DBMS

UNIT -1
 UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONCEPTS OF DATABASE SYSTEMS:

What is Data?

The raw facts are called as data. The word “raw” indicates that they have not been processed.

Ex: For example 89 is the data.

What is information?

The processed data is known as information.

Ex: Marks: 89; then it becomes information.

What is Knowledge?

1. Knowledge refers to the practical use of information.

2. Knowledge necessarily involves a personal experience.

DATA/INFORMATION PROCESSING:

The process of converting the data (raw facts) into meaningful information is called as
data/information processing.

When When
Data Information Knowledge
Processed Processed

Note: In business processing knowledge is more useful to make decisions for any organization.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION:

DATA INFORMATION
1.Raw facts 1.Processed data
2. It is in unorganized form 2. It is in organized form
3. Data doesn’t help in 3. Information helps in
decision decision
making process making process

FILE ORIENTED APPROACH:

The earliest business computer systems were used to process business records and
produce information. They were generally faster and more accurate than equivalent manual
systems. These systems stored groups of records in separate files, and so they were called file
processing systems.

1. File system is a collection of data. Any management with the file system, user has to
write the procedures

2. File system gives the details of the data representation and Storage of data.

3. In File system storing and retrieving of data cannot be done efficiently.

4. Concurrent access to the data in the file system has many problems like a Reading the
file while other deleting some information, updating some information

5. File system doesn’t provide crash recovery mechanism.

Eg. While we are entering some data into the file if System crashes then content of the
file is lost.

6. Protecting a file under file system is very difficult.

The typical file-oriented system is supported by a conventional operating system.

Permanent records are stored in various files and a number of different application programs
are written to extract records from and add records to the appropriate files.
DISADVANTAGES OF FILE-ORIENTED SYSTEM:

The following are the disadvantages of File-Oriented System:

Data Redundancy and Inconsistency:

Since files and application programs are created by different programmers over a long
period of time, the files are likely to be having different formats and the programs may be
written in several programming languages. Moreover, the same piece of information may be
duplicated in several places. This redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost. In
addition, it may lead to data inconsistency.

Difficulty in Accessing Data:

The conventional file processing environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved
in a convenient and efficient manner. Better data retrieval system must be developed for
general use.

Data Isolation:

Since data is scattered in various files, and files may be in different formats, it is
difficult to write new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data.

Concurrent Access Anomalies:

In order to improve the overall performance of the system and obtain a faster response
time, many systems allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In such an
environment, interaction of concurrent updates may result in inconsistent data.

Security Problems:

Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data. For
example, in banking system, payroll personnel need only that part of the database that has
information about various bank employees. They do not need access to information about
customer accounts. It is difficult to enforce such security constraints.

Integrity Problems:

The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain types of consistency
constraints. For example, the balance of a bank account may never fall below a prescribed
amount. These constraints are enforced in the system by adding appropriate code in the various
application programs. When new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the programs to
enforce them. The problem is compounded when constraints involve several data items for
different files.

Atomicity Problem:

A computer system like any other mechanical or electrical device is subject to failure.
In many applications, it is crucial to ensure that once a failure has occurred and has been
detected, the data are restored to the consistent state existed prior to the failure

Example:

Consider part of a savings-bank enterprise that keeps information about all customers
and savings accounts. One way to keep the information on a computer is to store it in operating
system files. To allow users to manipulate the information, the system has a number of
application programs that manipulate the files, including:

 A program to debit or credit an account

 A program to add a new account

 A program to find the balance of an account

 A program to generate monthly statements

Programmers wrote these application programs to meet the needs of the bank. New
application programs are added to the system as the need arises. For example, suppose that the
savings bank decides to offer checking accounts.
As a result, the bank creates new permanent files that contain information about all the
checking accounts maintained in the bank, and it may have to write new application programs
to deal with situations that do not arise in savings accounts, such as overdrafts. Thus, as time
goes by, the system acquires more files and more application programs. The system stores
permanent records in various files, and it needs different
Application programs to extract records from, and add records to, the appropriate files.
Before database management systems (DBMS) came along, organizations usually stored
information in such systems.

Organizational information in a file-processing system has a number of major

disadvantages:
1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency:

The address and telephone number of a particular customer may appear in a file that
consists of savings-account records and in a file that consists of checking-account records. This
redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost. In, it may lead to data inconsistency; that
is, the various copies of the same data may no longer agree. For example, a changed customer
address may be reflected in savings-account records but not elsewhere in the system.

