ELECTROMAGNETIC

Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES,

Content

 TYPES OF RADIATION IN ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM,

 DESCRIPTION AND USES

We can distinguish between two general classes of waves: mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves are waves that require material medium for their propagation.

Examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and waves on a rope. Water
waves are due to vibrations of particles of water. Sound waves are due to vibrations of air
particles. Water and air are the material media of propagation.

Electromagnetic waves are those that do not have a material medium for their propagation.
They arise from the vibrations electric (E) and magnetic (M) fields. The combination of the
electric and magnetic field waves is called an Electromagnetic (E-M) wave.

The magnetic and electric fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other and
to the direction of the wave, examples of E-M waves are light wave, X-rays and gamma rays.

Another difference between mechanical and electromagnetic waves is in their velocities.

Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light but mechanical waves travel at a speed less
than that of light.

A mechanical wave may be transverse or longitudinal, but an electromagnetic wave is always

transverse.

Wavelength and Frequency

Just like an ocean wave, an electromagnetic wave has peaks and troughs. The wavelength is the
distance between two identical points of the wave from cycle to cycle, for instance, the distance
between one peak, or crest, and the next. EMR can also be defined in terms of its frequency,
which is the number of crests that pass by in a given time interval. All forms of EMR travel at
the same speed: the speed of light. Therefore, the frequency depends entirely on the wavelength:
the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
Types of Radiation

Electromagnetic waves were first predicted theoretically by the British Physicist, James Clerk
Maxwell. He also proposed that light itself was electromagnetic radiation. The experimental
evidence for the existence of E-M wave was provided by the German Physicist, Heinrich Hertz.

The term electromagnetic wave describes the way electromagnetic radiation (EMR) moves
through space. Different forms of EMR are distinguished by their wavelengths, which vary from
many yards (meters) to a distance smaller than the diameter of an atomic nucleus. The full range,
in increasing order of wavelength, goes from gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible
light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves and is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. Electromagnetic waves have many applications, both in science and in everyday life.
The different rays that constitute the spectrum all have the same basic property that they travel
with the speed of light. In vacuum this speed is 3 x 108 ms-1 and is represented by the letter c.
They also all exhibit the properties of reflection, refraction and interference diffraction.

They however differ in their wavelength (and frequency). Recall that wavelength (λ) and
frequency (f) are connected by the relation

λ = v/f or v = fv

Here v = c, the velocity of light. Hence we can write

λ = c/v or c = f

The waves also differ in the way they interact with the matter. This way, which depends on their
frequency, influences how we can detect each type of wave. Hence the waves in the various parts
of the electromagnetic spectrum differ in the means of production and detection.

Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

Cosmic Rays – Hazard

Gamma Rays – Killing Cancer Cells

X-Rays – Medical Uses (X-Raying People)

Ultra Violet – Sterilizing and sun tanning

Visible Light – Violet light has a higher frequency and lower wavelength than red light. (Light
we see, photography is a use).

Infra-Red Light – Night Vision, short distance communication and heating

Microwaves – Cooking, communication

Radio Waves – Include short wave radio, medium wave and long wave radio waves.

Radio: Yes, this is the same kind of energy that radio stations emit into the air for your boom box
to capture and turn into your favorite Mozart, Madonna, or Justin Timberlake tunes. But radio
waves are also emitted by other things … such as stars and gases in space. You may not be able
to dance to what these objects emit, but you can use it to learn what they are made of.

Microwaves: They will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes! Microwaves in space are used
by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies, and our own Milky Way!

Infrared: Our skin emits infrared light, which is why we can be seen in the dark by someone
using night vision goggles. In space, IR light maps the dust between stars.

Visible: Yes, this is the part that our eyes see. Visible radiation is emitted by everything from
fireflies to light bulbs to stars … also by fast-moving particles hitting other particles.

Ultraviolet: We know that the Sun is a source of ultraviolet (or UV) radiation, because it is the
UV rays that cause our skin to burn! Stars and other “hot” objects in space emit UV radiation.

X-rays: Your doctor uses them to look at your bones and your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot
gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma-rays: Radioactive materials (some natural and others made by man in things like nuclear
power plants) can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that scientists use to help them
understand what matter is made of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the biggest gamma-
ray generator of all is the Universe! It makes gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.

The following puts waves in order of increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency.

Questions

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND LAW

Week 2

Topic: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND LAW, GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL,

ESCAPE VELOCITY , POTENTIAL ENERGY IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD.

Concept of Gravitational Field

There are two types of forces – contact forces and force fields.

Contact forces are most common in everyday life. For example, you push or pull on
wheelbarrow, a tennis racket exerts a force on a tennis ball when they make contact, your foot
exerts a force on a football when you kick it.

Force fields, e.g. gravitational forces, act even when the two bodies are not in contact. The earth,
for example exerts a force on a falling mango fruit. It also exerts a force on a on the moon which
is about 385,000km away. The sun itself exerts a force on the earth even though the earth is
about 1.5 x 108 km distant from the sun.

In order to explain the observation of forces acting at a distance, it has been postulated that a
gravitational field surrounds everybody that has mass, and this field fills up all of space. A
second body at a particular location near the first body experiences a force because of the
gravitational field that exists there. The gravitational field of the first body acts directly on the
second body.

Gravitational field is a region or space around a mass in which the gravitational force of the mass
can be felt.

Gravitational Forces between two masses

Gravitation is the force of attraction is the force of attraction exerted by a body on all other
bodies in the universe. Hence a gravitational force exists between a body and all other bodies
around it. Gravitational forces act between all masses and hold together planets. stars and
galaxies, each mass has a gravitational field around it.

It was Sir Isaac Newton who first proposed the relationship between the gravitational force F,
between two masses, m1 m2 and the distance, r, between these masses. He proposed his famous
Law of Universal gravitation which we can state as follows:

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. This force acts along the line joining the centre of the two particles.

F µ m1 m2/r2

The magnitude of this force can be written as

F = Gm1m2/r2

Where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two particles, r is the distance between them and G is a
universal constant of gravitation or simply gravitational constant.

Gravitational constant, G, has the same numerical value for all objects (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2kg-
2
).

Newton’s law of gravitation refers to the force between two particles or bodies. Actually such a
gravitational force is a pair of forces, an action-reaction pair. Although the masses of the
particles may be different, forces of equal magnitude act on each other, and the action line of
both forces lies along the line joining the bodies. Mass m1 attracts m2 with a force given by the
equation F = Gm1m2/r2. By Newton’s third law of motion, action and reaction are equal and
opposite. Therefore, m2 also attracts m1 by an equal but opposite force.

Gravitational attraction keeps the moon in its orbit around the earth and the earth in its orbit
around the sun. Gravitational forces are always those of attraction.

Example

Two 5.0 kg spherical balls are placed so that their centres are 50.0 cm apart. What is the
magnitude of the gravitational force between the two balls? (G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2)

Solution

F = Gm1m2/r2

= 6.67 x 10-11 x 5.0 x 5.0/0.52

= 6.67 x 25 x 10-11/0.52

= 6.67 x 10-9 N

Because of the universal law of gravitation, there is a gravitational force of attraction between
the sun and the planets, between earth and the moon, and also between other planets.

Relation between the Gravitational Constant ‘G’ and the acceleration of gravity at the
earth surface ‘g’

The earth is supposed to be a sphere of radius, re, with its mass me concentrated at the earth’s
centre. The distance of any object on the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth is r e the earth’s
radius. The gravitational force of attraction of the earth on any mass, m, on the earth’s surface is
given by

F =Gmem/re2
This is the force of gravity on the mass due to the earth, that is, the weight of the object, mg,
where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.

