FOOD

PRESERVATION

DR. SAHELI PRADHAN

MITRA
Foods are organic substances
which are consumed for
nutritional purposes. Foods
are plant or animal origin and
contain moisture, protein,
lipid, carbohydrate, minerals,
and other organic substances.

Foods undergo spoilage due to

microbial, chemical, or
physical actions. Nutritional
values, color, texture, and
edibility of foods are
susceptible to spoilage.
Therefore, foods are
required to be preserved to
retain their quality for
longer period of time.
Food preservation is
defined as the processes
or techniques undertaken
in order to maintain
internal and external
factors which may cause
food spoilage.

The principal objective

of food preservation is
to increase its shelf life
retaining original
nutritional values, color,
texture, and flavor.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS
FOOD CATEGORIES BASED ON SHELF LIFE
Food spoilage is a natural
process; through this process,
food gradually loses its color,
texture, favor, nutritional
qualities, and edibility.
Consumption of spoiled food
can lead to illness and in the
extreme situation to death.

Considering the self life, food

items can be classified as
perishable, semi-perishable,
and non-perishable .
Perishable Foods that have shelf life
ranging from several days to about
three weeks are known as perishable.
Milk and dairy products, meats,
poultry, eggs, and seafood are the
examples of perishable food items. If
special preservation techniques are not
apprehended, food items could be
spoiled straight away.
Semi-perishable Different food items can be preserved for long time (about six
months) under proper storage conditions. These foods are known as semi-
perishable.

Vegetables, fruits, cheeses, and potatoes are few examples of semi-perishable

food items.
Non-perishable Natural and processed foods that have indefinite shelf life are
called non-perishable food items. These foods can be stored for several years or
longer. Dry beans, nuts, four, sugar, canned fruits, mayonnaise, and peanut
butter are few examples of nonperishable foods.
FOOD CATEGORIES BASED ON FUNCTIONS AND
NUTRIENTS

According to the functions to human body,

food items can be categorized as:
(a) Body building and repairing foods,
(b) Energy-giving foods,
(c) Regulatory foods, and
(d) Protective foods.

Depending on the nutrition value, food

items can be classified as:
(a) Carbohydrate-rich foods,
(b) Protein-rich foods,
(c) Fat-rich foods, and
(d) Vitamin- and mineral-rich foods.
FOOD CATEGORIES BASED ON EXTENT AND PURPOSE
OF PROCESSING

Different food processing techniques are used by the food industries to turn
fresh foods into food products.

Foods can be classified into three major groups based on the extent and
purpose of food processing:

(a) Unprocessed or minimally processed foods,

(b) Processed culinary or food industry ingredients, and
(c) Ultra-processed food products.
 FOOD SPOILAGE

Food spoilage is the process in which food edibility reduces. Food spoilage is
related to food safety.

The primitive stage of food spoilage can be detected by color, smell, favor,
texture, or food. Different physical, microbial, or chemical actions can cause
food spoilage. These mechanisms are not necessarily mutually exclusive since
spoilage caused by one mechanism can stimulate another.

Temperature, pH, air, nutrients, and presence of different chemicals are the
major factors for food spoilage.
FACTOR AFFECTING
FOOD SPOILAGE
Physical spoilage

Food spoilage due to physical changes or

instability is defined as physical spoilage.
Moisture loss or gain, moisture migration
between different components, and
physical separation of components or
ingredients are the examples of physical
spoilage.

The key factors affecting physical

spoilage are moisture content,
temperature, glass transient
temperature, crystal growth, and
crystallization.
Moisture content

A frequent cause of degradation of food products is the change in their water

content. It may occur in the form of water loss, water gain, or migration of water.

Moisture transfer in food is directly related to the water activity (aw) of food
item. Water activity (aw) is a thermodynamic property which is expressed as
the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a system to the vapor pressure of
pure water at the same temperature.

Equilibrium relative humidity at the same temperature may also be used in lieu of
pure water vapor pressure.

Water activity in food products reduces with temperature. In general, water

activity of foods at normal temperature is 1.0, whereas at −20 and −40 °C
temperatures the water activities are 0.82 and 0.68, respectively
Temperature

The effect of temperature is the most significant factor in the case of fruit and vegetable
spoilage. There is an optimum temperature range for slow ripening and to maximize post-
harvest life.

