on rows first and other (minor) crop is planted between the rows”. The crops in intercropping may
have a different sowing and harvesting time. ( “companion crops”.) Ex. canola, mustard, garlic, tobacco,
watermelon, muskmelon, etc. can be successfully intercropped with sugarcane crop. Sugarcane + oil seed
crop

2. Mixed cropping: “Growing of those (two or more) crops simultaneously on the same field on the same time,
which have same sowing and harvesting time.” Ex. wheat, gram and mustard are grown as mixed rabi
crops in dry regions of Northern India. It has two advantages. The loss of soil nitrogen is replenished by gram
which fixes atmospheric nitrogen and secondly, if the wheat crop does not succeed, the farmer gets some
return from gram and mustard.

3. Relay cropping is another type of intercropping where second crop is sown while the first crop is near
maturity. This practice is beneficial in terms of resolving time conflict for plantation of crops, usage of residual
moisture from the previous crop and reduced planting costs. E.g. 1) Paddy-lathrus , 2) Paddy-Lucerne, 3)
Cotton-Berseem, 4) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion.

Rabi-season Cropping Patterns in India: The crop occupying the highest percentage of sown area of the
region is taken as the base crop and all the other possible alternative crops sown in the region as substitutes
(i.e. spatial variation) for the base crop in the same season or as the crops that fit in with the rotation in the
subsequent seasons (i.e. temporal variations) are considered in the pattern. Among the Rabi Crops, wheat
together with barley and oats, sorghum and chickpea are the main base crops. Generally, wheat and chickpea
are concentrated in Northern India. These two crops are grown under identical climate and can often be substituted
for each other.

Wheat based cropping systems : On the all-India level, about 19 cropping patterns have been identified with
wheat and 7 cropping patterns with gram. The core of the wheat region responsible for 70 per cent of the area
and 76 per cent of production comprises Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh flanked by Rajasthan
and Gujarat in the Western region and Bihar and West Bengal in the Eastern region.

Rabi Sorghum based cropping systems: - 13 :Rabi sorghum is grown mostly in the Deccan. On the all India
level about 13 cropping patterns have been identified with the rabi jowar. Maharashtra has the largest number
of these cropping patterns wherein starting with the exclusive rabi jowar, bajra, pulses, oilseeds
and tobacco are grown as alternative crops.

2
Advantages: Multiple cropping systems are not only beneficial for soil, but also for farmer
 Costs of input decreases as compared to individual crop growing cost
 It is a better source of soil utilization and maintains the soil fertility
 It helps to control weeds
 Reduce pest and disease attack
 Different type of products can be produce at a time
 It improves yield and increases yield per unit of land
 It helps to produce a balance diet for a family
 Export increase and there by foreign exchange increase
Disadvantages: Multiple cropping systems also have some disadvantages like:
 The survival of pests become easy
 Pests can easily shift from one crop to another crop
 Problem of weed management
 Implementation of new technology is difficult etc.
Multiple cropping has proved successful because of the right criteria of selection of crops , duration of
crops, growth habit, root pattern, water need, nutrient demand and crops belonging to the same family.

3
Experiment No: 2 Date :

INDICES FOR EVALUATING CROPPING SYSTEMS:

1. LAND EQUIVALENT RATIO (LER): It is the most commonly used index of yield advantage.LER is
defined as relative area of sole crop that would be required to produce the same yield as has been obtained
from intercropping system.LER is in fact identical to RYT, since it is obtained by expression
intercrop yield of crop A intercrop yield of crop B
LER = +
Sole crop yield of crop A Sole crop yield of crop B

Symbols are same in RYT, except that yield represents grain/economic/biomass yield
LER indicates competitive abilities of component crops and gives actual yield advantage of I.C.
LER < 1.0, mutual inhibition between component crops and gives actual yield disadvantage of I.C LER > 1.0,
compensation between component crops and gives actual yield advantage of I.C.
LER = 1.0, mutual co-operation between component crops and there is no yield advantage in I.C.
For successful/beneficial intercropping LER should be more than 1.0
2. CROP EQUIVALENT YIELD (CEY): It is used to make comparison of crops on the basis of gross return.
The yield of different intercrops are converted into equivalent yield of any one crop based on the price of the
produce.If, there are two crops A and B in an intercropping system then
Crop A equivalent yield of crop B = Yield of crop B (kg/ha) X price of crop B (Rs./Kg)
Price of crop A Rs. /Kg

Equivalent yield of system = yield of crop A + crop a equivalent yield of crop B

Similarly if there are 3 crops A, B and C in the system then equivalent yield of system (in crop A
equivalent yield) = yield of crop A + Crop A equivalent yield of crop B + Crop A equivalent yield of crop B
3. CROPPING INTENSITY (CI): It indicates the percentage of the area that is sown more than once in year.
It is calculated as
Total cropped area
Cropping intensity (%) = x 100
Net cultivated area
Cropping intensity is calculated for a area, farm, etc it does not consider the number of crop. Cropping intensity is
calculated for a area in a year compared to available cultivated area. It is never more than rotational intensity. If
cropping intensity is 140%, then it means that 40% area is sown twice. Similarly cropping intensity 200% intensity
indicates that 100% area is sown twice.
4. CULTIVATED LAND UTILIZATION INDEX (CLUI): Cultivated land utilization Index (Chuang, 1973) is
calculated by summing the products of land area to each crop, multiplied by the actual duration of that crop
divided by the total cultivated land times 365 days.

n
i a d
CLUI  1 i i
A x 365

4
Where, n total number of crops; ai area occupied by the ith crop, di, days that the ith crop occupied and A =
total cultivated land area available for 365 days. CLUI can be expressed as a fraction or percentage. This
gives an idea about how the land area has been put into use. If the index is 1 (100%), it shows that the land
has been left fallow and more than 1, tells the specification of intercropping and relay cropping. limitation of CLUI
is its inability to consider the land temporarily available to the farmer for cultivation.

EXAMPLE: A farmer has 23 ha cultivable land available for entire year. The land is utilized as follows:

Sequence
Field Area (ha) Summer Kharif Rabi

A 5 - Rice (120)* Mustard ( 120)

B 5 - Rice (120) Rice (130)

C 4 - Rice (120) Wheat ( 120)

D 1 - Rice (120) Tomato ( 110)

E 2 Greengram (85) Baby corn (70) Potato (120)

F 2 Blackgram (75) Baby corn (70) Knolkhol (50)

G 1 Okra (120) Greengram (70) Brocolli (70)

H 3 Vegetables (120) - Rapeseed (95)

*Duration occupied by the crop in the field

SOLUTION:

5 x 120 + 5 x 120
CLUI (for Block A) = = 0.66
5 x 365
5 x 120 + 5 x 130
CLUI (for Block B) = = 0.68
5 x 365
4 x 120 + 4 x 110
CLUI (for Block C) = = 0.63
4 x 365
1 x 120 + 1 x 110
CLUI (for Block D) = = 0.63
1 x 365
2 x 85 + 2 x 70 + 2 x 120
CLUI (for Block E) = = 0.75
2 x 365

2 x 75 + 2 x 70 + 2 x 50
CLUI (for Block F) = = 0.53
5 x 365

1 x 120 + 1 x 70 + 1 x 70
CLUI (for Block G) = = 0.71
1 x 365

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 1 x 120 + 1 x 70 + 1 x 70
CLUI (for Block G) = = 0.71
1 x 365

3 x 120 + 3 x 95
CLUI (for Block H) = = 0.59
1 x 365
CLUI (for Farm)

= 600+600+600+650+480+440+120+110+170+140+240+150+140+100+120+70+360+285
23x365

= 0.65

5. MULTIPLE CROPPING INDEX (MCI): It was proposed by Dalrymple (1971). It is the ratio of total area
cropped in a year to the land area available for cultivation and expressed in percentage (sum of area planted to
different crops and harvested in a single year divided by total cultivated area times 100).

n
i a
MCI  1 i X100
A
Where, n is total number of crops, ai is area occupied by ith crop and A is total land area available for cultivation.
It is similar to cropping intensity.
a1 + a2 + ... + an
MCI = X 100
A
Where a1 + a2 + … + an is the gross cropped area and A the net cultivated area.

EXAMPLE: Calculate MCI for each crop sequence and entire farm ?

Sequence
Field Area (ha) Summer Kharif Rabi

A 5 - Rice Mustard

B 5 - Rice Rice

C 4 - Rice Wheat

D 1 - Rice Tomato

E 2 Greengram Baby corn Potato

F 2 Blackgram Baby corn Knolkhol

G 1 Okra Greengram Brocolli

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SOLUTION:
10
MCI (for Block A) = 100% = 200
5
10
MCI (for Block B) = 100% = 200
5
8
MCI (for Block C) = 100% = 200
4

2
MCI (for Block D) = 100% = 200
1

6
MCI (for Block E) = 100% = 200
2
6
MCI (for Block F) = 100% = 200
2
3
MCI (for Block G) = 100% = 200
1
45
MCI (for Whole Farm) = 100% = 200
20
6. AGGRESIVITY (A): Aggresivity shows the relationship between dominant and dominated species grown
together, especially when any of the two offers competition. It may calculated as –

Aab = Mixture yield of a - Mixture yield of b

Expected yield of a Expected yield of b

Yab Yba
Aab = -
Yaa x Zab Ybb x Zba

Where,
Aab = aggressivity of ‘a’ in the mixture over ‘b’
Yaa = yield of component crop ‘a’ as sole crop
Ybb = yield of component crop ‘b’ as sole crop
Yab = yield of component crop ‘a’ as inter crop as combination with ‘b’
Yba = yield of component crop ‘b’ as inter crop as combination with ‘a’
Zba = Sown proportion of component ‘b’ in combination with ‘a’
Zab = Sown proportion of component ‘a’ in combination with ‘b’
= 0, component crops are equally competitive
> 1, component is dominant
< 1, component is dominated by the other
Moreover, greater the numerical value, bigger is the difference in competitive abilities and bigger the difference
between actual and expected yields

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Work out the following problemsn:
1. In an intercropping system of maize + sunflower + urdbean the yields of maize, sunflower and urdbean were
2200, 2050 and 810 kg/ha, respectively. The prices of maize, sunflower and urdbean were Rs. 24, 30 and
42 per kg respectively. Find out maize equivalent yield of intercropping system.
2. Calculate cropping intensity of Maize – Sugarcane - wheat rotation on 1 ha area ?
3 . Chickpea and mustard were grown in intercropping system and the yield was 800 and 1200 kg/ha, respectively.
The sole yield of chickpea was 1700 kg/ha and of mustard was 2300 kg/ha. Find out whether intercropping
of chickpea and mustard was beneficial.?
4. Define multiple cropping system and write the predominant rabi cropping systems ?

5. Wrtie the significance of crop plan .

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Experiment No:2 Date :

FIELD PREPARATION AND LAYOUT OF EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS

Objectives:
1. To impart practical knowledge on field preparation and layout of experimental plots
2. To emphasize on the practical problems involved in field preparation and layout of experimental plots
Introduction:
Proper land preparations at correct season and time with the appropriate time of sowing will helpto
obtain higher yields. During first ploughing moisture retention capacity of the soil gets increased and land becomes
favourable for cultivation. When the land is ploughed there should be enough moisture in the soil. So that with
less number of ploughings itself land attains good physical condition. Number and depth of ploughings depends
on weed growth intensity in that area, seed rate, nature of crop root growth etc. For economical land preparation
the number of ploughings should be reduced.
After taking up first ploughing wait for 5 - 10 days then take up further ploughings because the excess
moisture in the ploughed clods will get evaporated and the soil clods will be in good condition for ploughing which
reduces the number of ploughings and saves money in land preparation. For getting required soil physical
condition, after each ploughing, work with gorru so that clod size will be reduced. After harvesting the crop, better
plough and prepare the land so that effective weed control can be done. First ploughing should not be done
when excess or very low moisture is available in the soil. Because in this state more number of ploughings will
be required so that the expenditure will shoot up.
Material required: Ploughs (MB plough, Disc plough), Cultivator, Harrows, Levellers, Clod crushers, Measuring
Tape, Plastic rope, Spades and Marking Pegs.
Procedure : Experiments are usually laid out in square or rectangular plots for data and yield estimation, even
though the field may be irregular. The plot is usually placed on the contour, parallel with a road, or in a north-and-
south alignment. To mark a plot, construct a right angle and then form a rectangle or square.
1. The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle is equal to the
sum of the squares of the two sides.
2. Figure 1 shows a right-angle triangle with the sides AB (3 cm), BC (4 cm), and the hypotenuse AC (5 cm).
The sides are multiples of 3, 4, and 5. The sides AB2 + BC2 are equal to AC2 or (3 x 3) + (4 x 4) = (5 x 5)
when the angle at B is a right angle (90 degrees).
A

5cm
3cm

C
B 4cm

9
Layout in the Field

The investigator should thoroughly check for correctness of row or plot numbers and randomization of treatments
within each replication before the actual layout is done in the field.

Materials: Measuring tape and stakes.

1. Mark the experimental plot by choosing the southwest corner of the field and fix a stake on the first row of the
first plot.

2. Form a right-angle triangle (Fig 1) with the tape and fix two stakes perpendicular to each other, which will form
the two sides of the experimental plot.

3. Extend the two sides to the required length of the experiment by your eye-line.

4. Measure and stake to indicate the blocks as per the plan.

5. Leave required alleyways between blocks.

6. Measure and stake the individual plots according to the plan.

7. Check for the correctness of all the measurements so that the plot sizes correspond to the plan by counting
the plots and by checking the diagonals.

8. Tie tags on a stake for the first row of each plot, from left to right when facing the field. The tags must indicate
plot number, treatment symbol, replication number, and the experimenter’s initials. Write with waterproof
pencil or ink on weather-resistant tags.

9. If the field is formed into ridges and furrows, you may wish to leave a ridge for an alleyway between plots. If
the field is flat and will be irrigated, then each plot may need to be bordered with a 10-15 cm bund.The bunds
can be made with a spade, a wheeled tool-carrier, or a ridging plough.