Thus, F =Gmem/re2 = mg

The force per unit mass, F/m, is given by

F/m = Gems/re2 = g

Hence g = Gme/re2

This means that the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ can be considered as the force per unit mass
on the earth’s surface. According to this equation g = Gme/re2, the acceleration of gravity, ‘g’ at
the surface of the earth, is determined by me (the earth’s mass), and re (the earth’s radius), hence
from equation g = Gme/re2 we should ‘g’ to be slightly greater at the top of the mountain than at
the sea level. This is what actually obtains in practice.

If ‘g’ and ‘G’ are actually known we can use equation g = Gme/re2 to calculate the earth’s mass,
me.

Me = gre2/G.

The radius of the moon is one-fourth, and its mass is one eighty-first that of the earth. If the
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth is 9.8 ms-2, what is its value on the moon’s
surface.

The relation between g and G is given by

g = Gme/re2

For the earth, ge = Gme/re2 (i)

For the moon, gm = Gmm/rm2 (ii)

Since G is the universal constant of gravitation it is constant for both equations.

rm = re/4 (iii)

mm = me/81 (iv)

From equation (i)

G = gere2/me (v)

Putting (v) in (ii) we have

gm = gere2/me . mm/rm2

= 9.8 x (re/ rm)2 x mm/me (vi)

From (iii) re/rm = 4

From (iv) mm/me = 1/81

Putting these in equation (vi) we have: gm = 9.8 x (4)2 x 1/81

= 9.8 x 16 x 1/81 = 1.9 ms-2

Gravitational Potential

The work done in raising a mass, m from the ground surface to a height, h above the ground is
given by

W = mgh

The work has been done against the gravitational pull of the earth. This work appears as the
gravitational potential energy (PE) of the body.

This potential energy is dependent of the height, h, or the relative position of the body from the
ground or zero level where the PE is considered to be zero.

In general points in any gravitational field possess gravitational potential. If free to move, a
body will tend to move from a point ay higher gravitational potential to points of lower
gravitational potential

Gravitational Potential (G) at a point is defined as the work done in taking unit mass from
infinity to that point. Unit is jkg-1.

This gravitational potential is given by

V = -Gm/r

Where m is the mass producing the gravitational field and r is the distance of the point to the
mass. The gravitational potential decreases as r increases and become zero where r is infinitely
large, the negative sign in the equation above indicates that the potential at infinity (zero) is
higher that the potential close to the mass.

Escape Velocity

There are many man-made satellites that circle around the earth at the present time. One common
feature of these bodies is that they are held in an approximately circular path by the earth’s
gravitational pull. It is this force that provides the needed earth’s centripetal force required to
keep the satellites in their orbits. The velocity (vs) of the satellite as it orbits round the earth is
given by

Mvs2/re = F = Gmme/re2 (centripetal force) = (Gravitational force)

Hence vs = ÖGme/re

This is the velocity with which the satellite moves round the earth. Notice that the mass of the
satellite does not enter into this vs = Gme/re. All satellites in orbit with radius re must have the
same speed. For a satellite to escape from the earth and never return, it must be launched with a
velocity greater than that required to make it orbit.

We define the escape velocity (ve) as the minimum velocity required for an object (e.g. satellite
or rocket) to just escape or leave the gravitational influence or field of an astronomical body (e.g.
the earth) permanently.

We can obtain the formula for the Escape velocity using the Newton’s law of universal
gravitation which is an inverse square law:

F = Gmem/r2

Let m be the mass of the satellite, and me, the mass of the earth.

The work done in carrying a mass m from a point at a distance r from the centre of the earth, to a
distance so great that the gravitational field is negligibly weak is given by

W=Fxr

But from equation 2.2, F = Gmem/r2

Hence, W = Gmem/r2.r = Gmem/r

This work must equal the kinetic energy of the body of mass m at this point, having a velocity ve.
This kinetic energy is given by:

KE = ½ mve2

½ mve2 = Gmem/r

ve2 = 2Gme/r

ve = Ö2Gme/r

If we launch the mass m from the earth’s surface, where r = R, we then have that ve = Ö2Gme/R
But from equation me = gre2/G, me = gr2/G

Hence ve = Ö2G/R.gR2/G

ve = Ö2gR

Where R is the earth’s radius

Questions

1. Determine the mass of the earth if the radius of the earth is approximately 6.38 x 106 m, G =
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 and g = 9.80 ms-2.

A. 5 x 1024 kg B. 5.98 x 1025 C. 5.98 x 1024 D. 5.6 x 1025

2. Determine the force of attraction between the sun (ms = 1.99 x 1030 kg) and the earth (me =
5.98 x 1024 kg). Assume the sun is 1.50 x 108 km from the earth.

A. 3.53 x 1018 B. 3.53 x 1022 N C. 3.05 x 1032 D. 3.3 x 1022

3. Which of the following is correct for Escape Velocity?

A. ve = Ö2Gr B. ve = Ö2Gr C. ve = Ö2gr D. ve = Ö2gR

4. The numerical value for gravitational constant G is

A. 6.42 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 B. 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 C. 7.8 x 10-11 Nm2 kg2 D. 6.67 x 10-15 Nm2 kg2

5. The expression F= Gm1m2/r2 indicates

A. The gravitational force of attraction B. The gravitational force of repulsion C. Gravitational

force of constant acceleration D. Force of repulsion

ELECTRIC FIELD

Topic: ELECTRIC FIELD

Coulombs Law

The electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude
of each charge (q1, q2), inversely proportional to square of the separation between their centers
(r), directed along the separation vector connecting their centers.
This relationship is known as Coulomb’s Law. Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)
France. As an equation it is usually written in one of two forms …

F = ke q1q2/r2 or F = 1/4πeo. q1q2/r2

Electrostatic constant ke = 8.99 x 109 Nm/C2,

Vacuum Permittivity eo = 8.85 x 10-12C2/Nm2

When two charges have the same sign their product is positive, which means the force vector is
directed with the separation vector and the action is repulsive.

When two charges have the opposite sign their product is negative, which means the force vector
is directed against the separation vector and the action is attractive.

The electrical force, like all forces, is typically expressed using the unit Newton. Being a force,
the strength of the electrical interaction is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. The direction of the electrical force is dependent upon whether the charged objects are
charged with like charge or opposite charge and upon their spatial orientation. By knowing the
type of charge on the two objects, the direction of the force on either one of them can be
determined with a little reasoning. In the diagram below, objects A and B have like charge
causing them to repel each other. Thus, the force on object A is directed leftward (away from B)
and the force on object B is directed rightward (away from A). On the other hand, objects C and
D have opposite charge causing them to attract each other. Thus, the force on object C is directed
rightward (toward object D) and the force on object D is directed leftward (toward object C).
When it comes to the electrical force vector, perhaps the best way to determine the direction of it
is to apply the fundamental rules of charge interaction (opposites attract and likes repel) using a
little reasoning.

Example

Suppose that two point charges, each with a charge of +1.00 Coulomb are separated by a
distance of 1.00 meter. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of repulsion between
them.

Q1 = 1.00 C, Q2 = 1.00 C, d = 1.00 m, Felect =?

F = 1/4πeo. q1q2/r2

= (9.0 x 109 Nm2/C2) x (1.00 C) x (1.00 C) / (1.00 m)2

= 9.0 x 109 N

Electric Field Intensity

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the electric field strength is defined in terms of how it is measured.

The magnitude of the electric field is simply defined as the force per charge on the test
charge.

Electric Field Strength = Force/Charge

If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the equation can be rewritten in
symbolic form as

E = F/q, F = qE, Electric Force = Electric Charge x Electric Field

We can obtain the equation for the Field Intensity E due to a point charge q at a distance r from
that charge making use of these two equations E = F/q and F = qE we assume the point charge is
situated vacuum

F = 1/4πeo. Qq/r2

E = F/q = 1/4πeo Qq/r2q = Q/4πeo r2

Hence we can write

E= Q/4πeo r2

This is the field intensity due to a charge Q at a distance r from the charge.