2. Difficulty in Accessing Data:

Suppose that one of the bank officers needs to find out the names of all customers who
live within a particular postal-code area. The officer asks the data-processing department to
generate such a list. Because there is no application program to generate that. The bank officer
has now two choices: either obtain the list of all customers and extract the needed information
manually or ask a system programmer to write the necessary application program. Both
alternatives are obviously unsatisfactory.

3. Data Isolation:

Because data are scattered in various files and files may be in different formats, writing
new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.

4. Integrity Problems:

The balance of a bank account may never fall below a prescribed amount (say, $25).
Developers enforce these constraints in the system by adding appropriate code in the various
application programs. However, when new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the
programs to enforce them. The problem is compounded when constraints involve several data
items from different files.

5. Atomicity Problems:
A computer system, like any other mechanical or electrical device, is subject to failure.
In many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure occurs, the data be restored to the consistent
state that existed prior to the failure. Consider a program to transfer $50 from account A to
account B. If a system failure occurs during the execution of the program, it is possible that the
$50 was removed from account A but was not credited to account B, resulting in an inconsistent
database state. Clearly, it is essential to database consistency that either both the credit and
debit occur, or that neither occur. That is, the funds transfer must be atomic—it must happen in
its entirety or not at all. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional file-processing
system.
6. Concurrent-Access Anomalies:

For the sake of overall performance of the system and faster response, many systems
allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In such an environment, interaction of
concurrent updates may result in inconsistent data. Consider bank account A, containing $500.
If two customers withdraw funds (say $50 and $100 respectively) from account A at about the
same time, the result of the concurrent executions may leave the account in an incorrect (or
inconsistent) state. Suppose that the programs executing on behalf of each withdrawal read the
old balance, reduce that value by the amount being withdrawn, and write the result back. If the
two programs run concurrently, they may both read the value $500, and write back $450 and
$400, respectively. Depending on which one writes the value last, the account may contain
$450 or $400, rather than the correct value of $350. To guard against this possibility, the system
must maintain some form of supervision. But supervision is difficult to provide because data
may be accessed by many different application programs that have not been coordinated
previously.

7. Security Problems:

Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data. For
example, in a banking system, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that
has information about the various bank employees. They do not need access to information
about customer accounts. But, since application programs are added to the system in an ad hoc
manner, enforcing such security constraints is difficult. These difficulties, among others,
prompted the development of database systems.
INTRODUCTION TO DATABASES:

History of Database Systems:

1950s and early 1960s:

 Magnetic tapes were developed for data storage

 Data processing tasks such as payroll were automated, with data stored on tapes.

 Data could also be input from punched card decks, and output to printers.

 Late 1960s and 1970s: The use of hard disks in the late 1960s changed the scenario for
data processing greatly, since hard disks allowed direct access to data.

 With disks, network and hierarchical databases could be created that allowed data
structures such as lists and trees to be stored on disk. Programmers could construct and
manipulate these data structures.

 With disks, network and hierarchical databases could be created that allowed data
structures such as lists and trees to be stored on disk. Programmers could construct and
manipulate these data structures.

 In the 1970’s the EF CODD defined the Relational Model.

In the 1980’s:
 Initial commercial relational database systems, such as IBM DB2, Oracle, Ingress, and
DEC Rdb, played a major role in advancing techniques for efficient processing of
declarative queries.

 In the early 1980s, relational databases had become competitive with network and
hierarchical database systems even in the area of performance.

 The 1980s also saw much research on parallel and distributed databases, as well as
initial work on object-oriented databases.

Early 1990s:

 The SQL language was designed primarily in the 1990’s.

 And this is used for the transaction processing applications.

 Decision support and querying re-emerged as a major application area for databases.
  Database vendors also began to add object-relational support to their databases.

Late 1990s:

 The major event was the explosive growth of the World Wide Web.

 Databases were deployed much more extensively than ever before. Database systems
now had to support very high transaction processing rates, as well as very high
reliability and 24 * 7 availability (availability 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, meaning no
downtime for scheduled maintenance activities).

 Database systems also had to support Web interfaces to data.

DATABASE:

A database is a collection of related data.

(OR)

A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can be easily accessed,

managed and updated.

Examples / Applications of Database Systems:

The following are the various kinds of applications/organizations uses databases for their
business processing activities in their day-to-day life. They are:

1. Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions.

2. Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to use
databases in a geographically distributed manner—terminals situated around the world
accessed the central database system through phone lines and other data networks.

3. Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.

4. Credit Card Transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly
statements.

5. Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills,

maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the
communication networks.

6. Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial
instruments such as stocks and bonds.

7. Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.

8. Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in
factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores, and orders for items.

9. Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and benefits,
and for generation of paychecks.