10. Generally, the field should be uniformly levelled with a slope of 0.2% to 0.8%.

11. Apply fertilizers as required by the experiment.

A field plan must show all the details of the experiment as follows:

1. Description and number of treatments with symbols assigned to each treatment.

2. Experimental design with number of replications.

3. Number of plots in the experiment.

4. Plot size (length x breadth)

5. Border areas for the experiment.

6. How the plots and blocks have been arranged.

7. Randomization of treatments and replications.

8. Rates, types, and times of fertilizer application.

9. Seed requirements (plant density).

10. Insecticides,weed control methods, amount and kind of fertilizers, or special operations.

10
Precautions
1. Previous cropping history of the plot,especially in case of fertilizer and intercropping trials.
2. If possible, ascertain soil fertility variations, either by soil analysis or uniformity trial to layout uniform areas for
replications or blocks.
3. Row directions (ridges) should be along the slope so that maximum infiltration is permitted and excess
surface water drains from the field through the furrows.

Practical Significance : Students get accustomed with the land preparation and they learn about the layout of
the plots for experimental purpose.
Study Questions:
1. Write about the importance of land preparation?
2. Write about the importance of layout in the field?
3. Provide the schematic representation of layout of your experimental plots

11
Excercise No: Date :

SEED TREATMENT AND NURSERY RAISING IN RABI CROPS

Objectives:
1. To know about the importance of seed treatment
2. To acquaint the students to raising nursery in rabi crops
Seed treatment is a process of application of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal,
bactericidal or nematicidal properties) to seeds that prevent the carriage of insect or pathogens in or on the
seeds. Seed dressing is the most common method of seed treatment. The seed is dressed with either a dry
formulation or wet treated with a slurry or liquid formulation. Dressings can be applied at both farm level and
industries.
Seed treatment is commonly done with organo- mercurial compounds like Thiram, captan, carbendazim,
agrosan, ceresan. Seed is also treated with insectides like chlorpyriphos, Imidachloprid etc;. Treatment with nitric
acid and growth harmones is done to break dormancy.
Some seeds need treatment with some specific objectives before sowing. Some examples are:

 Legumes: Seed is treated with Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed against seed borne disease followed by Rhizobium
culture @ 250g/10 kg seed for better nodulation and ‘N’ fixation The sequence of seed treatment is FIR
(Fungicide, insecticide and rhizobium).

 Sugarcane: Hot water treatment (500C) or hot air treatment (540C) is given to sets for 2 hrs against
grassy shoot and other diseases. Or Setts are treated with Carbendazim (1 gram in1litre of water) and
with organo-mercuric compounds 6% @ 500g in 100 litres of water by dipping for 5 min. against smut and
for improved germination. Sets treatment with Azospirillum: Prepare the slurry with 10 packets (2000 g/
ha) of Azospirillum with sufficient water and soak the setts in the slurry for 1 minute before planting.

 Potato: Seed is dipped in 1% Thiourea solution for breaking the seed dormancy.

b. Seed is dipped in streptomycin solution @ 200 g in 100 lit. water for 1 hour against ring rot disease.
Potato tubers are treated with Maleic Hydrazine (MH) for avoiding sprouting and growth of sprouts and
thereby reducing losses due to sprouting
Materials required: Good quality seed, fungicide, insecticide, nitric acid, manures, fertilizers, ploughs, levelers,
gunny bags, and sprayers (need based plant protection measures),weighing balance, trays and tubs.
Methodology: Seed is treated with carbendazim @ 1g/kg seed thiram or captan @ (3g/kg). Seed is also
soaked in brine solution @ 3% against blast and to discard unfilled seed. In some crops (potato) special
treatment with growth harmones is done for better germination.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN TOBACCO:

 Tobacco seeds are very small and are unsuitable for sowing directly in the field and hence sown in
small areas called nurseries or seed beds. Sandy or sandy loam soils must be preferred and the site
must be situated at an elevated place to prevent waterlogging and incidence of damping off.

12
  Mixing of sand at 100 to 200 tonnes/ha in the preparation of the beds, helps in improving the drainage
in heavy soils.
 Cigarette tobacco (AP) is grown on a heavy black soil and the nurseries are generally raised on sandy
to gravely loams.
 Nursery site should be changed every year to reduce incidence of pests and diseases and to eliminate
contamination by other varieties and rabbing (sterilisation by burning crop residues/trash) must be
followed in case when nursery is raised in same site.
 The beds should be 1.0 m to 1.22 m wide and of convenient length along the slope but generally not
more than 10 m to facilitate hand weeding.
 FYM or filter press cake @ 25 tonnes/ha has to be applied by mixing well in the top layers atleast 20
days before sowing is beneficial in obtaining more number of transplantable seedlings.
 Basal application of 50 gm of ammonium sulphate, 50 gm of potassium sulphate and 300 gm of
superphosphate and 100 gm of dolomite per 10 sq.m. bed is recommended.
 After germination of seed top dressing of ammonium sulphate twice at 4 days interval @ 25 gm/10
sq.m. and thereafter thrice at 4 days interval @ 50 gm/10 sq.m. and twice potassium sulphate @ 25
gm/10 sq.m. is recommended.
 After each pulling, top dressing with ammonium sulphate @ 100 gm/10 sq.m. bed is to be followed to
boost the growth of the remaining seedlings.
 The optimum seed rate is 3-5 kg/ha (0.4 g/m2). The first ten days of nursery period is most critical and if
the temperatures are high, frequent watering (rose cans) has to be done to avoid damage to the
germination of seed.
 Covering the nursery bed with covers and mulches is beneficial as it conserves moisture during germination
and later protect the tender seedlings from strong sunlight and beating rains.
 Covers have to be gradually thinned or removed from the day when the seedlings appear on the
surface as otherwise the seedlings may become etiolated and lanky for want of sunlight. transplant The
seedlings are transplanted from one bed to another bed (resetting at 3 to 4 weeks age in order to
ensure sturdy growth of seedlings by the time of planting.
 Seven to ten days before planting, the seedlings are hardened by withholding water. Such seedlings
withstand the shock of transplanting better than normal seedlings.
 Seedlings of pencil thickness and of 10 to 15 cm length and 7 weeks old are preferred for planting. Short
seedling establish well under optimum conditions in heavy soils, while in light soils, longer seedlings are
preferred for planting.
 In the first picking 30 to 40% of the total seedlings will be available. The seed bed is top-dressed after
each pulling to boost the growth of remaining seedlings.
 Under delayed planting, due to unfavorable field conditions, the overgrown seedlings in beds are clipped
without damaging the growing point in order to retard the growth.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE: Sugarcane is generally planted directly, but in situations of

water scarcity and field preoccupied by other crop nurseries are raised and planted in main field. Different types
of nurseries in sugarcane are detailed below. Generally 6 to 7 months old nurseries are used for planting in main
plots. Time of raising nursery - June

13
 ‘Bud-chip’ / ‘Chip-bud’ technique:
 Requires setts of 1- 1.5 t (top portion) and rest of the cane is used for milling.
 Select healthy canes of 7 to 9 m. old with good inter node length (7 to 8 inches) and girth
 Treat buds with 1 kg urea, 50g Carbendazim and 200 ml malathion dissolved in 100 litres of water for 15
minutes, followed by treatment with 1 per cent lime solution and the buds are placed in air tight in a
gunny bag for 3-4 days and sprinkled with water
 Gunny bags should be observed periodically and opened on the 4th day, and healthy sprouted buds
must be selected for raising nursery.
 The bud chips treated with fungicide are planted in the raised bed nursery or in polythene bags 15 x 10
cm) filled with FYM/press mud, soil and sand in 1:1:1 proportion.
 They can also be planted in protrays. The trays are filled with coco pith (half volume) followed by
placing the germinated buds in slant position with buds facing upwards and remaining volume is filled
with coco pith without pressing hard.Irrigate the poly bags/ trays with rose cans based on moisture
content and care must be taken to provide shade by placing the trays under shade nets.
 Saplings will be ready for planting in 60 days.
Advantages:
 Low seed rate requirement
 Improved water use efficiency
 More tillers as compared to conventional planting
 Higher nutrient use
 Low mortality rate
 High sugar recovery
Raised bed nursery technique:
 An area of about 35 m is required to raise the nursery. Bed with dimensions of one meter width and
convenient length may be made.
 FYM or compost or cured pressmud as per availability is added to the nursery beds. Addition of
 Addition of BHC helps to protect against soil borne insects.
 From a seed nursery crop, seed canes are drawn and single bud setts are prepared .
 Setts are pushed vertically into the soil side by side on pre –wetted nursey bed.
 Eye bud should be just touching the soil surface.
 Number of setts required per hectare is around 35,000 (planting + 10% gap filling).
 Cane trash or paddy straw soaked with the fungicide is applied followed by dry soil.
 Beds are watered using rose can based on ASM (daily or on alternate days).
 About 6 weeks old seedlings are transplanted (2-3 uncurled leaves).
The bud chips treated with fungicide are planted in the raised bed nursery or in polythene bags 15 x 10 cm)
filled with FYM/press mud, soil and sand in 1:1:1 proportion.

14
  They can also be planted in protrays. The trays are filled with coco pith (half volume) followed by
placing the germinated buds in slant position with buds facing upwards and remaining volume is filled
with coco pith without pressing hard.Irrigate the poly bags/ trays with rose cans based on moisture
content and care must be taken to provide shade by placing the trays under shade nets.
 Saplings will be ready for planting in 60 days.
Advantages:
 Low seed rate requirement
 Improved water use efficiency
 More tillers as compared to conventional planting
 Higher nutrient use
 Low mortality rate
 High sugar recovery
Raised bed nursery technique:
 An area of about 35 m is required to raise the nursery. Bed with dimensions of one meter width and
convenient length may be made.
 FYM or compost or cured pressmud as per availability is added to the nursery beds. Addition of
 Addition of BHC helps to protect against soil borne insects.
 From a seed nursery crop, seed canes are drawn and single bud setts are prepared .
 Setts are pushed vertically into the soil side by side on pre –wetted nursey bed.
 Eye bud should be just touching the soil surface.
 Number of setts required per hectare is around 35,000 (planting + 10% gap filling).
 Cane trash or paddy straw soaked with the fungicide is applied followed by dry soil.
 Beds are watered using rose can based on ASM (daily or on alternate days).
 About 6 weeks old seedlings are transplanted (2-3 uncurled leaves).

NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN TOBACCO

15
 NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE

Protray nursery

Different methods of sugarcane nurseries

Bud chip technique Sprouting of buds

Bud chip machine Poly bag nursery

16
NURSERY RAISING IN AGAVE: Agave sisalina, A.americana
 Bulbils of 6 -12 cm disease free are graded to ensure uniform growth and development
 Bulbils are treated with Dimethoate/ Imidacloprid to prevent sisal weevil and grubs .
 Metalaxyl or Metalaxyl + Mancozeb (Ridomil Mz) is followed by insecticidal treatment
 Organic manure @ 20-50 t/ha is incorporated in the nursery before planting.
 DAP@ 200 kg/ha at planting and top dressing of CAN @ 150 kg/ha at six months
 Bulbils planted at 50 cm x 25 cm , accommodating 80,000 plants/ha, sufficient to establish 22-25 ha of
sisal main field.
 Need based weed management has to be taken up since, nursery period is long
 Seedlings of 12 – 18 months, with a height of 40 – 46 cm, weighing 1 -2 kg are ready for transplanting by
trimmed the roots.

Bulbils

Suckers Nursery

Study questions:
1.Give the name of chemical used for seed treatment for improving germination in potato.
2. Enlist the advantages of seed treatment and give the sequence of seed treatment in pulses.
3. What is rabbing?
4. Why tobacco nurseries should not be sown in heavy soils.
5. Enlist different methods of raising nursery in sugarcane along with the seed rate.
6. Enlist different propagative materials in agave. Brief about the nursery management. in agave.

17
Experiment No: 4 Date :

SOWING OF CROPS IN INDIVIDUAL PLOTS

Objectives:
1. To accustom the students to sowing operations by practical involvement
2. To identify the appropriate methods of sowing and determination of plot size
Sowing is the placing of a specified quantity of seeds in the soil in the optimum position for germination
and growth while planting is the putting of plant propagules (seeds, seedlings, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes, clones
etc.) into the ground to grow as crop plants. Seeds are sown either directly in the field or in the nursery (nursery
bed) whereas seedlings are raised and transplanted later.
Material required: Seed, Seed treatment chemical, spade, sowing pegs, spade, kurpi, sowing rope and tubs
Methods of Sowing: Before going for sowing, one should decide the proper methods to be adopted and
according to that materials should be ready.
Wheat: The field should be properly prepared to obtain a clean, friable and levelled seed bed to facilitate line
sowing. Wheat crop requires well pulverized but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. Preparatory
tillage operations varies with type of cultivation i.e. whether grown as rainfed or irrigated crop. Select well drained
loamy soil with good irrigation prospect for growing of Wheat. Water logged areas should be avoided. The land
should be ploughed thoroughly three to four times to make the soil well pulverized and should be levelled
properly. Seeds should be sown when there is just sufficient moisture in the soil. If the soil is dry, a pre-sowing
light irrigation should be given.
Second fortnight of November is the optimum period for sowing wheat. Tiller initiation takes place at
about 18 days after germination. Low temperature of 21o C or less favours tillering. The coldest period falls
between 15th December to 15th January and this period prolongs in the inland districts up to 20th January.
Wheat should, therefore, be sown by the end of November at the latest. In the interior districts and hilly areas,
where the winter is more prolonged and severe, sowings may continue till the end of December. Early sowing
before 1st week of November results in early emergence of ear heads and very low yields. Wheat may be sown
when coconut oil solidifies with the onset of winter.
Sugarcane
Land preparation is important task in sugarcane cultivation as this crop stands more than one year
in the field. With the help of tractor the , land should be given 2 or 3 deep ploughings. First ploughing should be
carried immediately once the previous crop is harvested. Any clods should be crushed and levelled.3-4 harrowing
should be carried out to bring the soil to fine tilth stage. Soil should be levelled with help of planker for seed bed
preparation.
Different methods of Sugarcane planting
1) Flat bed method in Sugarcane
1. Flat bed method of sugarcane planting is followed in North Indian states like U.P.; Bihar etc.
2. The land is ploughed, harrowed, levelled and flat beds are prepared.
3. Cane setts are laid down in the flat beds end to end in rows.