Electric Potential

In a gravitational field, forces of attraction acts between masses. Therefore in order to separate
two masses, work must be done against the field.

Similarly, in electrostatic field where forces of attraction or repulsion act between charges, work
must be done against this field in order to move charges against the field.

The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit in
bringing mass to that point from an arbitrarily chosen zero level of the earth. Similarly in an
electrostatic or electric field the electric potential at a point is described as the work done per unit
positive charge in bringing charge to that point from an arbitrarily chosen zero of potential. If
work is done against the field, the potential is positive. If work is done by the field, the potential
is negative. Points of positive potentials are said to be at a higher potential than those of negative
potential. Thus in an electric cell, the positive terminal is at a higher potential than the negative
terminal. The arbitrarily chosen zero of potential is taken at infinity, but in practical terms, the
earth is taken to be at zero potential. Thus whenever a conducting body is connected to the earth
it is said to be ‘grounded’ or ‘earthed’ or to have a zero potential.
Electric Potential (V) at a point is defined as the work done in bringing unit positive charge from
infinity to that point against the electrical forces of the field.

Potential difference (VAB) between two points A and B is the work done in taking unit positive
charge from one point to the other in the electric field.

Both the potential and the potential difference are scalar quantities having the dimension of
work/charge. The unit is the volt.

1 volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb

The potential difference between two points is one volt if the work done in taking one Coulomb
of positive charge from one point to the other is one joule.

W = qV

(Joules) = (Coulomb x Volts) or V = W/q

Electric intensity is related to the electric potential difference between two points through the
equation.

E = v/d, where d is the distance between two points in an electric field

Hence we have, V =Ed,volt = NC-1m

The unit of E = v/d can also be in volt per meter but we have E = q/4πeod2 or q/4πe0d2

Putting this in V =Ed, we have

v = q/4πeod2 x d or v = q/4πeod

Where v is the potential at a point due to a charge q at a distance d from the charge.

Two parallel plates are charged to a voltage of 40V. If they are separated by a distance of 10.0
cm, calculate the electric intensity between them.

Solution

E = V/d

= 40 (volt)/0.1 m

= 400 Vm-1

Capacitors and Capacitance

Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic device for storing charge. Capacitors can be found in almost all but
the most simple electronic circuits. There are many different types of capacitor but they all work
in essentially the same way. A simplified view of a capacitor is a pair of metal plates separated
by a gap in which there is an insulating material known as the dielectric. This simplified
capacitor is also chosen as the electronic circuit symbol for a capacitor is a pair of parallel plates.

Capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of charge to the potential difference across the the plates.

C= Q/V . The unit is microfarad(µf).

The symbol above is for an unpolarised capacitor

Arrangement of Capacitors – Series and Parallel

Series

The equivalent capacitance of the pair is again CT=Q/V. Thus, 1/CT = V/Q = (V1 + V2)/Q = V1/Q +
V2/Q giving

I/C= 1/C1+ 1/C2 + C3

Parallel

For a parallel circuit such as in Figure above, the voltages are the same across each component.
However the total charge is divided between the two capacitors since it must distribute itself
such that the voltage across the two is the same. Also, since the capacitors may have different
capacitances C1 and C2 the charges Q1 and Q2 must also be different. The equivalent capacitance
CT of the pair of capacitors is simply the ratio Q/V where Q=Q1+Q2 is the total stored charge. It
follows that CT = Q/V = (Q1+Q2)/V = Q1/V + Q2/V giving

C= C1 + C2 + C3 OR

C T = C 1 + C2

The overall capacitance increases by adding together capacitors in parallel so we create larger
capacitances than is possible using a single capacitor.

Capacitor – Energy Stored

The energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed as

W = 1/2 CV2

Where W = energy stored (Joules), C = capacitance (Farad), V = potential difference (Voltage).

WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR?

C = εA/d explain this equation.

Questions

1. Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity and type of charge: -6.25 nC. They are
held apart at a separation distance of 61.7 cm. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of
repulsion between them.

A. 8.0 x 10-6 N B. 9.23 x 10-7 N C. 7.54 x 10-8 N D. 54 x 10-5 N

2. Two balloons with charges of +3.37 µC and -8.21 µC attract each other with a force of 0.0626
Newton. Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.

A. +1.99 m B -1.99 m C. 7.34 m D. 2.65 m

3. The energy stored in a 10 μF capacitor charged to 230 V can be calculated as

A. 1.46 J B. 0.26 J C. 8 J D. 3.45 J

4. Electric field strength has

A. Only direction B Only Magnitude C. Magnitude and direction D. None of the options

5. By connecting capacitors in series you store

A. More charges B. No Charge C. Average charges D. Less charge

ELECTROLYSIS

Topic: ELECTROLYSIS

Conduction Through liquids

Electrolysis is the process by which the movement of an electric current through a solution
librates electrons. Chemicals in a container are decomposed in order to generate current.
Michael Faraday studied this process extensively and laid the foundation for the theory of
electrolysis. Some liquids are good conductors while others are poor conductors of electricity.
Good conductors are known as electrolytes, poor conductors are non-electrolytes.

Liquids such as solutions of acids, bases and salts are generally good conductors. Liquids such as
benzene and paraffin or kerosene are poor conductors. Organic compounds are generally poor
conductors. While pure water is also a poor conductor, water containing some dissolved salts
conducts moderately.

A Voltameter is device for measuring the quantity of electricity passing through a conductor by
the amount of electrolytic decomposition it produces, or for measuring the strength of a
current by the amount of such decomposition in a given time.

1. The Electrolytes is the liquid or molten substance which conducts a current and is
decomposed by it. i.e. it contains mobile ions and undergoes decomposition and is called
electrolyte, e.g. acids, bases, common salts, etc.

2. Non-electrolyte this is a substance which, either in molten state or in solution, does not allow
the flow of an electric current.

Thus, it is a substance that does not conduct current or undergo decomposition, e.g. organic
solvents such as benzene, paraffin, sugar, salt, etc.

3. Electrodes are materials in the form of a rod or plate through which current enters or leaves
the electrolyte. There are two electrodes: (a) the positive electrode through which current enters
the electrolyte is called the anode. (b) The negative electrode through which liquid leaves the
electrolyte is called the Cathode.

4. Anode is a positive (+ve) electrode at which the electron enters and current leaves the
electrolyte.

5. Cathode is a negative (-ve) electrode at which the electron enters and current leaves the
electrolyte

6. Voltameter: The whole apparatus consisting of the vessel, electrolyte and electrodes is called
the voltameter.

7. Ions: They are charged particles which exists in electrolytes and take part in electrolysis

These are the immediate products of decomposition of an electrolyte. The ions which go to the
anode are called anions, those ions which go to the cathode are called cations

Current Electricity
Current electricity consists of fast moving negatively charged electrons. Currents travels in
material which allow the flow of electrons called conductors. Current is produced in a simple
circuit consisting of a battery (which is source), a bulb (which is the lighting) and a tap key
(which is used in controlling the simple system).

The current in the battery due to the force applied on it. The force is not visible but it is
performed by some chemicals in the battery. The electrical pressure is called the voltage.

Dynamics of charged particles (ions) in electrolytes

The Ionic theory

In an electrolyte there are positively and negatively charged particles called ions. The molecules
that constitute the electrolyte are split in solution into these ions through the process known as
electrolytic dissolution. The dissolution of an electrolyte occurs irrespective of whether or not an
electric field is applied to the electrolyte. Ions in an electrolyte execute random movements until
a battery is connected to the electrodes of a voltmeter. As soon as a p.d. is set up across the
electrodes the positive ions drift to the cathode, which is at a negative potential while the
negative ions drift to the anode which is at a positive potential.