Slow ripening also requires an optimum relative humidity along with optimum air
movement around fruit and vegetable. Apparently, these optimum conditions are called
modified atmospheres (MA).

Temperature usually besets the metabolism of the commodities and contemporarily alters
the rate of attaining desired MA. Low temperature can also have a negative effect on foods
that are susceptible to freeze damage.

At a lower temperature, when food products become partially frozen, breakage in cells
occurs which damages the product. Most tropical fruits and vegetables are sensitive to
chilling injury. This generally occurs before the food product starts to freeze at a
temperature in between 5 °C and 15 °C.
Glass transition temperature

Glass transition temperature (Tg) effects the shelf life of food products. Solids in
food items may exist in a crystalline state or in an amorphous metastable state.
This phenomenon depends on the composition of solids, temperature, and
relative humidity. The amorphous matrix may exist either as a very viscous glass
or as a more liquid-like rubber. At glass transition temperature, changes occur
from the glassy state to rubbery state. This is a second-order phase transition
process, which is temperature specific for each food.

The physical stability of foods is related to the glass transition temperature.

Glass transition temperature (Tg) depends strongly on concentration of water and
other plasticizers. When dry food products are kept in highly humid conditions,
the state of food products changes due to glass transition phenomena.
What is Glass Transition?

Glass transition (Tg) is a physical property of food polymers. It is the

temperature range where food polymers undergo a phase change from
rigid/glassy to soft.

Food polymers can be proteins, starch and non-starch polysaccharides,

including cellulose, glucans and arabinoxylans.

In summary, glass transition is a physical transformation from a “glassy” state

to a “rubbery” state. This means going from a lower to a higher molecular
mobility and kinetic energy.

Glass transition plays a critical role in the processing, storage and shelf-life of
cereal-based products.
Application
In order for a material to go from a glassy to rubbery state, it must first pass
through the glass transition temperature (Tg). The Tg is the temperature range
when a given food material undergoes a large change in its modulus (stress
force/strain ratio).2 Below its Tg, a food material is in its glassy state, and
above its Tg it is in a rubbery state.

Water activity (free water): The higher the water activity and/or moisture
content, the lower the Tg. The presence of water depresses the Tg of food
materials. The presence of water-binding molecules like alcohol, polyols and
sugars decreases water activity and increases Tg.

In the case of high-ratio cakes, sugar affects the starch gelatinization by

increasing the Tg. This inhibits full gelatinization of the starch, and therefore
results in a crumb that is not set. This is why high-ratio cake batters run the risk
of being underbaked.
The molecular weight of polymers affects its Tg. A high molecular weight
polymer would have a higher Tg. This is why starch and gluten proteins in the
dough require more heat during baking and requires significant heat removal for
proper freezing.

Tg measurement
Glass transition can be assessed using various techniques, the two most
important ones are:

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): measures the differential heat flow

between a polymer sample and an inert reference at atmospheric pressure.

Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA): measures the polymer

deformation by sinusoidally varying stress applied to the polymer. This test is a
function of time, temperature and frequency around its Tg.
Crystal growth and crystallization

Freezing can also contribute to food degradation. Foods, which undergo slow
freezing or multiple freeze, suffer severely due to crystal growth. Tey are subject
to large extracellular ice growth. Rapid freezing forms ice within food cells, and
these foods are more stable than slow freezing processed foods. To minimize
large ice crystal growth, emulsifiers and other water binding agents can be added
during freezing cycles.

Foods with high sugar content can undergo sugar crystallization either by
moisture accumulation or by increasing temperature. Therefore, sugar comes to
the surface from inside, and a gray or white appearance is noticed. Staling of
sugar cookies, graininess in candies, and ice creams are the results of sugar
crystallization.
MICROBIAL
SPOILAGE
Microbial spoilage is a common source of food spoilage, which occurs due to the action
of microorganisms. It is also the most common cause of foodborne diseases. Perishable
foods are often attacked by different microorganisms. The growth of most
microorganisms can be prevented or lingered by adjusting storage temperature,
reducing water activity, lowering pH, using preservatives, and using proper packaging.