18
 4. 60 to 90 cm. distance is kept between two rows depending upon soil type.
5. They are pressed into soil with hand or feet to a depth 2.5 to 5 cm and covered with soil.
6. At planting care should be taken that buds should face on the sides otherwise lower buds cannot germinate.
This method is followed where there is abundant moisture.
7. Earthing up operation is done in rainy season.
2) Furrow Planting in Sugarcane : In this method furrows are made with a sugarcane ridger about 10-15 cm
deep in northern India and about 20 cm in south India. Setts are planted end to end. The furrows are covered
with 5-6 cm soil, leaving upper portion of furrows unfilled. Immediately after covering the setts water is let into
furrows.
3) Trench/ Java Method in Sugarcane : In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop
grows very tall and the strong winds during rainy season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to
save the crop from lodging. Trenches at a distance of 75-90 cm are dug with the help of ridger or by manual
labour. Trenches should be about 20-25 cm deep. Fertilizers (NPK) are spread uniformly in the trenches and
mixed thoroughly in the soil. The setts are planted end to end in trenches. The tractor-drawn sugarcane
planter is a very suitable device for planting cane in trenches.
4) Modified trench system in sugarcane : Ridges and furrows are opened at 120 cm using a tractor drawn
ridger. The furrow bottom is widened. As the crop grows while each manuring, only slight earthing up is done
so that a trough is maintained through the crop growth. Here irrigation is given in the cane row itself.The
system has been found highly useful under:
 Saline water irrigated and saline soil conditions
 The salts are leached down from the root zone
 Higher cane yield compared to conventional ridges and furrows
 FYM or pressmud application and trash mulching in this system can further improve cane yield
5) Rayungan Method: It is the Indonesian term meaning-a developed cane shoot with single sprouted bud.
A portion of field is selected for Rayungan production is left at harvesting time. The top of the cane is cut
off which results auxiliary buds begin to sprout. For quick and effective sprouting fertilizer especially
nitrogen in heavy dose is applied and field is irrigated. After 3-4 weeks sprouted buds are separated in
single bud setts and transplanted on ridges. It is costly hence is not commonly adopted in India however
is usually used for filling gap.
6) Transplanting technique (STP technique) : Seedlings of sugarcane are raised in a nursery bed using
single bud setts. About 6 weeks old seedlings are transplanted
Advantages by adopting this system are:
 Saving in the seed cost
Only about 2-3 t/ha against the normal 8-10 tonnes/ha.
 Synchronous tillering leading to uniformly maturity
 Sufficient time availability to prepare the main field
 Saving of 2-3 irrigations
 Possibility of increased cane yield

19
  Better weed management
 Efficient fertilizer management
6) “Partha” method : A technique developed by Mr. S.V. Parthasaradhy an eminent sugarcane
scientist.Suggested for water logged or excess soil moisture conditions (coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu during N-E monsoon period). In this method:
 three eye budded setts are planted in a slanting position, 60° to the vertical, in the wet furrow or half-way
on the ridges
 Usually one eye bud is thrust into the soil and the remaining two will be above, which will sprout
 Once the monsoon recedes, the in situ sprouted setts are pressed down into the soil and made to lie
horizontally
 Soil is put to the base
 At this stage, the crop is manured
Chickpea/Gram

Chick pea is highly sensitive to soil aeration. This imposes a restriction for its cultivation on heavy soils
and calls for special care in seedbed preparation. A rough seedbed is required for chick pea. In case the chick
pea crop is taken after a kharif fellow, it would be desirable to go for a deep ploughing during the monsoon as
the same would help in larger conservation of rain water in the soil profile for subsequent use by this crop. Very
fine and compact seedbed is not good for chick pea. If requires a loose and well aerated seedbed.

Date of sowing has been recognized as single non-monetary input affecting most the yield of chick
pea in all chick pea growing areas. Experiments conducted at different Centres over last several years have
amply demonstared that second fortnight of October is the optimum time for sowing chick pea in most of the chick
pea growing areas of northern India. For peninsular India, first fort night of October is the best time for chick pea
sowing. Delay beyond this period results in conspicuous reduction in yield. Under humid sub-tropical conditions
of Tarai, which are characterized by shallow water table and relatively more winter rainfall, first fortnight of
November is most suitable. Early sowing of chick pea results in excessive vegetative growth and poor setting of
pods. The early sown crop suffers more from wilt owing to high temperature at that time.

The crop may be sown by seed drill or local plough at a row spacing of 30-45 centimeters. A seed rate of
75-100 kg per hectare depending upon seed size may be sufficient for one hectare. The seed should be placed
8-10 centimeters.
Groundnut
Plough the land 2 to 3 times at optimum soil moisture to secure good surface tilth to a depth of 15 cm.
Follow planking after each ploughing to conserve moisture. Use improved plough (MB plough) and power tiller
with rotavator or tractor with cultivator for good seed bed preparation. A good seed bed has a great significance
for successful groundnut cultivation as it allows early root penetration and easy pegging and pod formation.

The optimum time of sowing for rabi groundnut is between 15th Sept to 15th Oct with the use of
polythene or straw mulching.
Sow the rabi crop which is raised on residual soil moisture in the month of November and the irrigated
summer crop in the second fortnight of January. Sow the seeds in lines at a spacing of 25 cm x 10 cm for bunchy
and semi-spreading types. The seed rate is 125 kg kernel/ha. Use groundnut planter or follow dibbling behind

20
the plough for ensuring line sowing. Ensure depth of sowing within 5 cm of the soil under sufficient moisture
conditions and deeper placement at 8-10 cm in light soils with insufficient surface moisture.
Bed and furrow method of sowing groundnut : Under irrigated conditions, regions of shallow water table and
saline soils, bed and furrow method of sowing is advantageous. In this method after every 3 or 4 rows of
groundnut spaced at 30 cm, 1 row is left blank which can be used as irrigation or drainage furrow and in
between 2 furrows, the bed is raised by about 10-15 cm.
Mustard
A fine seed bed is essential for ensuring high germination percentage. For good germination of crop it
required a fine seed bed. Plough the soil for two to three times followed by two harrowing. Do planking after every
ploughing. Prepared firm, moist and uniform seed bed as it will help in uniform germination of seed. Moisture
conservation in fallow fields is to be done by harrowing after the receipt of every rain. The time of sowing vary
with agro-ecological conditions. Generally, last week of
Optimum time for sowing Mustard crop is from September to October month. For toria crop, complete
sowing from first fortnight of September to October. For African sarson and Taramira can be sown in whole
October month. For Raya crop complete sowing from Mid of October to November End. When rapeseed-
mustard grown as intercrop, time of sowing depend upon cultivation of main crop.
As mixed crop either sown by broadcasting in the main crop or by drilling method. As pure crop it is
sown by drilling method. As seed is small, it is should be sown by mixing with fine sand for uniform spacing. The
seed should be sown only up to 5 to 6 cm depth otherwise germination may be gappy. If there is no sufficient
moisture in the soil sowing should be done after pre-soaking irrigation.Seed Rate as mixed crop :2 to 2.5 kg/ha.
as pure crop: 4 to 6 kg/ha.
Precautions to be taken while sowing seeds
 Seeds must be planted at the correct distance or intervals from each other. This is to ensure that all plants get
their fair share of light, water and nutrients for growth and development. Planting seeds at equidistance have
been proved to increase the yield of the farm.
 Seeds must be sown at the correct depth in the soil. If seeds are simply scattered on the top they are likely to
be blown away or eaten by animals or birds. If we sow them too deep into the ground, they will not germinate
due to lack of air.
 The seeds that you sow should be of the highest quality. They have to germ and disease free.
Procedure:
The allotted plot should be divided into number of rows based on the inter-row spacing by fixing
pegs at respective spacing. Size of the plot (i.e. width and length) should be in multiples of inter row and intra
row spacing. It is a thumb rule that the first row has to be marked by leaving half of inter row spacing.
Treat the seed with fungicides as per the requirement to check the infection of soil borne diseases.
Make rows at required spacing. The general rule for sowing depth is 2-3 times of the thickness of seed. If the size
of the seed is very smalls mix a little of sand in the seed for uniform distribution in the rows and cover it with soil
or farmyard manure. Thick sowing or sowing with broad casting also leads to increase in the incidence of
damping off disease. If seeds are sown too deep nutrient reserves will be exhausted before the plant emerges
or emerging plants will be weak or liable to die. If sown too shallow then it is likely to be eaten by birds or
washed away by the splash of rains or irrigation water.

21
  Demarcate the measured area on all four sides at right angle to each other.
 Bund the area taking half soil from both the sides of row.
 Prepare shallow furrows at required row spacing along the width of bed (ridge and furrow method).
 Sow seeds as per the required depth (depending on the size of the seed).
 Maintain plant to plant spacing and thinning extra plants two weeks after sowing.
Precautions : 1. Seed bed should be mellow and friable. 2. It should be free from debris.
3. Seed bed should be well levelled.
Practical Significance
 Students gain the practical knowledge regarding different sowing operations, calculation of seed rate and
fertilizer calculations from the individual plots.
Study Questions
1. Calculate the required seed rate for the allotted individual plots.
2. What are the precautionary measures taken while sowing in the field?

22
Experiment No: 5 Date :

TIME AND METHOD OF APPLICATION FOR RABI CROPS

Objectives:

1. To know different about types of fertiliser application in rabi crops based on time and method of application

2. To acquaint students to methods of fertiliser application through practicals.

Efficient fertilizer management is guided by the 4R concept (right source, right dose, right time and right
method). Response to the applied fertilizer depends on the vailable soil moisture and hence in dry lands,
moisture conservation is crucial towards achieving higher fertile use efficiency.

The source of fertilizer is very important as it determines the nutrient availability especially in problematic
soils. Ex: Rock phosphate is the right choice in acidic soils over other Phosphatic fertilizers. Similarly, the nutrient
requirement and method of fertilizer application also vary with the type of crop grown and soil type. Likewise, for
the same crop also the nutrient requirement varies with crop growth stage, requiring a relatively lower dose at
initial and post reproductive stages in comparison to active growth/reproductive stage. Among the primary nutrients,
phosphatic and potashic fertilizers are applied totally as basal at the time of sowing. Phosphorus is subjected
to fixation and hence, its application is restricted to basal apart from its crucial role towards root development.

Potassium is applied totally as basal with exception in light soils wherein it is subjected to leaching and
hence, it is top dressed similar to nitrogen. Nitrogenous is required throughout the life cycle of the crop and hence
commonly applied in splits (basal and top dressing) owing to losses (leaching, volatalisation, denitrification and
surface run off). Based on the method and time of application fertilizer application is classified as:

Application of solid fertilizers is classified as:

Brand
Pallet
Broadcasting Placement placement
Application

Hill
Plough Sole
Placement
Basel Placement
Application Deep
Placement Row
Top Localised Placement
Dressing Placement

23
1. Broadcasting: The fertilizer is spread all over the field with a view to distributing the whole quantity of fertilizer
uniformly. This method of fertilizer application should not be practiced where placement of fertilizers in the root
zone is feasible because in this practice more amount of fertilizer is required to produce the same yield.
Commonly used in very close growing crops (wheat, barley, oats etc;) with dense root system. Generally
fertilizers in large doses and insoluble insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are applied by
this method. Broadcasting of fertilizers is carried out at two stages.

a. At the time of Planting: Depending on the crop, broadcasting of the fertilizer is carried out prior to
sowing/planting or just before the last ploughing and incorporated in the field.

b. During Crop Growth Period: Broadcasting in standing crop is done mainly for nitrogenous fertilizers and
mostly for close spaced crop like paddy and wheat. It is called top dressing

2. Placement: Fertilizers are placed in the soil before sowing irrespective of the position of the seed. Placement
in standing crop can also be done in widely spaced crop growing in a limited area. Generally recommended
when the quantity of fertilizers to apply is small, development of the root system is poor, soil have a low level
of fertility and to apply phosphatic and potashic fertilizer. The most common methods of placement are as
follows:

a) Plough sole placement/single band lacement: Fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in
a continuous band during the process of ploughing and the first furrow after fertilizer application is closed
during opening of next furrow. Commonly followed in areas where surface soil dries up and in soils
characterized by heavy clay pans.

b) Deep placement: Commonly followed in rice for application of ammonical fertilizers. This method ensures
better distribution of fertilizer in the root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.

c) Localized placement: Application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed to ensure direct supply of
nutrients in adequate amounts to the growing plants. This method is again classified into:

 Drilling: Fertilizer is applied as basal with seed-cum-fertilizer drill. Suitable for the application of phosphatic
and potashic fertilizers in cereal crops.
 Side dressing: It aims at spread of fertilizer in between the rows and around the plants. This method is
classified as:

 Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops. Ex: Sugarcane, potato. This
method is intended to apply additional dose of nitrogen to the growing crops.
 Placement of fertilizers around the tree. Ex: Mango, apple, grapes, papaya etc.
3. Band placement: Application or placement of fertilizer in bands. It is sub divided into two types.
a) Hill placement: It is commonly practiced in orchards wherein, fertilizer is placed close to the plant in
bands on one or both sides of the plant. The length and depth of the band varies with the nature of the
crop.
b) Row placement: Commonly followed method in close intra row crops. Ex: Sugarcane, potato and rabi
cereals . As the fertilizer is applied in continuous bands on one or both sides of the row it is known as row
placement.