This directional movement of ions is the electric current flowing through the electrolyte. Such
movement ceases as soon as the battery is disconnected, and the ions move randomly once again.

Thus electrolytic solutions are able to conduct electricity because the electrolytes in solution can
dissociate into ions Non electrolytes in solution do not easily dissociate into ions.

Examples of Electrolysis

Pure water is a poor electrolyte. Because of that, a few drops of sulfuric acid will help to increase
its conductivity by adding more mobile electrons

As such the ions present in the electrolyte now are

From Sulfuric Acid: H+ and SO42-

From Water: H+ and OH–

Inert electrodes like Carbon or Platinum electrodes are used so that the acid solutions do not
corrode the electrodes easily.

At the Cathode:

H+ migrate to the cathode and accepts an electron to become a Hydrogen atom. After that, the
Hydrogen atoms form a covalent bond with other hydrogen atoms to become Hydrogen gas
molecules
2H+ + e– –> H2

Observation:
Effervescence of colourless, odourless gas at the cathode

At the Anode:

SO42- and OH– migrate to the anode, where OH– is preferentially discharged due to it having a
lower position in the Electrochemical series as compared to SO42-

4OH– –> 2H2O + O2 + 4e–

Therefore Overall Equation:

2H2O(l) –> 2H2 (g)+ O2(g)

Michael Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

First Law: It shows that the mass (m) of substance deposited at the cathode during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the quantity of electricity (total charge q) passed by the electrolyte.

i.e. M = ZQ, where Q = It, M = ZIt , Z = M/It, where Z is the constant of proportionality and is
known as electrochemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of the substance.

Thus, electrochemical equivalent (ECE) may be defined as “the mass of the ion deposited by
passing a current of one Ampere for one second (i.e., by passing Coulomb of electricity)”. It’s
unit is gram per coulomb.

Coulomb is the unit of electrical charge.

96500Coulombs electrons = 1 mole electrons.

1 Coulomb = 6.023×1023/96500 = 6.85 × 1018 electrons, or 1 electronic charge 1.6 × 10–19

Coulomb.

Second law: It states that, “When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different
electrolytes, the masses of different ions liberated at the electrodes are directly proportional to
their chemical equivalents (Equivalent weights).” i.e.,

M1/W2 = E1/E2 or Z1It/Z2It or Z1/Z2 = E1/E2 (∴ W = ZIt)

weight (E), i.e., E ∝ Z or E = FZ or E = 96500 × Z

Thus the electrochemical equivalent (Z) of an element is directly proportional to its equivalent

where, F = Faraday constant = 96500 C mol–1

So, 1 Faraday = 1F =Electrical charge carried out by one mole of electrons.

1F = Charge on an electron × Avogadro’s number.

1F = e– × N = (1.602 × 10–19c) × (6.023 × 1023 mol–1)

Number of Faraday = number of electrons passed/6.023 × 1023

(3) Faraday’s law for gaseous electrolytic product For the gases, we use V = It Ve/96500

where, V = Volume of gas evolved at S.T.P. at an electrode

Ve = Equivalent volume = Volume of gas evolved at an electrode at S.T.P. by 1 Faraday charge

(4) Quantitative aspects of electrolysis: We know that, one Faraday (1F) of electricity is equal
to the charge carried by one mole (6.023 × 1023) of electrons. So, in any reaction, if one mole of
electrons is involved, then that reaction would consume or produce 1F of electricity. Since 1F is
equal to 96,500 Coulombs, hence 96,500 Coulombs of electricity would cause a reaction
involving one mole of electrons.

If in any reaction, n moles of electrons are involved, then the total electricity (Q) involved in the
reaction is given by, Q = nF = n × 96500 C

Thus, the amount of electricity involved in any reaction is related to,

(i) The number of moles of electrons involved in the reaction,

(ii) The amount of any substance involved in the reaction.

Therefore, 1 Faraday or 96,500 C or 1 mole of electrons will reduce,

(a) 1 mole of monovalent cation,(b) 1/2mole of divalent cation,

(c) 1/3 mole of trivalent cation, (d) 1/n mole of n valent cations.

Uses of Electrolysis

1. Extraction or isolation of metals: Electrolysis is a process used in extracting metals. Such

elements are usually very reactive, e.g. sodium, potassium, chlorine, oxygen, aluminium, etc.
Such elements are found at the top reactivity series. They react too readily and cannot be
prepared by the electrolysis in an aqueous solution of one of the salts. They are prepared by the
electrolysis of their fused salts.

2. Purification of Metals: many do not in free or uncombined state. They exist in a state of
combination with other elements. To extract such metals from their ores, they have to be
purified. The overall result of the experiment is that the metal is transformed from its impure to
its pure state.

3. Electroplating of Metals: Electroplating is the process of coating a substance with the layer
of another substance. It is done through electrolysis. Object to be plated is fairly cleaned to make
sure that the anode deposits sticks firmly. If it is not a conductor, it is first coated with graphite,
so that what is to be coated on it sticks firmly. The anode is the pure metal to be deposited, while
the cathode is made the electrolytic cell. The electrolyte is a solution of soluble salt and the pure
metal used as the anode.

Examples

1. Calculate the time in minute, required to plate a substance a 300cm2, a layer of copper 0.6mm
thick, if a constant current of 2A is maintained. Assuming the density of copper is 8.8g/cm3 and
one coulomb liberates 0.00033g copper.

Solution

Given that Area = 300cm2, thickness = 0.6mm = 0.06cm

Mass = 0.00033g, density = 8.8g/cm3

Density = mass/volume, mass = density x volume

Mass = 8.8 x 300 x 0.06 = 158.4g

Using M = Zit

T = m/ZI = 158.4/2 x 0.00033 = 24000secs = 4000mins

Questions

1. Find the mass of copper deposited on the cathode of a copper voltameter if a current of 0.53A
is placed through it for 30 minutes (e.c.e. of copper = 3.3 x 10-4 gC-1)

A. 0.465 g B. 0.425 g C. 0.325 g D. 0.315 g

2. Calculate the time in minutes required to electroplate an article of area 300 cm 2 with a layer of
copper 0.06 cm thick if a constant current of 2 A is maintained. Assumed that the density of
copper is 8.8 gcm-3 and that one coulomb liberates 0.00033 g of copper.

A. 400 minutes B. 4000 minutes C. 4500 minutes D. 5000 minutes

3. A copper and a silver voltameter are connected in series, and at the end of a period of time, 5.0
g of copper was deposited, calculate the mass of silver deposited at the same time. Chemical
equivalent of copper = 31.5. Chemical equivalent of silver = 108.

A. 47 g B. 17.14 g C. 20.17 g D. 23 g

4. The electrochemical equivalent of a metal is 0.126 x 10-6 kgC-1. The mass of the metal that a
current of 5 A will deposit from a suitable bath in 1 hour is

A. 0.0378 x 10-3 kg B. 0.227 x 10-3 kg C. 0.378 x 10-3 kg D. 0.595 x 10-3 kg

5. Ions are ……………………………. particles which exists in electrolytes and take part in
electrolysis

A. Non charged B. Charged C. Neutral D. Positive

ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT

Topic: ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT

RESISTIVITY

Resistivity: The resistance of a wire or material conductor maintained at a constant temperature

is related to its length (l) and its cross-sectional area (A) by the expression

R = ρ l/A

Where ρ is a constant of proportionality known as the resistivity of the material

Then we could deduce ρ = RA/l

Thus ρ = R when l = 1 and A = 1 Hence we define resistivity as follows:

Resistivity is the resistance of unit length of material of unit cross-sectional area.

Where R is measured in ohms, A in m, l in m, the unit of ρ is in ohm-meter (Ωm).