Factors affecting microbial spoilage

There are intrinsic and extrinsic factors that can affect microbial spoilage in foods.

The intrinsic properties of foods determine the expected shelf life or perishability of
foods and also affect the type and rate of microbial spoilage. Endogenous enzymes,
substrates, sensitivity of light, and oxygen are the primary intrinsic properties
associated with food spoilage. To control food quality and safety, these properties can
be controlled during food product formulation. Intrinsic factors of food spoilage include
pH, water activity, nutrient content, and oxidation–reduction potential.

Extrinsic factors of food spoilage include relative humidity, temperature, presence, and
activities of other microbes.
https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/article/8180/microbial-food-spoilage-a-
major-concern-for-food-business-operators/
CHEMICAL SPOILAGE
Chemical and biochemical reactions occur naturally in foods and lead to
unpleasant sensory results in food products. Fresh foods may undergo
elementary quality changes caused by:

(a) Microbial growth and metabolism which results in pH changes,

(b) Toxic compounds, and/or
(c) The oxidation of lipids and pigments in fat which results in undesirable
favors and discoloration.

Chemical spoilage is interrelated with microbial actions. However, oxidation

phenomena are purely chemical in nature and also dependent on temperature
variations.
 Oxidation
In presence of oxygen, amino acids convert into organic acid and ammonia. This
is the elementary spoilage reaction in refrigerated fresh meat and fish.

The term ‘rancidification’ is used to denominate lipids oxidation through which

unsaturated fats (lipids) undergo reaction with oxygen. The consequences in food
items are color alteration, of-favor, and toxic substances formation.
Rancidification can be catalyzed by the presence of metal oxides and exposure to
light increases the reaction rate. After this reaction, carbonyl compounds,
responsible for rancid taste of foods, are produced.
Rancidity
It is complete or incomplete oxidation or hydrolysis of fats and oils when exposed
to air, light, moisture or by bacterial action, resulting in unpleasant taste and
odor.
 Proteolysis

Proteolysis, a ubiquitous and irreversible posttranslational modification, involves

limited and highly specific hydrolysis of peptide and iso-peptide bonds of a
protein. The entire phenomena require the presence of miscellaneous protease
enzymes.
Proteins, after being incurred through proteolysis, eventually get converted into
small-sized amino acids. Many of these peptides have stiff taste which can be
bitter or sweet.
 Putrefaction

Putrefaction refers to the series of anaerobic reactions through which amino

acids detour to a mixture of amines, organic acids, and stiff-smelling sulfur
compounds, such as mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide. This is a biochemical
phenomenon as the presence of bacteria is exigent all through the process.
Along with amino acids, indole, phenols, and ammonia are also formed due to
protein putrefaction.

Most of these chemicals have displeasing odor.

Putrefaction is quite common in meats and other protein-rich foods at

temperatures greater than 15 °C. This elevated temperature facilitates
microbial activities.
Effect of Putrefaction

• Changes in nutritional value

(Decomposition of proteins)

• Changes in organoleptic
features
(Color, flavor, taste, odor,
mucilaginous substances)

• Unwholesome effects
(Biogenic amines, toxins)
 Maillard reaction

Non-enzymatic browning, which is also known also as Maillard reaction, is

another primary cause of food spoilage. Tis reaction occurs in the amino group
of proteins, or the amino acids present in foods.

Color darkening, reducing proteins solubility, developing bitter favors, and

reducing nutritional availability of certain amino acids are the common
outcomes of Maillard reaction.

This reaction occurs during the storing of dry milk, dry whole eggs, and
breakfast cereals.
 Pectin hydrolysis
Pectins are complex mixtures of polysaccharides that make up almost one-third of
the cell wall of dicotyledonous and some monocotyledonous plants.

Indigenous pectinases are synthesized or activated during ripening of fruits and

cause pectin hydrolysis which softens the structure of food. Damages of fruits and
vegetables by mechanical means may also activate pectinases and initiate microbial
attack.