24
4. Pellet application: Placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets (fertilizer and soil mixed in the ratio
of 1:10) at 2.5 to 5 cm deep between the rows. Ex: paddy.
Unlike in broadcasting the major benefits in placement method are:
 Less fixation of nutrients due to minimum contact between the soil and fertilizer
 Lesser weed growth

 Higher fertiliser use efficiency due to less nutrient loss

II. Liquid fertilizer application is classified as:

Starter Foliar Fertigation Injection Aerial

Solution Apllication into Soil Apllication

a) Starter solutions: Application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2 to young
seedlings at the time of transplanting for quick establishment. Ex: Vegetables- cauliflower, cabbage,
broccoli etc;.

b) Foliar application: Foliar application refers to the spraying fertilizer solution on foliage (leaves) of growing
plants. Normally, these solutions are prepared in low concentration (2-3%) either to supply anyone plant
nutrient or a combination of nutrients. Common method for correcting micronutrient deficiencies on standing
crop. Ex: Iron, copper, boron, zinc and manganese. Foliar spray of urea, DAP and Potashic fertilizers (1-
2%) is also resorted during dry spells. Care must be taken in correct time of spraying (early hours-morning
or evening) and correct dose/ concentration of the spray solutions as it results in scorching of the foliage in
case of wrong time of spraying and high concentrations.

c) Fertigation: Applying fertilizers, soil amendments and other products required by plants along with water.

Advantages of Fertigation:
(a) Increase in crop yield by 25-50%.
(b) Saving in fertilizers by about 30%.
(c) Precise application and uniform distribution of fertilizers.
(d) Nutrients can be applied as per plant requirements.
(e) Acidic nature helps in avoiding clogging of drippers, in cleans up drip system.
(f) Increased nutrient use efficiency by minimizing loss of nutrients.
(g) Multi-nutrients i.e major, secondary and micro-nutrients can be applied in a single solution with irrigation.
(h) Exact concentration of fertilizers can be injected as per requirement of crops.
(i) Highly leached sandy soils and highly leached soils can brought under cultivation through fertigation as
irrigation system.
(j) Cost effective technique due to savings of time, labour and energy.

25
Characteristics of Fertilizers Suitable for Fertigation:
a. High nutrient content available to crops.
b. Complete and rapid dissolution of fertilizers at field temperature.
c. No clogging of filters and emitters.
d. Low content of insoluble matters.
e. Compatible with other fertilizers.
f. Minimum content of conditioning agents.
g. Less interactions between fertilizers and irrigation water.
h. No drastic changes in pH of irrigation water due to mixing of fertilizer materials
i. Low corrosive for control head and system.
d) Injection into soil: Ex: Liquid fertilizers are injected commonly by this method either by pressure or non-
pressure type.
1. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows without appreciable loss of
plant nutrients under most conditions.
2. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and covered immediately
to prevent loss of ammonia.
e) Aerial application. This method is restricted to areas, where soil application is not possible due to high
elevations, large forests areas, extensive grass lands and sugarcane fields etc. Here fertilizer solutions are
applied by aircraft.
Practical significance: Students gain knowledge on various types of fertilizer application based on time and
method, by practically doing them in the allotted plots.
Study questions:
1. Enlist different methods of liquid fertilizer application.
2. What is meant by fixation? Name the method by which phosphatic fertilizers are applied.
3. When are potashic fertilisers top dressed?
4. Which method of fertilizer application is preferred for immediate supply of nutrients during dry spells
5. Brief about different types of placement method of fertiliser application.
6. Give details of the crop sown by you along with the schedule of fertilizer application (crop spacing, source
of fertilizers, RDF, time and method of fertilizer application).

26
 METHODS OF FERTILISER APPLICATION

Band Application Aerial Application

Broad Casting

Ring Method Fertigation

27
Experiment No: 6 Date :

RECORDING BIO-METRIC OBSERVATIONS

Objectives :
1. To know about the importance of biometric observations
2. To record the observations on sown crop
3. To know how to interpret the data from biometric observations.
4. To carry out the growth analysis of the crop
Biometric observation means the analysis of physical parameters of the studied organism that can be
measured . The examples of commonly analyzed biometric traits of plants are: fresh weight, height, number of
pods, dry mass content, sugar content, protein content, etc. To take the observation sampling should be done.
The sample which is a representative of whole population.
Material needed: Meter scale, Brown covers, pencil, observation note book, sickle, weighing balance, leaf area
meter and oven.
a. Non - Destructive sampling: In this sampling take the data from the crop without disturbing the plant or
destructing the plant. To take the observation sampling should be done. The sample which is representative
of whole population. The sample may contain 5-10 plants. Select the plants randomly and tag them
avoiding the boarder rows because the resources available boarder plants different from the other
plants. So, the growth and yield will be different (boarder effect). Observations like germination percentage
(%) plant height (cm), No. of leaves /plant, No. of tillers/plant, No. of branches/plant and Days to 50%
flowering. Bio metric observations on plant height , No. of tillers/plant, No. of branches/plant are taken at
regular intervals depending on the duration of the crop.
b. Destructive sampling: It applies to any procedure that result in the permanent destruction or alteration
(sometimes invisible) of all or a part of a natural specimen for the purpose of performing scientific analysis.
Dry matter production and Leaf area index (LAI) can be measured through destructive sampling. Dry
matter accumulation is recorded at periodical intervals from the destructive samples. Five plants from each
plot are cut from the base (without roots) at each interval and separated into leaf, stem and seed or grain
bearing reproductive part respectively. They are shade dried and later oven dried at 65oC to constant
weight.

Leaf Area Meter Hand held laser Leaf Area Tagging of Plant

28
 Bio metric observations in different crops
Destructive Non- Destructive
Crop name Yield attributes and yield
sampling sampling
Cereals
Wheat Dry matter Plant height, No of Effective tillers/m row length, number
production and tillers/ plant, of spikelets/panicle, length of panicle,
leaf area weight of panicle, number of
grains/panicle, test weight, weight of
grains/panicle, grain yield, straw yield
and harvest index.
Pulses
Chickpea Dry matter Plant height, no of Pods/plant, seeds/pod, weight of
production and branches, no. of seed/plant, test weight, seed yield,
leaf area leaves per plant and haulm yield, threshing % and harvest
days to 50 % index
flowering
Rajmash Dry matter Plant height, no of Pods/plant, seeds/pod, weight of
production and branches and days to seed/plant, test weight, seed yield,
leaf area 50 % flowering haulm yield, threshing % and harvest
index
Oil seed crops
Ground nut Dry matter Plant height, no of Pods/plant, pod weight /plant,
production and branches/plant, no. seeds/pod, weight of seed/plant, test
leaf area of leaves/ plant and weight, pod yield, seed yield, haulm
days to 50 % yield, shelling % and harvest index.
flowering
Safflower Dry matter Plant height, number Number of capitula /plant,
production and of branches, number seeds/capitulum, weight of seed/plant,
leaf area of leaves/ plant and test weight, seed yield, stalk yield,
days to 50 % threshing % and harvest index.
flowering
Sunflower Dry matter Plant height, number Head diameter, seeds/head (filled and
production and of leaves/plant and unfilled seeds), filling %, test weight,
leaf area days to 50 % seed yield /plant, seed yield, stalk yield
flowering and harvest index.
Commercial crops
2 2
Sugarcane - Milleable canes/m , Milleable canes/m , length of milleable
length of milleable cane, number of internodes/cane,
cane, number of diameter of cane, cane weight, percent
internodes/cane, extractable juice in canes percent
diameter of cane, sugar in juice and cane yield.
Potato - Number of tubers / plant, tuber weight /
plant and total tuber yield
Forage crops
Berseem Leaf stem ratio, Plant height, Green forage weight/plant, green stem
and Lucerne Green forage leaves/plant, weight/plant, leaf stem ratio and green
weight/plant, branches /plant, forage yield.
green forage
yield.

29
Plant dry matter is very important for calculating Relative growth rate, Crop growth rate, Net assimilation rate
which are considered as important parameters for indicating the growth and development of the crop.
Formulae for calculating different growth parameters

1) Relative Growth Rate ( RGR)

RGR = logew2- loge w1

grams/grams/week
t2-t1

2) Crop Growth Rate ( CGR)

1 w2-w 1
CGR = x grams/unit area/time
GA t2-t1

3) Net Assimilation Rate (NAR)

w2-w 1 loge A2- loge A1

NAR = x grams/unit area/time
t2-t1 A2-A1

Whereas, A1- Leaf area at a time t1

A2- Leaf area at time t2
w1- Dry weight at time t1
w2- dry weight at time t2
GA- ground area
Answer the following questions
1. What is meant by boarder effect?
2. Write how to estimate the dry matter production of crop?
3. What is meant by non- destructive sampling?
4. List out the crop parameters destructive sampling?
5. Record the data at regular intervals and interpret the data

30
 Growth parameters

Plant height 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest

/DMP/LAI/No. of
tillers /no .of
branches
1

MEAN

Yield attributes
Crop Number of No of Seed Halum yield Test Harvest
2
panicles/m grains/panicle yield or straw yield weight index
Or or No of (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (g) (%)
Number of grains /plant
branches/plants
1

MEAN

Calculation of RGR, CGR and NAR

At 15 DAS At 30 DAS RGR CGR NAR

Dry matter (g)

Leaf area
(sq.cm)

31
Experiment No: 7 Date :

WATER MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROPS

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Normally a crop has to be
irrigated before soil moisture is depleted below 50% of its availability in the root-zone.The water requirement of
crops is that quantity of water required by the crops within a given period of time for their maturity and it includes
losses due to evapo-transpiration plus the unavoidable losses during the application of water. Water requirement
for each crop depend on the following factors.
A. Choosing crops : According to the selection of crops to climate and including water availability, water
demand varies for different crops.
B. High yielding variety sown : Like various crops of the same crop water demand of different varieties may
be different.Select areas based on old varieties of short term as well as varieties resistant to diseases.
C. Timely sowing : As far as possible, crops planted at the right time, it would be cool to use moisture reserves.
D. Balanced fertilizer use : Balanced use of fertilizers extracts from plant yield will increase with the increase
in water use. Consequently fertilizers help increase water use efficiently, soil analysis must be made,.
E. Weed control : The most direct and indirect losses to crops are by weeds for available water & nutrients.
So make sure to control time by proper methods.
Different types of indices for water management
1. Soil water regime : feel and appearance , DASM , soil moisture tension
2. Climatological :cumulative pan evaporation , IW/CPE ratio
3. Plant indices :visual symptoms , soil cum sand mini plot , plant population , growth rate , relative water
content , plant water potential , canopy temperature , indicator plants , critical growth stages
Different methods of irrigations : These include surface methods, sub surface methods, micro irrigations.
In scheduling irrigation , of these mostly DASM , IW/CPE , critical growth stages are used
FACTORS AFFECTING WATER MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROPS:
1. Climate :
2. Type of crop and soil :
3. Water table :
4. Ground slope :
5. Intensity of irrigation :
6. Method of application of water :
7. Method of ploughing :
8. Crop period :
9. Base period :

32
Water management in different crops
Wheat : Four to six irrigations are enough for wheat crop. However, crown root initiation and heading stages are
the most critical to moisture stress. Among these stages, crown root initiation stage is most critical. An irrigation
delay of 2 to 3 weeks in this stage reduce the yield by 5 to 10 q/ha. Depending upon the water availability,
Irrigations should be done at right time and in adequate quantity. Recommended time of irrigation is as below:
1st Irrigation : At crown root stage i.e. 20-25 DAS
2nd Irrigation : At tillering stage i.e. 40-45 DAS
3rd Irrigation : At node formation stage i.e. 60-65 DAS
4th Irrigation : At flowering stage i.e. 80-85 DAS
5th Irrigation : At milk formation stage i.e. 100-105 DAS
6th Irrigation : At grain filling stage i.e. 115-120 DAS
In case of loam and heavy loam soils, 4 irrigation at following stages can give good yield:
1st Irrigation : 20-25 DAS
2nd Irrigation : 30 DAS
3rd Irrigation : 30 DAS
4th Irrigation : 20-25 DAS
In case of limited irrigation resources:
1. If only three irrigations are available then should be applied at crown root stage, spike emergence and
milk formation stage.
2. If only two irrigations are available then apply at crown root stage and flowering stage.
3. If only one irrigation is affordable then irrigate at crown root stage.
For proper distribution of irrigation water, field should be properly levelled and slight slope should be
given in one direction. After sowing, field should be divided in equal sized beds which ensure proper distribution
of irrigation water. In case of light and heavy soils, irrigation depth should be 6 cm and 8 cm, respectively . The
border method of irrigation is most suitable for wheat crop as it ensures uniform distribution and high water
application efficiency
SUGARCANE
 Sugarcane being a long duration crop producing huge amount of biomass, requires large quantity of
water. It is mostly grown as an irrigated crop.Deficit or excess moisture affects cane yield and juice quality
and thus sugar output, besides predisposing the crop to attack of several pests .
 The water requirement per year is around 20,000 to 30,000 cubic meters to raise a good crop. This is
equal to 2000 to 3000 mm.
 The total water required depends on various factors such as soil type, climatic conditions like rainfall,
temperature, wind etc. the cultivation practices, water application efficiency and crop duration.
 Approx. water requirement of 12 month sugarcane at each growth phase is indicated below:
a. Germination (0 – 45 days) : 300mm
b. Tillering phase (45 – 120 days) : 550mm

33
 c. Grand growth phase (120 – 270 days) : 1000mm
d. Ripening phase (270 – 360 days) : 650mm
Provide shallow wetting with 2 to 3 cm depth of water at shorter intervals especially for sandy soil for
enhancing the germination. Sprinkler irrigation is the suitable method to satisfy the requirement, during initial
stages. Later, irrigation can be provided at 0.75, 0.75 and 0.50 IW/CPE ratio during tillering, grand growth and

Days of irrigation interval

Stages Sandy soil Clay soil
Tillering phase (36 to 100 days) 8
Days of irrigation interval 10
Grand growth phase (101 - 270 days) 8 10
Maturity phase (271 - harvest) 10 14

1. Alternative furrow irrigation :

2. Skip furrow irrigation :
3. Trash mulching :
4. Application of composted coir pith :
5. Drip irrigation :
6. Fertigation :

It has advantages like moisture conservation,water saving, reduction of runoff, less evaporation, increased
soil microbial population, reduced soil temperature, nutrient availability, reduced labour cost, reduced weed growth,
improved quality of production, enhanced plant growth and yield

Different methods of irrigation

1. Flood irrigation: free flow of irrigation water is allowed in the fields in all directions. It is practiced in the flat
planted cane, but water loss is high.