10. Railway Reservation Systems: For reservations and schedule information.

11. Web: For access the Back accounts and to get the balance amount.

12. E –Commerce: For Buying a book or music CD and browse for things like watches,
mobiles from the Internet.

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE-MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:

Database Management System:

A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of

programs to access those data.

The DBMS is a general purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining
constructing and manipulating databases for various applications.

Goals of DBMS:

The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information that is both convenient and efficient

1. Manage large bodies of information

2. Provide convenient and efficient ways to store and access information

3. Secure information against system failure or tampering

4. Permit data to be shared among multiple users

Properties of DBMS:

1.A Database represents some aspect of the real world. Changes to the real world reflected in
the database.

2.A Database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning.

3.A Database is designed and populated with data for a specific purpose.

Need of DBMS:

1. Before the advent of DBMS, organizations typically stored information using a “File
Processing Systems”.

Example of such systems is File Handling in High Level Languages like C, Basic and COBOL
etc., these systems have Major disadvantages to perform the Data Manipulation. So to
overcome those drawbacks now we are using the DBMS.

2. Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information.

3. In addition to that the database system must ensure the safety of the information stored,
despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among
several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results.

ADVANTAGES OF A DBMS OVER FILE SYSTEM:

Using a DBMS to manage data has many advantages:

Data Independence:

Application programs should be as independent as possible from details of data

representation and storage. The DBMS can provide an abstract view of the data to insulate
application code from such details.
Efficient Data Access:

A DBMS utilizes a variety of sophisticated techniques to store and retrieve data

efficiently. This feature is especially important if the data is stored on external storage devices.
Data Integrity and Security:

If data is always accessed through the DBMS, the DBMS can enforce integrity
constraints on the data. For example, before inserting salary information for an employee, the
DBMS can check that the department budget is not exceeded. Also, the DBMS can enforce
access controls that govern what data is visible to different classes of users.

Concurrent Access and Crash Recovery:

A database system allows several users to access the database concurrently. Answering
different questions from different users with the same (base) data is a central aspect of an
information system. Such concurrent use of data increases the economy of a system.

An example for concurrent use is the travel database of a bigger travel agency. The
employees of different branches can access the database concurrently and book journeys for
their clients. Each travel agent sees on his interface if there are still seats available for a specific
journey or if it is already fully booked.

A DBMS also protects data from failures such as power failures and crashes etc. by the
recovery schemes such as backup mechanisms and log files etc.

Data Administration:

When several users share the data, centralizing the administration of data can offer
significant improvements. Experienced professionals, who understand the nature of the data
being managed, and how different groups of users use it, can be responsible for organizing the
data representation to minimize redundancy and fine-tuning the storage of the data to make
retrieval efficient.

Reduced Application Development Time:

DBMS supports many important functions that are common to many applications
accessing data stored in the DBMS. This, in conjunction with the high-level interface to the
data, facilitates quick development of applications. Such applications are also likely to be more
robust than applications developed from scratch because many important tasks are handled by
the DBMS instead of being implemented by the application.
DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS:

Danger of a Overkill:

For small and simple applications for single users a database system is often not
advisable.

Complexity:

A database system creates additional complexity and requirements. The supply and
operation of a database management system with several users and databases is quite costly and
demanding.

Qualified Personnel:

`The professional operation of a database system requires appropriately trained staff.

Without a qualified database administrator nothing will work for long.

Costs:

Through the use of a database system new costs are generated for the system itself but
also for additional hardware and the more complex handling of the system.

Lower Efficiency:

A database system is a multi-use software which is often less efficient than specialized
software which is produced and optimized exactly for one problem.

DATABASE USERS & DATABASE ADMINISTRATORS:

People who work with a database can be categorized as database users or database
administrators.

Database Users:

There are four different types of database-system users, differentiated by the way they
expect to interact with the system.

Naive users:
Naive users are unsophisticated users who interact with the system by invoking one of the
application programs that have been written previously.
 For example, a bank teller who needs to transfer $50 from account A to account B
invokes a program called transfer. This program asks the teller for the amount of money to be
transferred, the account from which the money is to be transferred, and the account to which the
money is to be transferred.

Application programmers:

Application programmers are computer professionals who write application programs.

Application programmers can choose from many tools to develop user interfaces. Rapid
application development (RAD) tools are tools that enable an application programmer to
construct forms and reports without writing a program.

Sophisticated users:

Sophisticated users interact with the system without writing programs. Instead, they
form their requests in a database query language. They submit each such query to a query
processor, whose function is to break down DML statements into instructions that the storage
manager understands. Analysts who submit queries to explore data in the database fall in this
category.