Pectin substances may also be de-esterified by the action of pectin methyl esterase.
This esterification process is initiated in situ on damaged tissues, from fruits, and
vegetables by strengthening the cell walls and enhancing intercellular cohesion via
a mechanism involving calcium. Metal ions catalyze the decomposition of heat-
labile fruit pigments, which consist of pectin ingredients. This process causes the
color change in fruit jams or jellies. Therefore, jams and jellies are preserved in
glass containers rather than metallic jars.
Hydrolytic rancidity

Hydrolytic rancidity causes lipid

degradation by the action of
lipolytic enzymes. In this reaction,
free fatty acids are cleaved of
triglyceride molecules in the
presence of water. These free fatty
acids have rancid favors or odor.

The released volatile fatty acids

have a stiff malodor and taste;
therefore, hydrolytic rancidity is
extremely noticeable in fats, such
as butter.
FOOD PRESERVING AND PROCESSING METHODS
Food preservation refers to the
process or technique undertaken in
order to avoid spoilage and to
increase shelf life of food.
PHYSICAL PROCESSING
DRYING
• Drying or dehydration is the process of removing water from a solid or liquid
food by means of evaporation. The purpose of drying is to obtain a solid
product with sufficiently low water content. It is one of the oldest methods of
food preservation.

• Water is the prerequisite for the microorganisms and enzymes to activate food
spoilage mechanisms.

• In this method, the moisture content is lowered to the point where the
activities of these microorganisms are inhibited. Most microorganisms can
grow at water activity above 0.95. Bacteria are inactive at water activity
below 0.9. Most of the microorganisms cannot grow at water activity below
0.88.
• Drying has numerous advantages. It reduces weight and volume of foods,
facilitates foods storage, packaging, and transportation, and provides different
favors and smells. With all these benefits, drying is apparently the cheapest
method of food preservation.

• This process also has limitations. In some cases, significant loss of favor and aroma
has been observed after drying. Some functional compounds like vitamin C,
thiamin, protein, and lipid are also lost because of drying.

• Drying can be classified into three major groups: convective, conductive, and
radiative. Convective drying is the most popular method to obtain over 90%
dehydrated foods. Depending on the mode of operation, dryers can be classified as
batch or continuous. For smaller-scale operations and short residence times, batch
dryers are preferred. Continuous method of drying is preferential when long
periodic operations are required, and drying cost is needed to curtail.
Pasteurization is a physical
preservation technique in which food
is heated up to a specific
temperature to destroy spoilage-
causing microorganisms and enzymes.

Almost all the pathogenic bacteria,

yeasts, and molds are destroyed by
this process. As a result, the shelf life
of food increases.

This process was named after the

French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822–
1895), who experimented with this
process in 1862. He used this process
to treat wine and beer.
Pasteurization techniques
• The efficiency of pasteurization depends on the temperature–time
combination. Tis combination is mostly based on the thermal death-time
studies of heat-resisting microorganisms. Based on temperature and heat
exposure, pasteurization can be categorized as vat (batch), high temperature
short time (HTST), and ultra-high temperature (UHT); HTST and UHT are
continuous processes.

• Vat pasteurizer is suitable for small plants having the capacity of 100–500
gallons. Vat pasteurization requires constant supervision to prevent
overheating, over holding, or burning.

• High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization is a continuous process

pasteurizer equipped with sophisticated control system, pump, flow diversion
devices or valves, and heat exchanger equipment. HTST pasteurization is also
known as ‘flash pasteurization.
Vat and HTST pasteurization perishes pathogenic microorganisms effectively.
However, to inactivate thermo-resisting spores, ultra-high temperature (UHT)
pasteurization is more effective than VAT and HTST.

During heat treatment of food items, minimal physical, chemical, or biological

changes take place. After heating is done, the products are aseptically packaged in
sterile containers.

UHT pasteurized products have a longer shelf life than other pasteurized products.