2. Furrow irrigation: is most commonly used and is effective for early plant crop. In later crop growth periods
and during ratoon crops, the water distribution may become increasingly problematic because of deterioration
of the furrows. Reduced furrow length is sometimes used to allow better distribution of water over the field
in a later stage

3. Alternate skip furrow method: sugarcane is planted in flat beds as usual and after germination, 45 cm
wide and 15 cm deep furrows were made in alternate inter row spaces. There is considerable saving of
water in this method of irrigation.

Sprinkler irrigation: increasing use is made of spray guns, hand and automatically moved, replacing the
cumbersome boom and labour-intensive hand-moved sprinkler laterals Prevailing winds of more than 4 or 5 m/
sec will limit their usefulness.

Drip irrigation : Is defined as the precise, slow and frequent application of water through point or line source
emitters on or below the soil surface at a small operating pressure (20-200 kPa) and at a low discharge rate (0.6
to 20 LPH), resulting in partial wetting of the soil surface.

34
35
 TOBACCO
It has been observed that tobacco cannot tolerate waterlogging at any stage of growth but at the
same time the plants may not withstand drought also. Therefore, a compromising situation would be to give
light and frequent irrigations to the crop. However, the interval and number of irrigations depends upon soil
type, weather, cultivation and type of tobacco to be grown. The field should be irrigated when the soil moisture
falls to about 20 per cent field capacity because higher soil moisture reduced the leaf quality.
 Light irrigation at transplanting will improve establishment and early growth in light soils.
 Adequate moisture will promote faster growth and early maturity.
 Adopt irrigation only with the water containing 50 ppm of chlorides and below.
 Irrigation is more efficient at night than during hot day time because of less evaporation.
 Moisture deficiencies are much more after 40 days after planting.
 Soil moisture stress during early stages will improve deeper root development.
 An irrigation immediately after transplantation is most beneficial. a) help to settle the soil around the roots
b) provides adequate moisture for faster root development c) cools the soil, increases humidity, reduce
transpiration, reduces transplanting shock.,keeps fertilizer injury to the minimum
 For good yield and quality, tobacco should not be subjected to severe drought conditions.
 Irrigate often to keep soil moisture high which for leaf spread, growth, yield and quality.
 At harvest occasionally irrigate tobacco if there is drought thus improving yield and quality.

At the planting Irrigation at sowing 15 mm

1st irrigation 15th- 20th DAS by surface irrigation 20 mm
2nd irrigation 30-35 DAS by surface irrigation 24 mm
3rd irrigation 40-45 DAS by furrow irrigation 48 mm
4th irrigation 50-55 DAS by alternate skip furrow 24mm
5th irrigation 65-70 DAS by alternate skip furrow 24 mm
6th irrigation 80-85 DAS by alternate skip furrow 24mm
7th irrigation 90-100 DAS by alternate skip furrow 24mm
8th irrigation 115-120 DAS by alternate skip furrow 24mm

Irrigation through all furrow system consumes more irrigation water and labour. The alternate/skip
furrow method of irrigation is more economical and checks the wastage of irrigation water, electricity and
time. It improves the leaf quality and gives 10-20% higher yield than all furrow irrigation

36
 GROUNDNUT
 The average total water consumption varies from 450-500 mm.
 Crop has to be irrigated immediately after sowing and subsequently no irrigation given till 21 days. This
stress enables the plant for better germination, growth and root anchorage.
 Second irrigation given on 21 st day followed by normal irrigation once in 10 days.
 Critical stages are flowering, peg penetration and pod development.
 Water requirement reaches maximum during flowering stage and continues upto peg penetration and pod
formation stage. Moisture stress during this period causes greatest reduction up to 30-35 per cent in pod
yield.
 Moisture stress from sowing to active pegging reduces internodal length and induces synchronized flowering
 evapo-transpiration is less during the first 35 DAS, hence, can be irrigated once in 17 to 18 days in the
early phase and once in 8 to 9 days during pegging and pod formation and once in 17 to 18 days at
maturity phase.
 Application of organic mulches to a depth of 2.5 cm 30 DAS was found to save two irrigation to the tune of
100 mm and an yield increase of 10 per cent was observed.
 Sprinkler irrigation not only saves irrigation water (18-24%) but also increases the pod yield due to better
soil aeration and basal pod setting
 Spraying 0.5% Potassium chloride during flowering and pod development stages will aid to mitigate the ill
effects of water stress.
 Regulate irrigation according to the following growth phase of the crop.
Pre-flowering phase : 1 to 25 days
Flowering phase : 26 to 60 days
Maturity phase : 61 to 105 days
Apply irrigation as follows:
1. Sowing or pre-sowing
2. Life irrigation, 4 - 5 days after sowing 20 days after sowing
3. At flowering give two irrigations
4. At pegging stage give one or two irrigations
5. In pod development stage, 2 - 3 irrigations depending on the soil type
Border strip irrigation is recommended in command areas in light textured soils Sprinkler irrigation
will save water to the tune of about 30%.

37
Answer the following questions
1. Importance of water for producing crops
2. Factors influencing water requirement of crops
3. Write the critical stages of irrigation of different rabi crops along with the water requirement

38
Experiment No: 8 Date :

WEED MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROPS

Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plants which interfere with the utilization of land and water
resources and thus adversely affect human welfare. They can also be referred as plants out of place.Weeds
compete with the beneficial and desired vegetation in crop lands, forests, aquatic systems etc. and poses
great problem in non-cropped areas like industrial sites, road/rail lines, air fields, landscape plantings, water
tanks and water ways etc.,Weeds are an important factor in the management of all land and water resources,
but its effect is greatest on agriculture. The losses caused by weeds exceed the losses caused by any other
category of agricultural pests. Of the total annual loss in agriculture produce, weeds account for 45%, insect
30%, disease 20% and other pests 5%.
Pre plant treatment: A herbicide treatment made at any time before the crop is planted is called a pre plant
treatment.
Pre emergence treatment: Application of herbicides soon after planting of a crop is called pre emergence
treatment. The soil should be adequately moist to induce weed seed germination and move the herbicide 1-
1.5 cm deep into the soil in a uniform film.
Post emergence treatment: Application of herbicides after the emergence of both the crops and the weeds.
When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the soil, the herbicidal application is
called as early post emergence treatment. Herbicides used for these purpose are usually non-residual
types.
Weed management in wheat
Major weeds in winter grain crops in India are Broad leaved weeds like Lambs quarter (Chenopodium
sp.) Wild safflower (Carthamus Oxyacantha). In some parts of the country, perennial dicot weeds viz. canada
thistle (Cirsium arvense),
Field Bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) are found.Annual Grasses like Wild Oat (Avenu fatua),
Canary grass (Phalaris minor).Due to weeds competition, many tillers wither before earing stage. Ears get
shortened due to prolonged competition, less number of grains/ear and less weight of grains.The weed seeds
get admixture in the crop seed and reduce grain quality.
Weed Control Practices
a. Mechanical Interculturings : Mechanical interculturing are not possible due to loss row spacing. Hence
practices like proper seed bed management. Use of clan and high viability seeds crop rotation etc. are
useful. One to two hand weddings control simple annual weeds to boost crop production.
b. Herbicidal Control of Broad Leaf Weeds: 2, 4-D and MCPA are the most widely used herbicides, to
control weeds in wheat. 25 to 30 days age is sensitive to 2.4-D. Rate at fully tillered stage is ½ to 1 kg
a.i/ha.
c. Control of Difficult Annual Broad Leaf Weeds: Diuron and Linuron 0.5-1 kg/ha as pre and post
emergence herbicides. A mixture of Dicaba (0.125 to 0.250 kg/ha). Amine, 2,4-D 0.5 kg/ha) as post
emergence and picloram (0.30 to 0.42 kg/ha) as selective.

39
d. Control of Annual grasses: Wild oat can be successfully controlled in wheat and barley by pre-planting
treatment of Diallate and Triallate and post emergence spray of Canary Grass: Nitrofen, tribunal, Linuron,
Alachlor.
e. Other Annual Grass – (Other than wild oat): Trifluralin – (Pre – plant / post emergence) 0.6 to 1.5 kg/
ha, Diuron (Pre-emergence) @ 0.08 to 1.6 kg/ha. Pre-emergence @ 2.25 kg/ha. TCA Post emergence @
0.5 to 0.75 kg/ha.
f. Control of Perennial Weeds:Barmuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), Dalapon or Amitrole /22 kg/ha pre-
planting paraquat 1 kg/ha. Pre-sowing 2 weeks before shallow summer tillage and Atrazine. Spot treatment
with MSMA, DSMA also controls it.
Weed management in chickpea/ bengalgram:-
Weeds are problematic because of its short growing nature. Weed problem is severe under irrigated
than in rainfed conditions. Weed problem in rainfed crop can be minimized with intercultivation since the crop
is drilled with a row spacing of 30- 45 cm. It requires hand weeding twice (30 and 60 DAS) or thrice under
irrigated conditions and only 1 hand- weeding under dryland condition.
Preplant soil treatment with fluchloralin or trifluralin at 0.75 kg/ha.
Pre-emergence bentazon (1.0-1.5 kg/ha), pendimethalin (0.50-1.5 kg/ha), Linuron at 0.9 kg/ha; isoproturon
(1.0-1.25 kg/ha), alachlor 0.75 1.5 kg/ha; metolachlor (1.0-1.5 kg/ha), oxadiazon (0.5-1.0 kg/ha) and
pendimethalin 0.50 kg/ha + imazethapyr 50 g/ha.
Post-emergence quizalofop-ethyl 0.04-0.05 kg/ha.
INM-Use of pre-emergence herbicides followed by one hand weeding at 45 DAS.
Weed management in groundnut
1. Follow the preventive measures for minimizing introduction and further spreading weeds.
2. Use good quality seeds and carryout sowing at optimum time, at proper moisture level in the soil by using
optimum seed rate, spacing and plant protection measures for maintaining optimum plant population of the
crop.
3. Chemical and mechanical methods: Fluchloralin ( Basalin) @0.5 to 1 kg a.i /ha as pre plant soil incorporation
(PPI). There should be sufficient soil moisture in the soil at the time of application for minimizing loss of
Fluchloralin due to volatization. Or Alachlor (Lasso) @ 1.5 to 2 kg ai/ha as pre emergence spray
immediately after sowing. Or Pendimethlin@ 1 kg ai/ha as pre- emergence spray immediately after sowing.
Chemical methods supplemented with one weeding if required and hoeing after about 30 to days
after sowing depending upon weed intensity is effective for control of weeds.
Weed management in sugarcane
i) Follow the preventive measures for minimizing introduction and further spread of weeds.
ii) Destroy the perennial weeds by digging such patches of weeds, collection and destruction of underground
parts of weeds or by using translocated herbicides like Glyphosate.
iii) Land preparation at optimum soil moisture level: After first deep ploughing expose the fields to the heat of
the sun for two weeks or more periods if possible for destroying perennial weeds. Carry out ploughing at
optimum moisture level for avoiding formation of big clods, proper pulverization of soil and exposing under
ground parts of weeds to heat of the sun. Collection of weeds and vegetative parts and their destruction is
necessary.

40
iv) Maintain optimum plant population by using goof quality of seed and proper method of planting.
v) Follow the rotation of crops like cotton, soyabean, green gram, cow pea, sun hemp, dhaincha or groundnut,
etc.
vi) Keep the water channel, bunds and surrounding area clean or free from weeds for avoiding spread of
weeds in field as sugarcane remains in the field for more than one year. Adopt drip irrigation to minimize
weed population.
vii) Use well decomposed FYM or compost for minimizing spread of weeds in the field. Bund application of
fertilizer in optimum quantity and at proper time for stimulating crop growthand suppressing weeds.
viii)Adopt intercropping of suitable crop as per planting season.
Use of Herbicides and Mechanical Methods:
a) Atrazine or simazine @ 2 TO 2.5 kg a. i./ha as pre-emergence spray about 3to 4 days after planting in the
plant cane and after completion of basis requirements of ratoon management about 3 to 4 days after giving
irrigation in ratoon crop.It required give one hand weeding after 30 to 40 days after planting depending upon
weed intensity. Carry out light earthing up at 4 to 4.5 months after planting for suppressing late emerging
weeds.
b) Adopt mulching of sugarcane trash in plant cane / ratoon to avoid the weed growth and save the cost on
use of herbicides.
Whenever there is intercropping of sugarcane + vegetables like cabbage, okra, potato, oilseeds or
pulse crops use Fluchloralin (Basaline) @ 1 to 1.5 kg a .i/ha as pre emergence spray. Give one weeding if
required after one month and carry out final earthing up after harvest of intercrops.
Weed management in mustard
Weeds in rape and mustard crop cause approximately 20-30 percent reduction in yield. The most
common weeds which grow in mustard crop are Chenopodium album (bathua), Lathyrus spp. (chatrimatri),
Melilotus indica (senji), Cirsium arvense (kateli), Fumaria parviflora (gajri) and Cyperus rotundus (motha).
Care should be taken to remove all weeds in the early stages of crop growth to avoid competition on
the reserve of moisture. One intercultural operation with hand hoe is very beneficial. This, besides creating
soil mulch and thus reducing moisture losses through evaporation helps in better growth and development of
crop plants. Thinning operation helps in better growth and development of crop plants. Thinning operation
should be accompanied by with interculture to provide the plants proper space within the rows.Chemicals
could also be used to control the weeds effectively. Apply Nitrofen at the rate of 1-1.5 kg a.i. per hectare or
Isoproturon 1 kg a.i. per hectare in 800-1000 litres of water as pre-emergence spray.
Critical period of crop- weed competition in different crops

S.No Crop Critical Period Yield loss due to weed(%)

1. Wheat 30-45 DAS 15-25
2. Chickpea 30-60 DAS 30-70
3. Groundnut 40-60 DAS 18-52
4. Sugarcane 40-70 DAS 15-72
5. Mustard 30-40 DAS 30

41
Calculation of effectiveness / efficiency of different weed control treatments
Formula and Calculation:
1. Weed infestation: It refers to the percentage of weeds in the composite population of weed and crop
plants.
Total number of weeds in unit area
Weed infestation (%) = x100
Total number of weeds and crop plants in the same area

2. Weed index / weed competition index: It refers to the reduction in crop yield due to the presence of
weeds in comparison to weed-free crop:

Yield from weed free plot - yield from treated plot

Weed index  x100
Yield from weed free plot

This is used to assess the efficacy of herbicide. Lesser the weed index, better is the efficiency of herbicides
and vice versa.
3. Weed control Efficiency (WCE) : It indicates the efficiency of the applied herbicide or other practices to
control weeds. It is the percentage reduction in weed dry matter by any weed control treatment in comparison
to weedy check plot. This index is used to compare the different weed control treatments. Higher the WCE
of any treatment, better is the treatment, and vice versa.