We recall our definition of resistance as the ability of a material to oppose the flow of current
through it. The greater the resistivity of a wire, the poorer it is as an electrical conductor.
Because of this, the term conductivity is used to specify the current-carrying ability of a material.
The greater the conductivity the more easily current flows through the material. Thus materials
of high conductivity also have low resistivity. Conductivity, σ =l/ρ
Electrical conductivity is a measure of the extent to which a material will allow current to flow
easily through it when a p.d. is applied at a specific temperature. It is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Example The resistance of a wire of length 100 cm and diameter 0.3 mm is found to be 3.0
ohms. Calculate (i) the resistivity, (ii) the conductivity of the material of the wire.

Solution

(i) Resistivity

ρ = RA/l

R= 3 Ω, l = 100 cm = 1.0 m, r = (0.3/2 x 10-3) m

Area = πr2 = π(0.3/2 x 10-3)2 m2

= π(1.5 x 10-4)2 m2

ρ = 3 x 22//7 x (1.5 x 10-4)2/1 Ωm

= 21.21 x 10-8 Ωm

= 2.12 x 10-7 Ωm

(ii) Conductivity, σ = 1/ρ

= 1/2.12 x10=7 (Ωm)-1

= 4.7 x 106 (Ωm)-1

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter

An ammeter is used for measuring electric currents. A galvanometer is used for detecting and
measuring very small currents.

We can convert the galvanometer into an ammeter by connecting a suitable resistor in parallel
with the galvanometer. A resistor used for this purpose is known as shunt. The shunt is a low
resistance wire and is used to divert a large part of current being measured but to allow only a
small current to pass through the galvanometer.

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument therefore it can’t measure heavy currents. In
order to convert a galvanometer into an Ammeter, a very low resistance known as “shunt”
resistance is connected in parallel to Galvanometer. Value of shunt is so adjusted that most of the
current passes through the shunt. In this way a Galvanometer is converted into Ammeter and can
measure heavy currents without fully deflected
An ammeter is always connected in series to a circuit

Then current through shunt:

Is = (I-Ig)

potential difference across the shunt:

Vs= IsRs

Vs = (I – Ig)Rs ——-(ii)

But Vs =Vg

(I – Ig)Rs = IgRg

Rs = Ig Rg/I – Ig

Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure potential difference

between two points in a circuit.

Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter. The Multiplier

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, therefore it cannot measure high potential
difference. In order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as
“series resistance” is connected in series with the galvanometer.

Value of series resistance

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in series to it. Then
combined resistance = (Rg + Rx).

If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full-scale

deflection, when current “Ig” passes through it. Then,

V = Ig (Rg + Rx)

V = IgRg + IgRx

V – IgRg = IgRx

Rx = (V – IgRg)/Ig
Rx = V/Ig – Rg

Therefore, true value of resistance, R = Rm1 – Ra

= Rm1(1 – Ra/Rm1)

The Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical

resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer. It was invented by Samuel
Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One
of the Wheatstone bridge’s initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and comparison

If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether R2 is too high or too
low. R2 is varied until there is no current through the galvanometer, which then reads zero.

The desired value of Rx is now known to be given as:

Rx = R3 . R2/R1

If all four resistor values and the supply voltage (VS) are known, and the resistance of the
galvanometer is high enough that IG is negligible, the voltage across the bridge (VG) can be
found by working out the voltage from each potential divider and subtracting one from the other.
The equation for this is:

VG = (Rx/R3 + Rx – R2/R1 + R2) Vs

where VG is the voltage of node B relative to node D.

Significance

The Wheatstone bridge illustrates the concept of a difference measurement, which can be
extremely accurate. Variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure capacitance,
inductance, impedance and other quantities, such as the amount of combustible gases in a
sample, with an explosimeter. Questions

1. If a wire has a resistance of 1.32Ω, a length of 110 cm and a n area of cross-sectional of

0.00415 cm2, Find the resistivity of the material of which it is made.

A. 6.45 x 10-7Ωm B. 4.98 x 10-7Ωm C. 3.46 x 10-7Ωm D. 2.39 x 10-7Ωm

2. A galvanometer has as resistance of 5Ω. By using a shunt wire of resistance 0.05Ω, the
galvanometer could be converted to an ammeter, capable of reading 2A. What is the current
through the galvanometer?
A. 0.02A B. 0.06A C. 2.09A D. 4.15 A

3. A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown

………………………….. by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes
the unknown component.

A. Potential difference B. electrical resistance C. Voltage D. Current

4. In other to concert a galvanometer into ammeter, the shunt resistance must be connected in
…………………… to the galvanometer.

A. Series B. Parallel C. direct D. Indirect

5. A resistance wire of length 2m and of uniform cross-sectional area 5.0 x 10-7 m2 has a
resistance of 2Ω. Calculate its resistivity.

A. 5.0 x 10-6 m B. 5.6 x 10-7 m2 C. 5.0 x 10-7 m2 D. 4.7 x 10-5 m2

MAGNETIC FIELD

Topic: MAGNETIC FIELD

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic field has a region around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt or
detected.
The area around a magnet in which it can attract or repel objects or in which a magnetic force
can be detected is called the magnetic field of the magnet.

Patterns of Magnetic Field

Magnetic field patterns can conveniently be observed using iron fillings. The magnet is placed
on paper and the iron fillings are sprinkled lightly on the paper around the magnet. The paper is
now tapped gently and the iron fillings will be seen to turn and settle in definite directions. The
pattern of the magnetic field and for other magnetic arrangements.

Magnetic field is a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and
magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a
magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but closely
related fields denoted by the symbols B and H. B refers to magnetic flux density, and H to
magnetic field strength. Magnetic flux density is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz
force it exerts on moving electric charges
Alternative names for B
Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction, Magnetic field
Alternative names for H
Magnetic field intensity, Magnetic field strength, Magnetic field, Magnetizing field
The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on the effects it has on its
environment.
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is
known from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E
experiences a force F = qE. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves
in the vicinity of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that particle.
Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that the force on the
particle satisfies the Lorentz force law;
F = q(E + v x B).
Here v is the particle’s velocity and × denotes the cross product.
The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make
the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition allows
the determination of B in the following way.
The command, “Measure the direction and magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place,”
calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at
rest, to determine E. Then measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v
in some other direction. Now find a B that makes [the Lorentz force law] fit all these results—
that is the magnetic field at the place in question.
SI units, B is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly ΦB (magnetic flux) is
measured in webers (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The SI unit of
tesla is equivalent to (newton•second)/(coulomb•metre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is measured in
gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) The H-field is measured in amperes per
metre (A/m) in SI units.

Temporary and Permanent Magnets

Series of experiments carried out have shown that iron, when brought close to a magnetic
material, the magnetic property is lost easily.
When iron nails are clung to a magnet, they form a single file in their arrangement, but when the
magnet bearing heavy iron nail to form an arrangement is removed, every other nail looses their
property, thereby falling off. The conclusion is that iron easily magnetizes and also
demagnetizes, where strong magnetism is required for a short time. Examples of temporary
magnet are soft iron and electromagnet.

Temporary magnets are employed in the following devices: electric bells, induction coil,
telephone ear-piece, magnetic relay, etc.
Steel is not easily magnetized to a magnetic material, because it takes time for the magnetic
molecules in steel to be arranged. Steel is not easily demagnetized because it retains its magnetic
properties even after the removal of magnets. Steel keeps its magnetism much longer than iron
because of these differences in their magnetic properties. Therefore steel is used and most
preferred for making permanent magnets. Examples of permanent magnets are steel alloy, etc.
Permanent magnets are employed in the following devices: electric motors, D.C Dynamo, radio
loud speaker, aerials of transistor, etc.