High heat of pasteurization process may damage some vitamins, minerals, and
beneficial bacteria during pasteurization. At pasteurization temperature, Vitamin C
is reduced by 20 per cent, soluble calcium and phosphorus are reduced by 5 per
cent, and thiamin and vitamin B12 are reduced by 10 per cent. In fruit juices,
pasteurization causes reduction in vitamin C, ascorbic acid, and carotene.
However, these losses can be considered minor from nutritional point of view.
Comparison between pasteurization techniques
Comparison between pasteurization and sterilization
THERMAL STERILIZATION
Thermal sterilization is a heat treatment process that completely destroys all the
viable microorganisms (yeasts, molds, vegetative bacteria, and spore formers)
resulting in a longer period of shelf life.
Retorting
Retorting is defined as the
packaging of food in a container
followed by sterilization. Foods
with pH above 4.5 require
more than 100°C as
sterilization temperature. The
attainment of such temperature
can be possible in batch or
continuous retorts. Batch
retorts are gradually being
superseded by continuous
systems. Hydrostatic retorts and
rotary cookers are the most
common continuous systems
used in food industries.
Aseptic packaging

Aseptic packaging involves placing commercially sterilized food in a sterilized

package which is then subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.
Conventional aseptic packaging utilizes paper and plastic materials.

Sterilization can be achieved either by heat treatment, by chemical treatment,

or by attributing both of them. Aseptic packaging is highly used to preserve
juices, dairy products, tomato paste, and fruit slices.

It can increase the shelf life of food items to a large extent; as an example, UHT
pasteurization process can extend the shelf life of liquid milk from 19 to 90
days, whereas combined UHT processing and aseptic packaging extend shelf life
to six months or more.
Aseptic filling can accept a wide range of packaging materials including: (a) metal
cans sterilized by superheated steam, (b) paper, foil, and plastic laminates
sterilized by hot hydrogen peroxide, and (c) a variety of plastic and metal
containers sterilized by high-pressure steam. Wide variation of packages thus
enhances proficiency of aseptic packaging and diminishes cost.

The direct approach of aseptic packaging comprises of steam injection and steam
infusion. On the other hand, indirect approach of aseptic packaging includes
exchanging heat through plate heat exchanger, scrapped surface heat exchanger,
and tubular heat exchanger.

Steam injection is one of the fastest methods of heating and often removes volatile
substances from some food products.

Steam infusion offers higher control over processing conditions than steam injection
and minimizes the risk of overheating products. Steam infusion is suitable to treat
viscous foods.
Tubular heat exchangers are adopted for operations at higher pressures and flow
rates. These exchangers are not very flexible to withstand production capacity
alteration, and their use is only limited to low viscous foods.
Steam injection
Direct steam injection
Direct steam injection takes various forms either adding steam through apertures around the
skin of the vessel or through a lance positioned inside the vessel.

It involves discharging a series of steam bubbles into the product. Steam injectors are
engineered to create a turbulent zone within the steam injector body to help mix the steam
and product.

This allows for slightly higher operating steam pressures than a rudimentary sparge pipe.
One of the key challenges around efficiency is that steam bubbles can easily reach and break
the surface, escaping to atmosphere, lengthening your cook time and increasing wastage.

Direct steam injection tends to be used to speed up heating times. It remains in a gaseous
state and exits the system as steam; wasting energy and water, as well as slowing down the
process. This inefficiency will increase as the temperature difference between the product
and steam reduces and can also lead to increased variability within each batch as it’s hard to
create consistency within the cooking process.
One of the key challenges
with direct steam injection
is the exposure of your
product to high-
temperature steam.

This can result in fouling

and discoloration of
delicate dairy sauces such
as béchamel sauce, or
tomato-based sauces
turning orange.
Steam infusion
Steam Infusion
Steam Infusion accelerates steam into the product at speeds reaching 1,000 m/s (3,280 ft/s)
disrupting the product in the process.

Special profiling within the Vaction™ Pump steam chamber accelerates the velocity of the
steam to above the speed of sound. As the steam passes into the mixing chamber through an
annular nozzle, the steam disrupts the fluid flow and breaks it into small droplets, referred
to as the vapour phase.

The small droplets within the low-pressure vapour phase offer a significantly increased
product surface area for the steam to condense into, resulting in a temperature gradient in
the order of 12°C (54°F). This ensures there are no hot surface contact / hot spots, thus
preserving the quality of the product and eliminating Maillard reactions and caramelization of
certain sugars i.e., no burn-on.