Specialized users:

Specialized users are sophisticated users who write specialized database applications
that do not fit into the traditional data-processing framework.

Database Administrator:

One of the main reasons for using DBMSs is to have central control of both the data and
the programs that access those data. A person who has such central control over the system is
called a database administrator (DBA).

Database Administrator Functions/Roles:

The functions of a DBA include:

Schema definition:

The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of data definition
statements in the DDL, Storage structure and access-method definition.
Schema and physical-organization modification:

The DBA carries out changes to the schema and physical organization to reflect the
changing needs of the organization, or to alter the physical organization to improve
performance.

Granting of authorization for data access:

By granting different types of authorization, the database administrator can regulate

which parts of the database various users can access. The authorization information is kept in a
special system structure that the database system consults whenever someone attempts to access
the data in the system.

Routine maintenance:

Examples of the database administrator’s routine maintenance activities are:

1. Periodically backing up the database, either onto tapes or onto remote servers, to prevent loss
of data in case of disasters such as flooding.

2. Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operations, and upgrading disk
space as required.

3. Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring that performance is not degraded by
very expensive tasks submitted by some users.

The Evolution of Database systems:

The Evolution of Database systems are as follows:

1. File Management System

2. Hierarchical database System

3. Network Database System

4. Relational Database System

File Management System:

The file management system also called as FMS in short is one in which all data is
stored on a single large file. The main disadvantage in this system is searching a record or data
takes a long time. This lead to the introduction of the concept, of indexing in this system. Then
also the FMS system had lot of drawbacks to name a few like updating or modifications to the
data cannot be handled easily, sorting the records took long time and so on. All these drawbacks
led to the introduction of the Hierarchical Database System.

Hierarchical Database System:

The previous system FMS drawback of accessing records and sorting records which
took a long time was removed in this by the introduction of parent-child relationship between
records in database. The origin of the data is called the root from which several branches have
data at different levels and the last level is called the leaf. The main drawback in this was if
there is any modification or addition made to the structure then the whole structure needed
alteration which made the task a tedious one. In order to avoid this next system took its origin
which is called as the Network Database System.

Fig: Hierarchical Database System

Network Database System:

In this the main concept of many-many relationships got introduced. But this also
followed the same technology of pointers to define relationships with a difference in this made
in the introduction if grouping of data items as sets.
Relational Database System:

In order to overcome all the drawbacks of the previous systems, the Relational
Database System got introduced in which data get organized as tables and each record forms a
row with many fields or attributes in it. Relationships between tables are also formed in this
system.

LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION IN A DBMS:

Hiding certain details of how the data are stored and maintained. A major purpose of
database system is to provide users with an “Abstract View” of the data. In DBMS there are 3
levels of data abstraction. The goal of the abstraction in the DBMS is to separate the users
request and the physical storage of data in the database.

Levels of Abstraction:

Physical Level:

The lowest Level of Abstraction describes “How” the data are actually stored.
The physical level describes complex low level data structures in detail.

Logical Level:

This level of data Abstraction describes “What” data are to be stored in the database and
what relationships exist among those data.

Database Administrators use the logical level of abstraction.

View Level:

It is the highest level of data Abstracts that describes only part of entire database.
Different users require different types of data elements from each database.
The system may provide many views for the some database.

THREE SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE:

Schema:

The overall design of the database is called the “Schema” or “Meta Data”. A database
schema corresponds to the programming language type definition. The value of a variable in
programming language corresponds to an “Instance” of a database Schema.

Three Schema Architecture:

The goal of this architecture is to separate the user applications and the physical
database. In this architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels:

1. The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the physical storage structure of
the database. The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes the complete
details of data storage and access paths for the database.

2. The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the structure of the whole
database for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides the details of physical
storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user
operations, and constraints. A high-level data model or an implementation data model can
be used at this level.

3. The external or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each
external schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in
and hides the rest of the database from that user group. A high-level data model or an
implementation data model can be used at this level.
 Fig: Three-Schema Architecture

DATA INDEPENDENCE:

A very important advantage of using DBMS is that it offers Data Independence.

The ability to modify a scheme definition in one level without affecting a scheme
definition in a higher level is called data independence.

There are two kinds:

1. Physical Data Independence

2. Logical Data Independence

Physical Data Independence:

The ability to modify the physical schema without causing application programs to be
 rewritten.
Modifications at this level are usually to improve performance.

Fig: Data Independence

Logical Data Independence:

The ability to modify the conceptual schema without causing application programs to be
rewritten
Usually done when logical structure of database is altered

Logical data independence is harder to achieve as the application programs are usually
heavily dependent on the logical structure of the data.