Dry matter of weeds in unweeded plot - Dry matter of weeds in treated plot
WCE (%) = x100
Dry matter of weeds in unweeded plot
or
Weed count in unweeded plot - Weed count in treated plot
WCE (%) = x100
Weed count in unweeded plot
Example: In a weed control experiment in groundnut, dry weight of weeds in weedy check plot was 570 kg
ha-1, whereas, for herbicides x and y, it was 355 and 240 kg ha-1, respectively. Find out which herbicide is
better.
X-Y
WCE = x100
X 570-355
Weed control efficiency for herbicide x = ——————— x 100 = 37.72%
570

570 -240
Weed control efficiency for herbicide y = ——————— x 100 = 57.90%
570
Results :Since WCE of herbicide y is higher than x, hence it is better than x.
4. Weed smoothering efficiency (WSE) :It is used to determine the effect of intercropping on suppression
of weeds in comparison to pure stand crops.

Dry matter of weeds from pure stand crop  Dry matter of weed from intercropped plots
WSE (%) = x100
Dry matter of weeds from pure stand crop

42
5. Herbicide requirement for field crops : All the herbicide recommendations are based on active ingredient
(a.i.). Once the a.i. is known, herbicides requirement can be determined by applying the following formula:

Recommende d dose (kg a.i/ha) x Area to be treated (ha)

Quantity of herbicide (kg/ha) = x100
% a.i. in the formulation

Example: A herbicide contains active ingredient of 0.4 kg/litre and the desired rate of application is 1.5 kg/
ha. Calculate the quantity of herbicide required for 1 ha.
Solution :

1.5
Quantity of herbicide formulation = x100  3.75litres
40
Note: 0.4 kg a.i./litre = 40% a.i
Problems:
1. Calculate the weed competition indices in mustard with the help of following details.
Which herbicide can be recommended to the farmers.
(i) Yield of weed free plot = 18.5 q ha-1
(ii) Yield of fluchloralin ( 1.0 kg ha-1 ) treated plot = 15.0 q ha-1
(iii) Yield of pendimethalin ( 1.0 kg ha-1 ) treated plot = 14.32 q ha-1
(iv) Yield of oxyfluorfen treated plot = 15.8 q ha-1
(v) Yield of weedy check plot = 8.5 q ha-1
2. Application of 2, 4-D at 1.0 kg ha-1 in wheat field gave a seed yield of 45.0 q ha-1. If weed index is 10%, then
calculate the yield of weed free plot.
3. List the common weeds of rabi crops

43
Experiment No: 9 Date :

STUDY OF PLANT PROTECTION MEASURES IN RABI CROPS

A pest is any destructive organism which causes great economic loss by destroying crop plants or
any of its economic part either in terms of quantity or quality and may be both. Pest of crop plants include
weeds, insects, mites, nematodes, rodents, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Field crops are infested by a large
number of insect pests and diseases. Low temperature associated with high humidity pre disposes the
severity of pest and disease infection. If these pests are not controlled at appropriate time they can damage
the crops to the extent of 50 to 70 per cent. Hence plant protection measures need to be adopted to protect
the field crops. Some important pest and diseases of the major field crops and their management is as
follows:

Pests of major crops

Crop Pest Management
Wheat Ragi pink borerSesamia inferens  Pull out and destroy by burning dead hearts
 Placement of granules in central whorls
 Foliar spray with endosulfan 2 ml/l

Ghujia weevilTanymecus indicus  Summer deep ploughing

 Dusting the soil with carbaryl @ 10-12 kg/acre
Barley Root knot nematodeMeloidogyne  Crop rotation with mustard
spp.  Nursery treatment with carbofuran 3G @ 65 g/m2 and
in main field carbofuran 3G @ 4 kg a.i./ha
Sugarcane Shoot borerChilo infuscatellus  Installation of pheromone traps @ 10/ha for
 Soil application Lindane 10 G, 12.5 kg Carbofuran 3
G @33 kg
 Spray Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1000 ml or
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1000 ml
Scale insectMelanaspis glomerata  Presoaking of setts in 0.1% malathion solution
 Spray Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/lit of water

Mealy bugKiritshenkella sacchari  Spray malathion 50 EC@ 1 lit /ha or methyl demeton
25 EC @ 2ml/lit of water
Chick pea Gram caterpillarHelicoverpa  Spray Dichlorvos 76 WSC 625 ml/ha or Neem seed
armigera kernel extract 5% twice followed by Triazophos 40
EC 780 ml/ha
AphidAphis craccivora  Spray Methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml/ha or Dimethoate
30 EC 500 ml/ha
Tobacco Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera  Setting up of pheromone traps @ 12/ha for monitoring
litura the pest.
 Spraying NPV @ 250LE/ha
 Release of egg parasitoid Trichogramma @ 50,000/
ha/week four times·Foliar spraying with endosulfan
2ml/l or thiodicarb 2ml/l or quinalphos 2.5ml/l or
acephate 1.5g/l.

44
 Crop Pest Management
Tobacco aphidsMyzus persicae  Spraying neem oil 2% or NSKE 5%
 Spray phosphamidon 2 ml/l, methyl demeton 2ml/l,
Malathion 2 ml/l, Dimethoate 2ml/l, acephate 1.5g/l
Ground nut Root grubHolotrichia consanguinea  Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos 6 - 10 ml/kg ·
Application of phorate 10 G 15 kg/ha
Groundnut leaf miner  Raising soybean as trap crop.
Aproaerema modicella  Foliar sprays with acephate 1 g/l or chlorpyriphos 2.5
ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l
Mustard Mustard aphidLipaphis erysmi  Spray with dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6
ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l
Mustard sawfly  Collection and destruction of the larvae.
Athalia lugens proxima  Foliar spray with methyl parathion 2ml/l or carbaryl 3
g/l.
Potato Potato tuber mothPhthorimaea  Frequent earthing up to cover the exposed tubers
operculella  Spraying of carbaryl 3 g/l
Sunflower Leaf eating caterpillarsSpodoptera  Dusting leaves and flower heads with methyl parathion
lituraHelicoverpa armigera 2D or spraying with quinalphos 2 ml/l or thiodicarb 1
g/l or acephate 1.5g/l
Lentil Lentil pod borerEtiella zinckenella  Use of microbial insecticides o NPV 200 LE/ha or B.t
formulation 400g
 Spray indoxacarb 1 ml/l or spinosad 0.3 ml/l

Fodder Sucking pests  Spray Methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml Dimethoate 30

crops EC 500 ml Phosphomidon 40 SL 500 ml

Diseases of major crops

Crop Disease Management

Wheat Black or stem rustPuccinia  Seed dressing with Plantavax @ 0.1% followed by two
graminis tritici Leaf, brown or sprays with the same chemical.
orange rustPuccinia recondite  Spray with Zineb@0.25% or Mancozeb @ 0.25% or
Yellow or stripe rustPuccinia Plantavax @ 0.1% , at 15 days interval.
striformis
Karnal bunt Neovossia indica  Seed treatment with copper carbonate or Thiram @ 3
g/kg seed
 Spray with carbendazim @ 0.1% or carboxin@ 0.2%
or Mancozeb @ 0.25%
Sugarcane Red rot Colletotrichum falcatum  Sett treatment before planting with (Carbendazim 50
WP @ 0.05% along with 1.0% Urea for 5 minutes)
 Soil drenching with 0.1 % Carbandazim 50 WP or
0.25 % lime.

45
 Crop Disease Management

SmutUstilago scitaminea  Sett treatment with Triadimefon @ 0.1% or

Carbendazim @ 0.1% for 10 minutes.
 Hot water Treatmet at 50 ºC for 30 minutes or at 52 ºC
for 18 minutes
Grassy shoot disease  Treat setts with aerated steam at 50°C for 1 hour
 Spray dimethoate @ 0.1 % to control insect vector
Chick pea Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.  Soil application with P. fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha + 50
ciceri kg of well decomposed FYM or sand.
Root rot: Macrophomina phaseolina  Soil application P. fluorescens or T. viride– 2.5 kg / ha
+ 50 kg of well decomposed FYM or sand.
 Spot drenching with Carbendazim @ 1 gm/ litre
Tobacco Black shankPhytophthora  Spot application of Bordeaux mixture @ 0.2% or copper
parasitica oxy chloride @ 0.2% or metalaxyl @ 0.2%
Damping off Pythium  using optimum seed rate of 3-3.5 kg/ha
aphanidermatum  Drench the seed bed with 0.4% per cent Bordeaux
mixture
 Soil incorporation of Trichoderma viride or T. harzianum
Ground nut Tikka leaf spots Cercospora  Crop rotation with millets
arachidicolaPhaeoisariopsis  Treat the seeds with Captan or Thiram at 4g/kg or
personata Carbendazim @ 0.2%
 Spray Carbendazim @ 0.1% or Mancozeb @ 0.2% or
Chlorothalonil @ 0.2%
RustPuccinia arachidis  Remove volunteer groundnut plants and collateral hosts.
 Spray Chlorothalonil or Tridemorph @ 0.2%.
Potato Late blight Phytophthora infestans  Select healthy tubers for planting
 Delayed harvesting
 Spray Metalaxyl (0.1%) or Mancozeb (0.25%) or
chlorothalonil (0.2%)

Common scab Streptomyces  Crop rotation with wheat-oat or potato-onion-maize

scabies (4yrs)
 Hold the soil pH at about 5.3 by addition of sulphur
 Dipping of infected tubers in 3% boric acid for 30 min
Sunflower Leaf blight Alternaria helianthi  Sow the crop early in the season (June sowing).
 Seed traetment with Thiram or Carbendazim at 2 g/kg.
Rust Puccinia helianthi  Grow tolerant variety like BSH-1.
 Spray Mancozeb or Zineb@0.2%, 2-3 times at 10 days
interval

46
 Crop Disease Management

Mustard White rustAlbugo candida  Rotation with non-cruciferous crops

 Early sowing of the crop (in first week of October)
 Seed dressing with Metalaxyl @ 6g/kg seed followed
by a single spray with Metalaxyl (Ridomyl MZ)@0.2%
Powdery mildewErysiphe  Collect and destroy infected plant debris
cruciferarum  Spray the crop with wettable sulphur @ 0.2% or Dinocap
@ 0.1% or tridemorph@0.1%
French bean Cercospora leaf spotCercospora  Spray mancozeb @ 0.25%
malayensis

Fodder Downy mildewPeronosclerospora  Uproot infected plants before shredding starts.

sorghum sorghi  Seed treatment with Ridomil @ 4g/kg, metalaxyl @1g/
kg.
 Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2 g/l of water.

Questions:
1. Write symptoms of pests and diseases along with neat sketch in the crop raised.
2. Write the plant protection measures followed in the crop raised.

47
Experiment No:10 Date :

METHODS OF HARVESTING, YIELD RECORDING AND POST

HARVEST CARE OF RABI CROPS

Objectives:
1. To acquaint the students to harvesting
2. To estimate the yield in important rabi crops by learning the calculations
3. To know about the importance of post harvest operations by practical involvement
Harvesting involves separation of the economical portion from the plants. It consists of operations like cutting,
picking, plucking or digging or combination of all these depending on type of the crop. Harvesting is judged by
harvest indices. There are two types of maturity. They are a. physiological maturity and b. Harvest maturity
Physiological maturity is the stage after which there is no increase in the dry matter production but there is
a gradual decrease in the moisture content of the plant. It takes 7-10 days from physiological maturity to
harvest maturity depending on the prevailing weather conditions. Under monsoons, crops are harvested at
physiological maturity.
Harvest maturity is the stage at which the crop has low moisture content and crops are commonly harvested
at this stage. Generally cereal (wheat, barley and oats) are harvested by cutting, wherein the economic part
(panicle/head/spike) is cut with a sharp implement like sickle or by mechanical harvesters.
In pulses (rabi red gram, lentil and chickpea etc;) the plants are cut at base and seed is threshed on
threshing floors. In crops wherein the economic part is underground, harvesting is done by digging method.
Ex: Groundnut and tuber crops (potato), root crops (sugar beet). Light irrigation followed by hoeing/digging is
done for easy and complete removal of the economic underground produce.
Post harvest care/operations includes the operations taken up after harvest of the crop like threshing,
winnowing, cleaning, drying and grading of the produce.
Threshing: Threshing is the process of beating paddy plants in order to separate the seeds or grains from
the straw. Threshing can be done manually or mechanically.
a. Manual threshing: Done by treading by feet and beating stalks against tubs, hard surface, boards or
racks, trampling using bullocks, rubbing with bare human feet (in hills) or lifting the bundles and striking
them on the raised wooden platform and Pedal threshers.
b. Machine threshing: Mechanical threshing removes rice grains from the rice plant, speeds up threshing
and reduce labor requirement. Power driven stationary threshers are also used.
Winnowing: Separation of the inert and chaffy grain from produce. Done with manual operated Winnowers
and power operated mechanical winnowers.
Drying: Process of removal of excess moisture from the grains Proper drying results in increased storage life
of the grains, prevention of deterioration in quality, reduction of biological respiration that leads to quality
Methods of drying: a. Sun drying. b. Mechanical drying.
a. Sun Drying: Traditional method of drying the paddy grains. Grains are spread on drying surfaces suchas
concrete pavement, mats, plastic sheets and even on fields to dry naturally. Sun drying is the most
economical method of drying grains.