Steam Infusion has the ability to run at comparatively higher steam pressures without
compromising on efficiency. As Steam Infusion maintains complete retention of the steam, it
means that it’s not only faster and more efficient, but also easier to control.
Steam Infusion prevents exposure to excessive temperatures and the resulting Maillard
reaction because of the partial vacuum generated by the Pump as it heats, mixes and
pumps products within the vessel. In this way, it’s possible to avoid this discoloration
and create a product that’s much more attractive to consumers.

The supersonic steam flow entrains and vaporizes the product flow to form a
multiphase flow, which heats the suspended particles by surface conduction and
condensation. This causes rapid and uniform heating over the unit in a temperature
gradient in the order of 12°C, ensuring there are no hot surface contact or hot spots so
manufacturers can preserve the quality of the product and eliminate Maillard reactions
and caramelization of certain sugars.

This can be extremely useful, particularly from a development perspective, as products

appear cleaner and are a better match to the concept sauce cooked in a traditional
kitchen set-up. It also allows manufacturers to tap into the trend for ‘home-made’
style products as it’s easier to achieve this result with Steam Infusion.
FREEZING
Freezing slows down the physiochemical and biochemical reactions by forming
ice from water below freezing temperature and thus inhibits the growth of
deteriorative and pathogenic microorganisms in foods.

It reduces the amount of liquid water in the food items and diminishes water
activity.

Heat transfer during freezing of a food item involves a complex situation of

simultaneous phase transition and alteration of thermal properties.

Nucleation and growth are two basic sequential processes of freezing. Nucleation
means the formation of ice crystal, which is followed by ‘growth’ process that
indicates the subsequent increase in crystal size.
Freezing time is defined as the time
required to lower the initial
temperature of a product to a given
temperature at its thermal center. In
general, slow freezing of food tissues
results in the formation of larger ice
crystals in the extracellular spaces,
while rapid freezing produces small
ice crystals distributed throughout the
tissue. Dimensions and shapes of the
product, initial and final
temperature, temperature of
refrigerating medium, surface heat
transfer coefficient of the product,
and change in enthalpy and thermal
conductivity of the product are the
most important factors among them.
Individual quick freezing (IQF) generally relates to quick freezing of solid foods
like green peas, cut beans, cauliflower pieces, shrimps, meat chunks, and fish.
On the other hand, freezing related to liquid, pulpy or semiliquid products, like
fruit juices, mango pulps, and papaya pulps is known as quick freezing.

The ice crystals formed by quick freezing are much smaller and therefore cause
less damage to cell structure or texture of the food. Shorter freezing period
impedes the diffusion of salts and prevents decomposition of foods during
freezing.

IQF also allows higher capacity for commercial freezing plants with the
resultant cost reduction. However, higher investment is required to set up a
quick freezing plant.

Different quick freezing techniques, such as contact plate freezing, air-blast

freezing, and cryogenic freezing, are used to process food items.
Individual quick freezing is a special freezing method
in which each and every product is frozen individually,
even if multiple product types are frozen in the same
area. For instance, every pea or each corn kennel is
individually frozen completely and they do not lump
together like a single block of ice. Instead, all
products are separate from each other.
 What Makes Individual Quick Freezing Attractive to Businesses?

• Faster: As the name suggests, individual quick freezing is faster. This means the freezing
time is shorter which prevents the formation of large ice crystals inside the fruit or
vegetable cells. In fact, ice crystals that are formed due to slower methods of freezing
are larger in size and can do cellular damage, affecting the texture, flavor and quality of
the products.

• Efficient: IQF delivers maximum uptime, meets or exceeds your hygiene needs, and
makes processing easier and power efficient.

• Avoids food wastage: Since each product is frozen individually and items do not cohere,
consumers can take out the portion conveniently that needs to be frozen. This means no
leftovers and food wastage.

• Reduces packaging: In many cases, producers package pieces separately to avoid

clumping or sticking together. It is not only time-consuming and costly but also an
environmental hazard.
 How Does Individual Quick Freezing Work?