Differences between electromagnet and ordinary magnet

Electromagnets Ordinary Magnets

1 They are very strong in terms of uses. They are not strong in terms of uses.
2 They are made from cast iron. They are made from steel.
3 They are temporary magnets. They are permanent magnets.

Magnetization

Magnetization is the process by which magnetic material is attracted to a single magnet. An

example is an experiment using a bar of horse-shoe magnet and many nails. The first nail clings
to the magnet followed by second, third, fourth, etc until the magnet force could no longer retain.

Methods of making magnets

1. Single touch method:

This is done by continuous stroking of a steel bar by a permanent magnet. The magnet is raised
each time it reaches the end of the steel bar. A stage is reached when the last touch of the
stroking process produces or results in a pole opposite.
2. Method of divided touch (Double stroke):
Using the divided method, each half of the steel is stroked continuously in opposite directions by
the opposite poles N ad S of the two bar magnets. Divided touch stroking starts in the middle.
The same principle is followed in single touch method.
3. Hammering in the earth’s field:
A magnet is made through the influence of the earth’s field (magnetic). The bar is first placed in
a north- south direction and inclined at angle 700, to the horizontal axis. The upper part of the
magnet is hammered repeatedly. It is found that the lower part has a weak North pole.
4. Electrical method:
This involves using electrical method which is the best way of making magnet. A solenoid of a
long coil of insulated copper wire is connected to a battery at both terminals or end points. A
steel bar is placed inside the solenoid, current is switched on for few seconds and switched off. A
test after the experiment will show that the steel bar is found to be a magnet with North and
South poles.
NB: This position of the poles depends on the direction of the current. When the current is
clockwise in the coil, the bar has a South Pole at its end and vice-versa.

Demagnetization

This simply means the removal or loss of magnetism from a magnetic material i.e. destroying
magnetism. Demagnetism, on the other hand is a process by which the property or substance is
removed, causing a breakdown in the magnetic circuit. This can be done through the following
methods:
1. Heating method: When a magnet is heated until it is red hot and placed in .a East-West
direction, the magnetic property is lost and would no more behave like a magnet again.
2. Hammering method: The magnet is repeatedly hammered while pointing in an E-W direction,
that is, about 900 to the earth’s magnetic field of direction. Hammering randomly disorganizes
the arrangement of its magnetic property.
3. Electric method: The best way to demagnetize a magnet is by electrical method. A magnet is
connected to an AC source and current through a steel bar placed inside a solenoid coil pointing
in the direction of E-W, after some seconds, the magnets are taken away from the solenoid and
are placed a distance away from the solenoid.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth magnetism: The reason for the earth’s magnetism is not understood, though it is
generally agreed that the earth contains the electrical charges. Field also shows the same
similarity to the production of North and South poles by a magnet inside the earth, slightly
inclined to the geographical axis. The behaviour is like the south-seeking pole pointing towards
the North pole.
If a magnet placed in a uniform sphere of non-magnetic material is mounted on an axis joining
the point on the N and S poles of the earth, the line of force will run as follows. Below are very
key information as regards the magnetic field of the earth.
As per the most established theory it is due to the rotation of the earth where by the various
charged ions present in the molten state in the core of the earth rotate and constitute a current.
(1) The magnetic field of earth is similar to one which would be obtained if a huge magnet is
assumed to be buried deep inside the earth at its centre.
(2) The axis of rotation of earth is called geographic axis and the points where it cuts the surface
of earth are called geographical poles (Ng, Sg). The circle on the earth’s surface perpendicular to
the geographic axis is called equator.
(3) A vertical plane passing through the geographical axis is called geographical meridian.
(4) The axis of the huge magnet assumed to be lying inside the earth is called magnetic axis of
the earth. The points where the magnetic axis cuts the surface of earth are called magnetic poles.
The circle on the earth’s surface perpendicular to the magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
(5) Magnetic axis and Geographic axis don’t coincide but they make an angle of 17.5° with each
other.
(6) Magnetic equator divides the earth into two hemispheres. The hemisphere containing south
polarity of earth’s magnetism is called northern hemisphere while the other, the southern
hemisphere.
(7) The magnetic field of earth is not constant and changes irregularly from place to place on the
surface of the earth and even at a given place in varies with time too.
(8) Direction of earth’s magnetic field is from S (geographical south) to N (Geographical north).

Elements of Earth’s Magnetic Field

The magnitude and direction of the magnetic field of the earth at a place are completely given by
certain quantities known as magnetic elements.
(1) Magnetic Declination: It is the angle between geographic and the magnetic meridian planes.
Declination at a place is expressed at or depending upon whether the north pole of the compass
needle lies to the east or to the west of the geographical axis.
(2) Angle of inclination or Dip (ø): It is the angle between the direction of intensity of total
magnetic field of earth and a horizontal line in the magnetic meridian.
(3) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH): Earth’s magnetic field is horizontal
only at the magnetic equator. At any other place, the total intensity can be resolved into
horizontal component (BH) and vertical component (BV).

Magnet

What we typically refer to as a magnet, ie. a material that spontaneously produces a magnetic
field, is in fact a ferromagnet. The name comes from the region where ferromagnetic stones were
found in ancient Greek times, but magnets were also known in the same time period in India and
China.
A compass is a freely suspended ferromagnet that can be used for navigation, or, as we will use it
in this lecture, to determine the direction of a magnetic field.

Poles

We are familiar with the idea that magnet has poles, and that like poles repel and unlike poles
attract.

What is a Pole?

Poles always come in pairs, magnetic monopoles would be highly theoretically interesting, but
have not been observed in experiment. A magnetic monopole would be the magnetic equivalent
of charge and would act as a source or sink of magnetic field.
We can think of a magnet as having a particular magnetization direction, and we can then
understand why if we break a magnet we end up with the creation of another pair of poles. In the
context of the bar magnet we can consider the poles to describe the ends of a magnetic material.

Magnetic Field Lines

As with electric fields it can be useful to draw lines which reflect the magnetic field at a point.
Field lines point from North to South.
The lack of magnetic monopoles means that magnetic field lines do not begin or end anywhere.
So in the case of a bar magnet we can see that the field lines that we can measure outside the
magnet continue within it to close the loop.

Earth’s magnetic field

The fact that a compass works demonstrates that the Earth has a magnetic field. The magnetic
field of the earth is also important in shielding the earth from cosmic radiation. We should note
that the magnetic North Pole is actually a magnetic south pole, and the magnetic South Pole is
actually a magnetic north pole.
The Earth’s magnetic poles move around, and in fact can flip their direction completely. This
might suggest to us that the magnetic field, unlike in our bar magnet, is due to some kind of
dynamic process. In fact the Earth’s magnetic field is due to electric currents in the outer liquid
core. So we should discuss how an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field.

Magnetic field due to a current carrying wire

If we put current through a wire we can measure that it produces a magnetic field. The direction
of the field can be determined by a right hand rule. The experiment we will perform today was
first performed by Hans Christian Oersted who first noticed the effect on a compass due to a
current during a lecture in 1820.

Magnetic field due to a current carrying loop

If we make the wire in to a loop we can again apply the right hand rule to determine the direction
of the magnetic field. We can compare the field distribution to the one we measured for the bar
magnet.

Force on a current carrying wire

Having seen that a current carrying wire produces a magnetic field, we can now see whether a
magnetic field exerts a force on a current carrying wire. In doing so we will be able to produce a
definition of the magnetic field.
The direction of the force can be determined in a Jumping wire experiment. Further experiment
would reveal that the force on a wire is always perpendicular to both the current and the field, so
we can see that we can use a right hand rule to determine the direction of the force.
I make my parallel fingers the field lines, my thumb the current and the force is the direction of
the palm of my hand (the direction I would push).