48
b. Mechanical Drying :Dying the grains by ventilating natural or heated air through the grain mass to get it
evaporated the moisture from it. Mechanical dryers are more reliable since drying could be done anytime
of the year.
A post harvest operation includes the operations like threshing, winnowing, cleaning, drying and
grading of the produce. Improper harvest and post harvest practices result in loss of produce to an extent of 6
% in food grain and to 18 % in fruits and vegetables (ICAR, 2013). Hence adoption of improved post harvest
practices assume greater importance to reduce loss of yield apart from increasing the product price due to
grading and value addition. Ex: Curing followed by drying and polishing turmeric rhizomes fetches an extra
amount of 1000 – 1500 per quintal over curing alone.
With the increased labour scarcity and hike in their charges combine harvesters have replaced the
manual harvesting in rice and wheat. This machine does the operations like harvesting, threshing, cleaning
and bagging in a single chain thus reducing the labour and time. For reducing the microbial deterioration the
grain has to be dried to safe moisture level either by natural sun or mechanical driers depending upon the
extent of yield and type of farmers.
For the estimation of yield (grain and straw) the destructive and border rows have to be excluded. The
plot including border and destructive rows is termed as gross plot, while net plot refers to rows other than
border and destructive rows. Further the final yield must be estimated based on the final plant stand or
population and not on initial plant stand, as there may be reduction in the plant population due to pest or
disease incidence or due to other unforeseen reasons.
Post – harvest observations or yield attributes
1. Number of spikes or panicles/hill or pods per plant: At harvest the number of spikes or pods/plant
from the five tagged plants are counted and the mean value is expressed.
2. Panicle/spike or pod length (cm) and head diameter (cm) in sunflower: At harvest length of spikes/
panicles from the five tagged plants is measured with the help of scale and in case of sunflower head
diameter is measured with the thread which is placed on scale and the average length or diameter is
expressed in centimeters.
3. Number of filled and unfilled seeds /panicle or pod or head-1: Number of filled and unfilled seeds
from each harvested five panicles or pods (legumes) or flower heads is counted and the average filled and
unfilled seeds head-1is recorded. Seed filling percentage workout by formula
Filled seeds
Seed filling percent (%) = x100
Total number of seeds (filled + unfilled seeds)
4. Seed yield plant-1 and yield ha-1 (kg ha-1): The seed weight of the five representative plants is added to
net plot seed weight and later the seed yield is converted to kg ha-1. While calculating the yield per hectare
final plant stand or population has to be taken into consideration for avoiding the erroneous results.
5. Test weight (g): In case of bold seeds (groundnut) one hundred seeds and in case of small seeds
thousand seeds (mustard and tobacco) are selected randomly from threshed out samples from net plot
produce is weighed and expressed in grams. It is also termed as seed index in cotton (100 seed weight).
6. Straw/haulm yield (kg ha-1): Dried straw yield obtained from five sample plants is added to net plot straw
or stalk yield and then expressed in kg ha-1.
7. Harvest index (%): Harvest index was expressed as the ratio of economic yield to biological yield and is
calculated by the formula:
Economic yield (seed yield in kg ha - 1)
Harvest index (%) = x100
Biological yield (seed yield + straw or stalk yield in kg ha - 1)
49
 Apart from the growth and yield parameters quality parameters viz; oil and protein yield are are also
analysed in case of oilseed and pulse crops.
Quality parameters
1. Oil content (%): Seed sample drawn from each treatment net plot produce, is used for oil estimation. The
oil content of seed for each treatment is determined by using continuous type pulsed Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR – oxford MQC) as suggested by Tiwari et al. (1974) and thereby oil percent in the seed
was recorded directly.
2. Oil yield (kg ha-1): The oil yield (kg ha-1) is estimated by multiplying oil content with the seed yield ha-1.

Grain or Seed yield x oil content (%)

Oil yield {kg ha - 1 } =
100
2. Protein yield (kg ha-1): The protein yield (kg ha-1) is estimated by multiplying seed yield (kg ha-1) with
protein content and the protein content (%) is estimated by multiplying the per cent concentration of
nitrogen in the seed with 6.25 (Walinga et al., 1989).
Protein yield = grain/seed yield x protein content
kg ha-1 = grain/seed yield x N content x 6.25
100
YEILD ESTIMATION IN SOME IMPORTANT RABI CROPS:
I.CEREALS: 1.Wheat:
1. Initial plant population/m2 (Number of hills)
2. Final plant population/m2 (Number of hills)
3. Plant height (cm) at 30, 60 ,90 days after planting (DAT) and at at harvest
4. Tiller number ( m-2 ) at 20, 35 and 50 DAT
5. Productive /effective tillers m-2 (a)
6. No. of grains /spikelet (b)
7. Percent filled grains spikelet (c)
8. 1000 grain weight (g)(d)
10000 x ax b x c x d
9. Estimated grain yield 
100 x 1000 x 10000
(kg ha-1)
axbxcxd

10000

10. Recorded grain yield (kg/ha) :

11. Straw yield (kg/ha)
II. PULSES :Chickpea
1. Initial plant population/m2
2. Final population at harvest/m2 (a)
3. Number of primary and secondary branches/plant at flowering
50
 4. Number of filled pods/plant at harvest (b)
5. Number of seeds/pod (c)
6. 1000 grain weight (g) (d)
10000 x a x b x c x d
7. Estimated seed yield (kg/ha)
1000 x 1000
8. Haulm/ Bhusa yield (kg/ha)
III. OILSEED CROP : Groundnut
1. Initial plant population m-2
2. Final plant population at harvest m-2 (a)
3. Number of primary branches/plant at flowering
4. Number of filled pods/plant at harvest (b)
5. 1000 pod weight (g) (c)
6. Final plant population % of initial population (d)
7. Estimated pod yield (kg ha-1)
10000 x a x b x c x d axbxcxd
 
1000 x 1000 10000
8. Recorded pod yield (kg ha-1)
9. Haulm yield (kg ha-1)
COMERCIAL CROP : SUGARCANE
1. Initial plant population/m2
2. Tiller number/m2 at 30,60,90,120 days after sprouting
3. Number of harvestable canes/m2 (a)
4. Average weight of the harvestable cane (kg) (b)
axb
5. Estimated cane yield (t/ha) 
10000
6. Recorded cane yield (t/ha)
7. Juice brix at maturity
Material required: Scale, pencil, observation note book, sickle, weighing balance, tarpaulin oven, spring
balance and gunny bags.
Procedure: First the border rows and destructive rows have to be harvested. Post harvest observations have
to be recorded on representative plants followed by harvesting (panicle and stalk). Later the net plot panicles
have to be cut into a labelled gunny bags. The stalk or straw has to be cut from the net plot and weighed after
substantial drying using spring balance.
The harvested panicles have to be spread on threshing yard and sun dried. Care must be taken to
cover the panicles with tarpaulins to protect from rain. After drying well, thresh the panicles (separation of
grain or seed from panicle) by beating action (sticks).The yield of representative plants has to be added to
respective net plot yield. Farmers generally employ cattle or tractor for threshing. Winnowing (by manual or
winnowing fans) has to be done for separating chaff, inert material and seed followed by drying to safe
moisture level.

51
Examples :
1. Calculate the seed yield of sunflower crop with HI of 25 % and stalk yield of 5903 kg ha-1.
Solution:
Harvest index (%) = Seed yield x 100
Biological yield /Total yield = (seed yield + stalk yield)
X x 100
Here 25 
X  5903
= 25 ( X + 5903) = 100 X
= 25 X + 147575 = 100 X
75 X = 147575
147575
X = 1967.66 = 1968 kg, Therefore the seed yield is 1968 kg ha-1
75
2. Calculate the seed yield of chickpea sown in an area of 6000 m2 with the following data
Spacing 30 x 10 cm, No. of branches/plant = 5, No. of pods/branch = 5 , No. of
seeds/pod = 1 , Test weight is 20 g/100 seed
Solution: 6000 x100 x100x 5 x 5 x 1x 20
  1000 kg or10 q/ha
30 x10 x100 x1000

Therefore the seed yield for an area of 6000 m2 = 600 kg or 6.0 q

3. Calculate the seed yield of mustard sown in 8000 m2 with the following data.. a. Spacing: 30 x 10 cm
b. No. of branches/plant = 10, c. No. of siliquae / branch = 10 ,d. No. of seeds per siliqua = 12, e. Test
weight = 6 g/1000 seed.
Solution : 8000x100x100x10x10x12x 6
  19.2 q / ha
30x10x1000 x1000
Therefore the seed yield for an area of 8000 m2 is 15.36 q

Manual harvesting and Machine harvesting in wheat Machine harvesting in

stripping in groundnut sugarcane

Manual winnowing Motorised winnower

52
Practical significance: Students practically understand the effect of different treatments on crop, based on
the yield attributes and yield. Further, they learn the estimation of yield in different crops by practically
calculating the problems.
Study questions:
1. Define harvesting.
2. Write the formula for harvest index.
3. Based on the yield attributes and test weight calculate the yield for your study crop.
4. What is physiological maturity?
5. Enlist different operations in post harvest care.
6. List out the maturity symptoms of the crop sown in your plots.

53
Experiment No: 11 Date :

VISIT TO SEED PRODUCTION FARM

Fundamentally, seed is the basic requirement of any plant to express its potential characters. Hence,
good quality seed production impacts yield. In countries like India, to feed millions of its population quality
seed production following necessary measures either in case of a straight variety or hybrid is imperative.
Hence, exposure visit to seed production enhances the understanding about seed production technologies to
be adopted.
1. Name of seed production farm
2. Location of seed production farm
3. Sizeable farm area
4. Mention seed production of kharif crops taken up.
5. Seed production technologies followed in various crops in farm.
6. Special measures to be followed in each crop for commercial seed production.
7. Any organic seed production is taken up
8. Economics of seed production.
9. What measures seed production farm is adopting in empowering the farmers in quality seed production

54
Experiment No: 12 Date :

VISIT TO INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM UNIT

Integrated Farming System (IFS) is an interdependent, interrelated often interlocking production

systems based on few crops, animals and related subsidiary enterprises in such a way that maximize the
utilization of nutrients of each system and minimize the negative effect of these enterprises on environment.
The interrelated, inter-dependent-interlocking nature of IFS involves the utilization of primary produce and
secondary produce of one system, as basic input of the other system, thus making them mutually integrated
as one whole unit. Primary goals of IFS are
 Maximization of yield of all component enterprises to provide steady and stable income.
 Rejuvenation/amelioration of systems productivity and achieve agro ecological equilibrium.
 Avoid build-up of insect-pests, diseases and weed population through natural cropping system management
and keep them at low level of intensity.
 Reducing the use of chemical fertilizer and other harmful agrochemicals and pesticides to provide pollution
free, healthy produce and environment to the society at large.
 Increase in natural resource use efficiency by early recycling of nutrients.
 Mitigation of negative impact of agriculture or livestock on environment.
Components in IFS
* Agriculture * Fish farming
* Horticulture * Duck rearing
* Forestry * Pigeon rearing
* Apiary * Mushroom cultivation
* Sericulture * Azolla farming
* Dairy * Kitchen gardening
* Poultry * Fodder production
* Goat rearing * Nursery
* Sheep rearing * Seed Production
* Piggery * Vermiculture
* Rabbitory * Value addition
Elements Of Integrated Farming System
 Watershed
 Farm ponds
 Bio-pesticides
 Bio-fertilizers
 Plant products as pesticides
55
 Bio-gas
 Solar energy
 Compost making (Vermi, Japanese, Improved etc.)
 Green manuring
 Rain water harvesting
TYPES OF INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS
 Crop- live stock farming
 Crop- live stock farming –fishery farming system
 Crop- live stock farming –poultry-fishery farming system
 Crop-poultry-fishery-mushroom farming system
 Crop-livestock-fishery-vermicomposting farming system
 Crop-livestock-forestry farming system
 Agri -silvi-horticulture system
 Agri-horti-silvi pastoral system
 Home garden-agro forestry system
Advantages of Integrated Farming System
 Increased productivity through increased economic yield per unit area per time by intensification of crop
and allied enterprises.
 Improved profitability by reduced costs due to recycling of wastes of one enterprise as energy inputs for
other systems and reducing consequent pollution
 Greater sustainability in production due to diverse enterprises of economic importance.
 Provides an opportunity to solve malnutrition problem due to variety of food products.
 Provides money flow by eggs, milk,mushroom,honey and help farmer from money lenders
 Recycling of wastes reduces requirement of chemical fertilizer and uses biogas..
 Fodder/pasture/tree species included in the system help to get more fodder
 Silvi component used in the system provides fuel and timber wood.
 Inclusion of timber component in the farming system reduces pressure on forests.
 Diverse components integrated can provide enough scope to employ farm labour round the year.
 IFS forces the entrepreneur to know more things and improves the literacy level.
 IFS provide opportunity for the growth of agri-oriented industries.
 There is also advantage of increased input use efficiency.
 Overall improves standard of living of the farmer because of the products like edible mushroom, fruits,
eggs, milk, honey, vegetables etc.
Limitations of IFS
 Lack of awareness about sustainable farming system
56
 Unavailability of varied farming system models
 Lack of credit facilities at easy and reasonable rate
 Non availability of ensured marketing facilities
 Lack of marketing intelligence among farmers
 Lack of deep freezing and storage facilities
 Lack of timely availability of inputs
 Lack of education among farming community
IFS MODEL

RiceCassava
Oil palm
Sugar palm
nutrients Sugar cane resides by-
products
Food biomass