IQF involves ultra-quick freezing, i.e. the products

are frozen quickly at very low temperatures for
terminating the microbial activity that can lead to
food spoilage. In this technology, each piece is frozen
using a fluidization method in which the product is in
high-velocity air. This freezes the product within a
few minutes instead of three to four hours.
Controlled turbulence at the start of the freezing
process speeds up heat transfer and ensures fast,
gentle crust freezing when the food product is most
fragile. Crust freezing locks in product moisture
before the final core freezing, as well as preserves
product weight, appearance and quality. A unique
thumbing system in the pre-cooling section avoids the
lumping of pieces being frozen.
 CHILLING
In chilling process, the temperature of
foods is maintained between −1 and 8 °C.
Chilling process reduces the initial
temperature of the products and maintains
the final temperature of products for a
prolonged period of time. It is used to
reduce the rate of biochemical and
microbiological changes and also to extend
shelf life of fresh and processed foods. In
practice, freezing process is often referred
to chilling, when cooling is conducted at
<15 °C.
Partial freezing is applied to extend the shelf life of fresh food items in modern food
industries. This process reduces ice formation in foods, known as super chilling.
• Chilling can be done by using
various equipments, such as
continuous air cooler, ice bank
cooler, plate heat exchanger,
jacketed heat exchanger, ice
implementation system, vacuum
attribution system, and cryogenic
chamber.

• Chilling rate is mainly dependent on

thermal conductivity, initial
temperature of foods, density,
moisture content, presence or
absence of a lid on the food storage
vessel, presence of plastic bags as
food packaging equipment, and the
size as well as weight of food units.
Chilling Methods
 Advantages and Limitations of Chilling Methods
• Chilling storage is extensively used for its effective short-term preservation
competency. Chilling retards the growth of microorganisms and prevents post-harvest
metabolic activities of intact plant tissues and post-slaughter metabolic activities of
animal tissues.

• It also impedes deteriorative chemical reactions, which include enzyme catalyzed

oxidative browning, oxidation of lipids, and chemical changes associated with color
degradation.

• It also slows down autolysis of fish, causes loss of nutritive value of foods, and finally
bares moisture loss. Chilling is high capital intensive since this process requires
specialized equipment and structural modifications.

• Chilling may reduce crispiness of selected food items. Chilling process also dehydrates
unwrapped food surfaces, which is a major limitation of chilling process.
IRRADIATION
• Irradiation is a physical process in which substance undergoes a definite dose of
ionizing radiation (IR).

• IR can be natural and artificial. Natural IR generally includes X-rays, gamma rays, and
high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation; artificially generated IR is accelerated
electrons and induced secondary radiation. IR is used in 40 different countries on
more than 60 different foods.

• The effects of IR include:

(a) Disinfestation of grains, fruits, and vegetables,

(b) Improvement in the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by inhibiting sprouting or by
altering their rate of maturation and senescence, and
(c) Improvement in shelf life of foods by the inactivation of spoilage organisms and
improvement in the safety of foods by inactivating foodborne pathogens
Regulatory limits of irradiation

• The IR dose delivered to foods is measured in kilo grays (kGy). 1 gray is equivalent to
ionizing energy dose absorbed by 1 kg of irradiated material.

• IR regulatory limits are set by the legislative bodies. Depending on the regulatory
authority, these limits may be expressed as minimum dose, maximum dose, or
approved dose range.

• The nutritional parameters, such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and

most vitamins, remain unaffected by IR even at high doses. At a high dose, IR may
cause the loss of some micronutrients, most notably vitamins A, B1, C, and E.

• According to FDA, IR has effects on food nutritive value that is similar to those of
conventional food processing techniques.
Food Irradiation Techniques
Regulatory Limits on Food Irradiation Applications
 HIGH-PRESSURE FOOD PRESERVATION
High hydrostatic pressure or ultra-high pressure processing (HPP) technology involves
pressure attribution up to 900 MPa to kill microorganisms in foods. This process also
inactivates spoilage of foods, delays the onset of chemical and enzymatic deteriorative
processes, and retains the important physical and physiochemical characteristics of
foods.