Magnitude of magnetic field

If we consider wire of which length lies within a magnetic field we find that the force depends on
as well as the current. We can write an equation that contains this information as well as the right
hand rule for the direction that we identified earlier. We can give the length of the wire a
direction and make it a vector. The current is then defined to be positive when it flows in the
direction of the length vector. The force is then or in the diagram below

We can also chop the length up in to infinitesimal pieces which produce infinitesimal forces to
accommodate a wire that changes its direction with respect to a magnetic field, or a non-uniform
magnetic field.
Questions
1. Which is not true about electromagnets?
A. They are very strong in terms of uses. B. They are made from cast iron. C. They are
temporary magnets. D. They are made from steel.
2. Demagnetization can be done through the following methods, except
A. Heating B. Hammering C. Wetting D. Electric
3. Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is
known from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E
experiences a force. The force is mathematically denoted thus:
A. F = qE B. F = q/E C. F = q + E D. F = q(-E)
4. A compass is used to determine the
A. direction of a magnetic field B. Magnetic field strength C. Magnetic flux density D.
Magnetizing field
5. Magnetization is the process by which magnetic material is attracted to
A. Quadruple magnets B. Triple magnets C. Double magnets D. a single magnet

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Topic: MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic field is a region of space where a north magnetic monopole experiences a force. The
direction of the field is by definition the direction of the force on the north end of a magnet.
Since most texts contain diagrams of magnetic fields they will not be reproduced here.

CHARGES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Use your right hand to determine the direction of force on a moving positively charged
particle in a magnetic field. With the fingers pointing from south to north (the same direction as
the field), and the thumb pointing in the direction of the velocity of the particle, the palm points
in the direction of the force on the particle. In the example below, the force is away from the
observer.

The magnitude of the force on the particle, F, is

F = qvBsinø. Notice that F = 0 when any of the following are true:
q= 0 ; v = 0; ø = 00; ø = 1800 . Notice that F is greatest when the particle is moving at right angles
to the field.

EXAMPLES
1. An alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons) traveling east at 2.0 x 105 m/s enters a
magnetic field of 0.20 T pointing straight up. What is the force acting on the alpha particle?
answer:

With the fingers of the right hand pointing straight up, and the thumb pointing east, the palm
points south.
F = qvBsinø = (2 x 1.6 x 10-19 C)(2.0 x 105 m/s)(0.20 T)sin900 = 1.28 x 10-14 N

2. An electron traveling to the left moves into a magnetic field directed toward the observer.
Trace the path of the particle, assuming it eventually leaves the field.

answer:

The moment the electron enters the field, it experiences a force perpendicular to its velocity. The
electron follows a circular path until it leaves the field.

FIELD AROUND A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field forms. The field lines form concentric
circles around the conductor. Hold a straight conductor (wire), in your right hand with your
thumb pointing in the direction of conventional current (positive flow). Your fingers circle the
wire in the direction of the magnetic field. The compasses in the following diagram indicate the
direction of the magnetic field near the conductor. Use your left hand for electron flow.

SOLENOIDS

Notice the fields formed by either side of a looped conductor reinforce each other inside the
loop.

One might imagine carrying a step further using many loops to produce a stronger magnetic
field.

In practice, this is achieved by looping a wire many times and attaching it to one power source.
This is called a “solenoid.” An iron core is often used to help gather magnetic field lines into a
more intense field. Hundreds or thousands of loops or “turns” are used, but only a few are
diagrammed for clarity.

Notice that by wrapping the fingers of your right hand around the solenoid in the direction of
conventional current flow, the thumb points north. For electron flow use your left hand.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

When a conductor carries current through a magnetic field, a magnetic force is produced on the
conductor. (This is known as the motor principle). Use the right to determine the direction of
magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. The thumb points in the
direction of conventional (positive) current. The fingers point in the direction of the field (from
north to south). The palm points in the direction of the force on the conductor. In the diagram
below, the force on the conductor is into the page (or away from the observer). For current
defined as electron flow, use the left hand.

The magnitude of the force on the conductor, F, is

F = BILsinø where L is the length of the conductor in the field.

Notice that F = 0 when any of the following are true:

B= 0 ; I = 0; L = 0; ø = 00; ø = 1800 .

Notice that F is greatest when the conductor is at right angles to the field.

Electric Current is the rate of flow of charges. An increase in current through a conductor means
more number of electrons are crossing any cross section of the wire per second.

A moving charge experiences a force in magnetic field because a moving charge creates a
magnetic field around it. The two interacting magnetic fields cause the force..

EXAMPLES

4. A horizontal conductor is carrying 5.0 A of current to the east. A magnetic field of 0.20 T
pointing straight up cuts across 1.5 m of the conductor. What is the force acting on the
conductor?

answer:

With the fingers of the right hand pointing straight up, and the thumb pointing east, the palm
points south.
F = BILsinø = (0.20 T)(5.0 A)(1.5 m)sin900 = 1.5 N .

5. A 50.0 cm horizontal section of conductor with a mass of 8.00 g is in a 0.400 T magnetic field
directed to the west. What is the magnitude and direction of current required to make this section
of the conductor seem weightless?

answer:

The magnetic force must be opposite and equal to the weight of the section of the conductor.
With the fingers of the right hand pointing west, and the palm facing straight up, the thumb
points north.
The weight of the conductor is mg = (0.00800 kg)(9.8 N/kg) = 0.0784 N .
The magnetic force on the conductor is
F = BILsinø, so
0.0784 N = (0.400 T)I(0.50 m)sin900
I = 0.392 A [N]
Applications and Uses of Electromagnet

Electric Bell

When the switch is on, the circuit is completed and current flows. The electromagnet becomes
magnetized and hence attracts the soft-iron armature and at the same time pull the hammer to
strike the gong.

As soon as the hammer moves towards the gong, the circuit is broken. The current stops flowing
and the electromagnet loses its magnetism. This causes the spring to pull back the armature and
reconnect the circuit again.
When the circuit is connected, the electromagnet regains its magnetism and pull the armature and
hence the hammer to strike the gong again. This cycle repeats and the bell rings continuously.

1. The electromagnetic waves with the highest frequencies are called

A. Gamma rays B. X-rays C. Ultraviolet rays D. Infrared rays

2. In a vacuum all electromagnetic waves have the same what?

A. wavelengths B. Frequency C. Propagation Speed D. Characteristics

3. A certain radio station is assigned a frequency of 2000KHz. Estimate the wavelength of its
radio wave.

A. 210m B. 150 m C. 201 m D. 170 m

4. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic radiation?

A. X-ray B. Radio waves C. Infrared radiations D. Sound waves.

5. In which of the following groups are the radiations arranged in the increasing order of their
wavelength?

A. Radio waves, gamma rays, X-rays

B. X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves

C. Gamma rays, radio waves, X-rays

D. Gamma rays, X-rays, radio waves

Electromagnetic Relay

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit.

A relay has at least two circuits. One circuit can be used to control another circuit. The 1st circuit
(input circuit) supplies current to the electromagnet. The electromagnet is magnetized and
attracts one end of the iron armature.

The armature is then closes the contacts (2nd switch) and allows current flows in the second
circuit. When the 1st switch is open again, the current to the electromagnet is cut, the
electromagnet loses its magnetism and the 2nd switch is opened. Thus, current stops to flow in
the 2nd circuit.

Telephone Earpiece

An electromagnet is used in the earpiece of a telephone. The figure shows the simple structure of
a telephone earpiece.

When you speak to a friend through the telephone, your sound will be converted into electric
current by the mouthpiece of the telephone. The current produced is a varying current and the
frequency of the current will be the same as the frequency of your sound. The current will be
sent to the earpiece of the telephone of your friend.

When the current passes through the solenoid, the iron core is magnetized. The strength of the
magnetic field changes according to the varying current. When the current is high, the magnetic
field will become stronger and when the current is low, the magnetic field become weaker.