Ducks
Ponds Food Food
Family & Market Pigs
(water plants fish) Buffaloes
Cattle

Food
Nutrients excreta

Biodigester

57
Model of Integrated Farming System

58
Answer the following details about the unit
 Name of the IFS unit :
 Location of the IFS unit :
 Agro-climatic zone of the IFS unit :
 Model of the IFS unit :
 Sizeable area of the IFS unit :
 Different enterprises of the unit :
 Rainfed/Irrigated conditions :
 Various components of the IFS unit :
 Installation /Set up costs of IFS unit :
 Farm machinery /implements available at the unit :
 Chemical fertilizers/organics/green manures used :
 Main products and byproducts obtained from the unit :
 Cost incurred and Net returns obtained from the unit :

59
Experiment No: 13&14 Date :

VISIT TO PLANT PROTECTION UNIT (PESTS AND DISEASES)

Objectives:
1. To diagnose the problems different rabi crops
2. To acquaint with different disease and insect damage symptoms
3. To acquaint with plant protection measures
Plant protection in general and the protection of crops against plant pests in particular, have an
obvious role to play in meeting the growing demand for food quality and quantity. Roughly, direct yield losses
caused by pathogens, insects, and weeds, are altogether responsible for losses ranging between 30-90 % of
global agricultural productivity. Crop losses due to pests and pathogens are direct, as well as indirect; they
have a number of facets, some with short, and others with long-term consequences. Crop protection has been
developed for the prevention and control of crop losses due to pests in the field. Pests reduce crop productivity
in various ways, classified by their impacts: 1) stand reducers, 2) photosynthetic rate reducers 3) leaf
senescence accelerators 4) light stealer 5) assimilate sappers 6) tissue consumers 7) turgor reducers and 8)
food quality reducers.
Different losses caused due to pest attack
I. Direct losses
1. Primary losses: a) yield, b) quality, c) extra cost of harvesting, d) extra cost of grading, e) costs of
replanting, f) loss of income by less profitable replacement crop.
2. Secondary losses : a) Contamination of sowing and planting material b) soil borne diseases,
c) weakening by premature defoliation of trees / perennial .
II. Indirect losses:
a) Farm b) Export and c) Trade

Type of plant protection decisions : Strategic decisions and Tactic decisions

Strategic decisions are made before crop establishment. Such decisions include short term ones
(e.g., The choice of resistant cultivar against disease or insect) but also decisions that do not directly pertain
to disease management and yet have numerous crop health consequences ( e.g., choice of type of
establishment, crop rotations or cropping system). Tactic decisions are made in the course of given cropping
season. A typical tactical decision at the field scale in plant protection is to spray or not to spray with a
chemical.
To make agriculture more productive and profitable in the face of rising costs and rising standards of
human and environmental health, the best combination of available technologies has to be used. Much of the
increases in yield per unit of area can be attributed to more efficient control of (biotic) stress rather than an
increase in yield potential, the reduction of current yield losses caused by insects, pathogens and weeds are
major challenges to agricultural production.

60
 Activities which main crops in terms of growth potential and also help us in the fight against pests
are fertilization, weeding, loosening the soil, irrigation, removal of crop residues from fields, crop rotation, and
other works of tillage. These principles control number of pests and diseases.
Good agricultural practices which unite the full range of preventive measures are extremely important.
When planting permanent crops, you should choose the best location, which should be sunny and airy. Sow
or plant varieties resistant to most diseases. Keep an eye on conditions favorable to the development of
diseases and pests. The occurrence of most pests is caused by certain weather conditions; high humidity,
low or high temperatures, rain and drought. Weather and temperature data are particularly helpful in following
a pest’s life cycle or in predicting how long it takes a certain pest to develop.
Visit to the farmer’s field or research farm
 Name of Research unit/ field visited :
 Area of the farm :
 Soils and source of irrigation :
 Different crops raised in the farm :
 Cereals /pulses/oilseeds raised :
 Season & Sowing time of the crop :
 Variety sown :
 See whether crop is healthy or un healthy :
 If un healthy identify symptoms :
List out the following observations :
S.No. Crop Insect damage symptoms Protective measures
1
2
3
4
5

S.No. Crop Disease damage symptoms Protective measures

1
2
3
4
5

61
Experiment No: 15 Date :

VISIT TO FARM MECHANISATION UNIT

Farm mechanization means the use of machines and technology in the agriculture sector. Farm
mechanization saves 15-20 % of seed and fertilizer requirement. It also increases productivity by 10-15%.
Major benefits of farm mechanization are
1. Timeliness of farm operations
2. Saving in labour requirement
3. Increase in land productivity
4. Reduces drudgery more so of farm women
5. Employment generation and increase in profitability if agricultural work force
Farm machines are of various types and their utility varies from seed bed preparation to harvesting.
Some of the widely used machines are as follows:
TILLAGE AND SEED BED PREPARATION MACHINES:
1. Tractor mounted 2 furrow MB plough : used for turning & mixing of FYM/ compost in the soil
2. Tractor drawn disc plough : useful in hard, dry, trashy, stony or stumpy lands
3. Tractor drawn 9 tyne spring cultivator : Used for seedbed preparation, puddilng and I.C.
4. Tractor drawn disc harrow: used for field disking especially orchards, plantations
5. Tractor operated laser leveller : For scraping, grading and levelling back filling
6. Kubota 4 wheel drive tractor with rotovator: puddling in paddy fields
7. Tractor drawn rotovator : it is used for seed bed preparation in dry and wet lands.
8. Engine/ tractor operated post hole digger : For making pits
HARVESTERS: Another major category of farm machines are Harvesters. Harvesters are used in operation of
cutting, picking, plucking digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the
ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants.Basically harvesters work in four
ways, slicing action with a sharp tool, tearing action with a rough serrated edge, high velocity single element
impact with sharp or dull edge and two elements scissors type action.
1. Combine - harvester-thresher: It is a machine designed for harvesting threshing, separating,
2. Cleaning and collecting grains while moving through the standing crops.
3. Self-propelled vertical conveyor reaper : Used for harvesting wheat, paddy, soybean etc.
4. Reaper binder: Harvesting paddy and making bundles
5. Kubota paddy harvester: Harvesting of paddy
6. Tractor drawn groundnut digger: Used for harvesting ground nut crop.
7. root crop harvester for digging: for harvesting and exposing of potato and carrot

62
8. fodder tractor +harvester : for cutting tall fodder crops like jowar, bajra, maize etc
9. Tractor operated straw balers : aking of straw bales
10. Maize combine : used for dehusking and shelling of maize cobs
11. Sugarcane harvester”: harvesting of sugarcane
Answer the following questions
1. Name the location of mechanization unit?
2. Area of unit
3. Draw neat sketches of machinery used in primary tillage operations and label them which you have seen
in mechanization unit?
4. Draw the neat sketches of machinery used in secondary tillage operations?
5. Name the harvesters seen at the unit
6. Write objectives of on- going experiments on farm mechanization at the unit?
7. What are the limitations of farm mechanization under Indian conditions?

63
Experiment No: 16 Date :

PREPARATION OF BALANCE SHEET

Objectives :
1. To identify the economically feasible crop or cropping system in a particular region.
2. To know about the estimation procedure for cost of cultivation of agricultural crops.
Introduction
Cost of cultivation is an important mechanism for data generation on cost structure of crops. Data is
collected on various inputs which are used for the cultivation of crops. Cost of cultivation is the sum total of
cost incurred on various inputs that are used in the produce of the commodity (yield). Cost of production of
any crop/ livestock product is the sum total of several components of cost. Accurate measurements of all the
components of costs is thus of crucial importance for correct assessment of cost of production of any
commodity. Costs incurred on a farm can be classified as cash cost or non-cash cost. Cash Costs are the
costs for which farmer spends money for acquisition of material inputs like seeds, fertilizer, chemicals or
labour inputs like hired labour etc. On the other hand, non-cash costs are attributable to items of cost, which
do not require spending money. These may be items of cost like family labour, payments made in kind, home
grown seeds, manure etc, exchange labour, depreciation, interest on operating capital etc.
Another way of classifying costs are treating them as variable or fixed costs, although some of the
costs may be treated as fixed or variable depending on the time at which they are incurred. This is due to the
fact that in short term some of the costs are variable while others are fixed. However, in the long run all costs
are variable. Thus labour employed on a daily basis is variable while a permanent farm labour is to be considered
fixed for a short period of time.
Farm income is an important yard stick of farmers’ welfare and overall rural development which in turn
improves terms of trade between agriculture and industrial sector of the economy resulting in development of
secondary as well as tertiary sectors of the economy. Cost of cultivation varies with the growing season, type
of cultivation and purpose of growing.
Balance sheet: Balance sheet also known as the statement of financial position. It is a financial statement
that shows the assets, liabilities and owner’s equity of an enterprise at a particular date. The main purpose of
preparing balance sheet is to disclose the financial position of an enterprise.
TABLE 16. 1 : Calculation of cost of cultivation

I. Operational Cost
a) Human Labour
b) Animal Labour
c) Machine Labour
d) Seed
e) Fertilizer & Manure
f) plant protection Charges

64
 g) Irrigation Charges
h) Interest on working capital
II. Fixed Costs
a) Rental Value of Owned Land
b) Rent Paid For Leased-in-Land
c) Land Revenue, Taxes, Cesses
d) Depreciation on Implements & Farm Building
III. Total cost of cultivation (I+II)
IV. Yield and value
a) Value of main product (Rs./ha)
b) Value of by product (Rs./ha)
V. Cost of production (Rs./q)

Yield (Q/ha) : Yield recorded in quintals for one hectare area.

Cost of the produce (Rs/ha) : Minimum support price for the economic produce of the crop
Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha) : Value of all the costs per one hectare area (Operational Cost + Fixed
Costs) included in Table 1
Gross returns (Rs/ha) : Multiply cost of produce (Rs/ha) and yield per one hectare
Net returns (Rs/ha) : Substract the cost of cultivation from gross returns
Benefit : cost ratio : Ratio of net returns to cost of cultivation
COST OF CULTIVATION OF IMPORTANT CROPS

Sugar cane Wheat

I. Operational Cost 54620.00 18253.00
a) Human Labour 42130.00 4034.00
b) Animal Labour 658.00 5271.00
c) Machine Labour 538.00 1371.00
d) Seed 2337.00 2924.00
e) Fertilizer & Manure 4000.00 2894.00
f) plant protection Charges 3560.00 1038.00
g) Irrigation Charges 440.00 296.00
h) Interest on working capital 957.00 425.00
II. Fixed Costs 27084.00 19857.00
a) Rental Value of Owned Land 23455.00 13960.00
b) Rent Paid For Leased-in-Land 855.00 2021.00

65
 Sugar cane Wheat
c) Land Revenue, Taxes, Cesses 500.00 -
d) Depreciation on Implements & Farm Building 400.00 359.00
e) Interest on fixed capital 2369.00 3517.00
III. Total cost of cultivation (I+II) 81,704.00 38,110.00
IV. Yield and value
a) Value of main product (Rs./ha) 1,30,000.00 49,942
b) Value of by product (Rs./ha) 500.00 5,100
V. Cost of production (Rs./q) - -

Table 16.2 Calculation of B: C ratio

Yield (q/ha) Cost of the Cost of Gross returns Net returns B:C ratio or
produce per cultivation (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) Return on
(quintal) (Rs/ha) investment

Study questions
1) What is meant by variable cost?
2) Write the items which comes under non cash cost?
3) A farmer is growing wheat crop in one hectare, the cost of cultivation is Rs.23,000/ha. The expected grain
yield and straw yield is 4000 and 5000 kg/ha respectively. Calculate net returns, B:C ratio of wheat in one
hectare ( grain cost: Rs.23/kg and straw yield Rs.3/kg)
4) Calculate the economics of sunflower crop which is grown in an area of 3 ha and the yield is 2100/ha and
the cost of cultivation is 25,000 Rs/ha. Calculate benefit cost ratio. (Produce cost: Rs. 25/ kg)
5) Calculate the net returns and benefit cost ratio of sugarcane cultivated in an area of 2.5 ha.Yield of the crop
is 160 t/ha and the Cost of cultivation for raising the crop is Rs. 66,000/ha (Rs. 2850/t)

66
 PRACTICAL MANUAL
PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION - II
(RABI CROPS)
Course No: AGRO-304; Credits: 1(0+1)

Dr. K.VANI
Professor

Dr. P. LAXMI NARAYANA

Professor & Head

Dr. BHANU REKHA

Assistant Professor

Dr. BABY AKULA

Professor

Dr. P. SAMATA
Assistant Professor

Dr. O. SAMPATH
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030
 PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITY
Administrative Office, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, Telangana State, India.

Dr V. PRAVEEN RAO Phone : 040-24015122

Ph.D. Fax : 040-24018653
Vice Chancellor Mobile : +91 9849029245
Email : vcpjtsau@gmail.com

FOREWORD

Place: Hyderabad ( V. PRAVEEN RAO)

Date :
 INDEX

Ex. No Title of the experiment Page no

1. Crop planning in multiple cropping systems

2. Field Preparation and Layout of Experimental Plots
3. Seed treatment and nursery raising in rabi crops
4. Sowing of crops in individual plots
5. Time and method of application for rabi crops
6. Recording bio-metric observations
7. Water management in Rabi crops
8. Weed management in rabi crops
9. Study of plant protection measures in rabi crops
10. Methods of harvesting, yield recording and post harvest care of rabi crops
11. Visit to Seed production Farm
12. Visit to Integrated Farming system unit
13 & 14 Visit to plant protection unit ( Pests and diseases )
15. Visit to farm mechanisation unit
16. Preparation of balance sheet
 Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of practical work done in course No. AGRO 304 – Practical

Crop Production – II (Rabi crops) by ________________ I.D. No. ____________________ during the First

/ Second semester of the academic year ______.

Signature of the course in charge

Head of the department

 INDEX

S. No Date of Title of the exercise Date of Signature of Remarks

exercise Submission the course
charge
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.