HHP has the potential to serve as an important preservation method without degrading
vitamins, favors, and color molecules during the process. Freshness and improved taste
with high nutritional value are the peerless characteristics of HPP technology.

This process is also environment friendly, since energy consumption is very low and
minimal effluents are required to discharge. The major drawback of this technology is
the high capital cost. In addition, limited information and skepticism about this
technology also limit the wide application of HPP processes.
• HP process follows Le Chatelier’s principle and isostatic principle. According to Le
Chatelier’s principle, biochemical and physicochemical phenomena in equilibrium are
accompanied by the change in volume and hence influenced by pressure. Regardless of
the shape, size, or geometry of the products, the isostatic principle relies on the
instant and uniform pressure transmittance throughout food systems.

• HP processes affect all reactions and structural changes where a change in volume is
involved. The combined effect of breaking down and permeabilization of cell
membrane kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms.

• Vegetative cells are inactivated at 3000 bar pressure (approximate) at ambient

temperature, while spore inactivation requires much higher pressure in combination
with the temperature rise to 60 °C to 70 °C. Moisture level is extremely important in
this context since little effect is noticeable below 40% moisture content.

• Container processing and bulk processing are two methods of preserving foods under
high pressure.
PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD

Pulsed electric field (PEF) food

processing is defined as a technique in
which food is placed between two
electrodes and exposed to a pulsed
high voltage field (20–40 kV/cm).

Generally, the PEF treatment time is

less than one second.

Low processing temperature and short

residence time of this process allow a
highly effective inactivation of
microorganisms.
• PEF processing is much effective to destroy gram-negative bacteria.

• Vegetative cells are much sensitive than spores to this process. All cell deaths occur
due to the disruption of cell membrane function and electroporation.

• PEF technology retains taste, favor, and color of the foods.

• This technique is not toxic.

• However, this process has no impact on enzymes and spores.

• It is also not suitable for conductive materials and only effective to treat liquid foods.

• This process is energy extensive and may possess environmental risks

• Fermentation method uses microorganisms to preserve food. This method
involves decomposition of carbohydrates with the action of microorganisms
and/or the enzymes. Bacteria, yeasts, and molds are the most common groups
of microorganisms involved in fermentation of a wide range of food items, such
as dairy products, cereal-based foods, and meat products.

• Fermentation enhances nutritional value, healthfulness, and digestibility of

foods. This is a healthy alternative of many toxic chemical preservatives.

BIOLOGICAL PROCESS: FERMENTATION

 Classification of
Fermentation
Alcohol fermentation is the result of yeast
action on the simple sugar called ‘hexose’
converting this into alcohol and carbon
dioxide.

The quality of fermented products

depends on the presence of alcohol.

In this process, air is excluded from the

product to avoid the action of aerobic
microorganisms, such as the acetobacter.
This process ensures the longer shelf life
of the products.
Vinegar fermentation
takes place after alcohol
fermentation.

 Acetobacter converts
alcohol to acetic acid in
the presence of excess
oxygen.

Under this method, food

products are preserved as
pickles, relishes, etc.
Vinegar fermentation
results in acetic acid and
water by oxidation of
alcohol.
Lactic acid fermentation takes
place due to the presence of two
types of bacteria:
homofermenters and
heterofermenters.

Homofermenters produce mainly

lactic acid, via the glycolytic
(Embden–Meyerhof pathway).

Heterofermenters produce lactic

acid plus appreciable amounts of
ethanol, acetate, and carbon
dioxide, via the 6-
phosphogluconate/phosphoketol
ase pathway.
CHEMICAL
PROCESS
• Preservatives are defined as the substances capable of inhibiting, retarding,
or arresting the growth of microorganisms or any other deterioration
resulting from their presence.

• Food preservatives extend the shelf life of certain food products.

Preservatives retard degradation caused by microorganisms and therefore
maintain the color, texture, and favor of the food item.

• Food preservatives can be classified as natural and artificial. Animals, plants,

and microorganisms contain various chemicals which have potential to
preserve
• foods. They also function as antioxidants, flavorings, and antibacterial
agents.

• Artifcial preservatives are produced industrially. These can be classified as

antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-enzymatic.