The soft-iron diaphragm is pulled by the electromagnet and vibrates at the frequency of the
varying current. The air around the diaphragm is stretched and compressed and produces sound
wave. The frequency of the sound produced in the telephone earpiece will be the same as your
sound.

Circuit Breaker

The figure shows the structure of a circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is an automatic switch that
cut off current in a circuit when the current become too large.

When the current in a circuit increases, the strength of the electromagnet will increase in
accordance; this will pull the soft iron armature towards the electromagnet.

As a result, the spring pulls apart the contact and disconnects the circuit immediately, and the
current stop to flow.
We can reconnect the circuit by using the reset button. The reset button can be pushed to bring
the contact back to its original position to reconnect the circuit.

Questions

1. Find the magnetic flux density in the center of a 4.0 cm long air-core solenoid made with 4900
turns of wire and carrying a 2.5A current.

A. 0.385 T B. 0.78 T C. 0.298 T D. 3.850 T

2. Calculate the force on the wire, when it makes an angle of 300in the direction of a straight wire
of 40cm long and carrying a current of 4A is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength 3 x
10-2 weber/m2.

A. 3.4 x 10-2N B. 2.4 x 10-2N C. 4.5 x 10-2N D. 5 x 10-2N

3. When the current in a magnetic field increase, the strength of the magnetic field

A. Decreases B. Increases C. Stabilizes D. Extincts

4. Electromagnet is applicable in all, except

A. Telephone earpiece B. Electric bells C. Electromagnetic relays D. Ammeter

5. In the Flemings left hand rule, the fore-finger points in the

A. Direction of the magnetic field B. Direction of the conventional current C. direction of the
force on the conductor D. None of the above is correct.

Phyyr12 practice questions ft

The refractive index of a medium relative to air is 1.8. Calculate, to the nearest degree,
the critical angle for the medium. A.68° B. 56° C. 34° D. 18°
1) Which of the following colors of light is most deviated when white light passes through a
triangular glass prism? A. Orange B. Green C. Indigo D. Yellow
2) When white light passes through a triangular prism, there is dispersion because of A.
Diffraction of light. B. Polarization of light. C. The difference in speed of the
components of light. D. The interference of light waves in glass.
3) A magnet is similar to a bi-polar charged system in the following aspect:-
I. it has two opposite poles –the N and S poles.
 II. The earth’s magnetic N- pole is close to the geographic S- pole and the earth’s
magnetic S- pole is close to the geographic N- pole.
III. The force of attraction or repulsion between opposite or like poles obeys a law
identical in form to coulomb’s law for electric changes.
Which of the above statements is (are) true? A. I only B. II only C. I and III only D.
I, II and III
4) Which of the following methods cannot be used to convert a steel bar into magnet?
I. Passing of an electric current through a solenoid
II. Repeated stroking of the steel bar with a magnet
III. Heating of the steel bar
IV. Hammering the steel bar in the earth’s magnetic field A. I and II only B. III and
IV only C. I, II and III only D. I, II and IV only
5) Which of the following are magnetic materials? A. Copper, steel and iron B. Iron,
lead and brass C. Steel, glass and lead D. Nickel, steel and iron
6) The angle which the earth’s magnetic field makes with the horizontal is called the
A. Magnetic declination B. Magnetic meridian C. Angel of dip D. Angel of
deviation
7) Which of the following statements about magnetism is true? A. A freely suspended bar
magnet comes to rest in the geographic north-south direction. B. Like poles attract. B.
Iron filings will concentrate mainly round the ends of a bar magnet. D. Lodestone is a
non-magnetic material.
8) The angle between geographic and the magnetic meridians at a point on the earth’s
surface is called the A. Angel of inclination B. Angel of dip C. Angel of declination
D. Longitude of the point
9) The armature of an electric motor is made of soft iron because
I. Soft iron can made into a permanent magnet II. Soft iron loses its magnetism readily
III. Soft iron retains its magnetism for a long time Which of the above statement is (are)
correct? A. I only B. II only C. III only D. II and III only
10) A particle of change 0.5C moves at a velocity of 2.5 ms-¹ in a direction perpendicular to a
magnetic field of strength 0.20 T. the magnetic forces experienced by the particle is A.
0.025 N B. 0.050 N C. 0.250 N D. 0.500 N
11) An electronic of charge q moving with velocity v enters into a magnetic field of flux
density B. If the electron moves in a direction parallel to the field. The force on the
electron is A. qvB B. qv/B C. qB/v D. zero
12) Which of the following connection will convert a milliammeter into a voltmeter? A. A
high series resistances B. A high parallel resistances C. A low series resistances
D. A low parallel resistances
13) To convert an a.c. generator into a d.c generator, the A. Coil is wound on a soft iron
armature B. Slip rings an replace with split rings C. Number of turns in the coil is
increased D. Field magnet is made stronger
14) dynamo converts A. Mechanical energy into electric energy B. Electric energy into
mechanical energy C. Heat energy into electrical energy D. Electrical energy into
heat energy
15) The mouthpiece of a telephone primarily converts sound energy into A. Mechanical
energy B. Heart energy C. Electrical energy D. Chemical energy
16) In a simple cell, the zinc electrode is amalgamated with mercury in order to prevent A.
Local action B. Polarization C. Overheating D. Corrosion
17) The presences of hydrogen bubbles around the copper plate of a primary cell result in
I. Local action II. Increase in the cell’s internal resistances III. Production of less
current by the cell IV. Polarization. Which of the above statement are true? A. I
and II only B. III and IV only C. II, III and IV only D. I, II and III only
18) The depolarization agent in a leclanche cell is the A. Carbon rod B. Ammonium
chloride C. Manganese dioxide D. Powdered carbon
19) Electricity is conducted through a salt- water electrolyte by A. Atoms B. Free
electrons C. Salt molecules D. Ions
20) 1g of copper is liberated by a charge flow of 10ᶟC in a voltammeter. In order to librates
7.2g of copper in the same voltammeter, a current of 2A should be maintained for A.
6min. B. 30min. C. 60min. D. 120min.
21) Which of the following is not true of a discharge tube? A. The glass tube must be very
long B. The characteristic light produced can be used to study the structure of the atoms
and molecules of the gas. C. The gas pressure must be somewhat less than atmospheric
pressure. D. It is used to obtain light of different colours.
22) The peak value of the p.d in an AC circuit is 240V. the instantaneous p.d at 1/8th of a
cycle is A. 2402V B. 1202V C. 120 V D. 60 V
23) The unit of inductances and reactance are respectively A. Farad and henry B. Henry
and farad C. Ohm and henry D. Henry and ohm
24) An inductor of inductance 10Mh having negligible resistance is connected to a 1.5 x10ᶟ
Hz oscillator. The inductive reactance is A. 188.5Ω B. 94.3Ω C. 42.4Ω D. 30.0Ω
25) The pressure exerted by a liquid in a container is dependent on the. A. Mass of the liquid.
B. Cross sectional area of the container. C. Volume of the liquid D. Density of the
liquid
26) A boat travels from West to East at 40 km h-¹ at right angle to the bank of a river flowing
North to South at 30km h-¹. Calculate the resultant velocity of the boat. A. 70km h-¹
B. 50km h-¹ C. 40km h-¹ D. 10km h -¹
 27) An electromagnetic radiation has a speed of 3 X 10⁸ ms-1 and a frequency of 10⁶ Hz,
calculate its wavelength. A.3.3 X 10ᶟ m. B.3.0 X 10² m. C.3.0 X 10⁻² m. D,3.3 X 10⁻²m.

Define the following terms I. monochromatic light II. dispersion of white light and give one
natural example of it. III. complementary colors with examples.
Distinguish between pure and impure spectrum. II. with the aid of diagram, explain briefly how a
pure spectrum can be produced?