DATABASE SYSTEM STRUCTURE:

A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the responsibilities
of the overall system. The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided
into the storage manager and the query processor components.

The storage manager is important because databases typically require a large amount of
storage space. Some Big organizations Database ranges from Giga bytes to Tera bytes. So the
main memory of computers cannot store this much information, the information is stored on
disks. Data are moved between disk storage and main memory as needed.

The query processor also very important because it helps the database system simplify
and facilitate access to data. So quick processing of updates and queries is important. It is the
job of the database system to translate updates and queries written in a nonprocedural language,
StorageManager:

A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low
level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the
system. The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The
storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file-system commands.
Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the
database.

Storage Manager Components:

Authorization and integrity manager which tests for the satisfaction of integrity
constraints and checks the authority of users to access data.

Transaction manager which ensures that the database itself remains in a consistent
state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without
conflicting.

File manager: which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.

Buffer manager which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory. Storage manager implements several data structures as part of the physical system
implementation. Data files are used to store the database itself. Data dictionary is used to stores
metadata about the structure of the database, in particular the schema of the database.

Query Processor Components:

DDL interpreter: It interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data
dictionary.

DML compiler: It translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation plan
consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.

Query evaluation engine: It executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler.

Application Architectures:

Most users of a database system today are not present at the site of the database system,
but connect to it through a network. We can therefore differentiate between client machines, on
which remote database users’ work, and server machines, on which the database system runs.
Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts. They are:

1. Two – Tier Architecture

2. Three – Tier Architecture.

Two-Tier Architecture:

The application is partitioned into a component that resides at the client machine,
which invokes database system functionality at the server machine through query language
statements. Application program interface standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for
interaction between the client and the server.

Three-Tier Architecture:

The client machine acts as merely a front end and does not contain any direct database
calls. Instead, the client end communicates with an application server, usually through forms
interface. The application server in turn communicates with a database system to access data.
The business logic of the application, which says what actions to carry out under what
conditions, is embedded in the application server, instead of being distributed across multiple
clients. Three-tier applications are more appropriate for large applications, and for applications
that run on the World Wide Web.

DATABASE DESIGN:

The database design process can be divided into six steps. The ER Model is most
relevant to the first three steps. Next three steps are beyond the ER Model.
1. Requirements Analysis:

The very first step in designing a database application is to understand what data is to be
stored in the database, what applications must be built on top of it, and what operations are most
frequent and subject to performance requirements. The database designers collect information
of the organization and analyzer, the information to identify the user’s requirements. The
database designers must find out what the users want from the database.

2. Conceptual Database Design:

Once the information is gathered in the requirements analysis step a conceptual database design
is developed and is used to develop a high level description of the data to be stored in the
database, along with the constraints that are known to hold over this data. This step is often
carried out using the ER model, or a similar high-level data model.

3. Logical Database Design:

In this step convert the conceptual database design into a database schema (Logical
Database Design) in the data model of the chosen DBMS. We will only consider relational
DBMSs, and therefore, the task in the

logical design step is to convert an ER schema into a relational database schema. The result is a
conceptual schema, sometimes called the logical schema, in the relational data model.

Beyond the ER Design:

The first three steps are more relevant to the ER Model. Once the logical scheme is
defined designer consider the physical level implementation and finally provide certain
security measures. The remaining three steps of database design are briefly described below:

4. Schema Refinement:

The fourth step in database design is to analyze the collection of relations in our
relational database schema to identify potential problems, and to refine it. In contrast to the
requirements analysis and conceptual design steps, which are essentially subjective, schema
refinement can be guided by some elegant and powerful theory.

5. Physical Database Design:

In this step we must consider typical expected workloads that our database must
support and further refine the database design to ensure that it meets desired performance
criteria. This step may simply involve building indexes on some tables and clustering some
tables, or it may involve a substantial redesign of parts of the database schema obtained from
the earlier design steps.

6. Security Design:

The last step of database design is to include security features. This is required to avoid
unauthorized access to database practice after all the six steps. We required Tuning step in
which all the steps are interleaved and repeated until the design is satisfactory.

DBMS FUNCTIONS:

DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee the integrity and consistency
of the data in the database.
Those functions transparent to end users and can be accessed only through the use of
DBMS. They include:
Data Dictionary Management
Data Storage Management
Data transformation and Presentation
Security Management
Multiple Access Control
Backup and Recovery Management
Data Integrity Management
Database Access Languages
Databases Communication Interfaces

Data Dictionary Management:

DBMS stores definitions of database elements and their relationship (Metadata) in the data
dictionary.
The DBMS uses the data dictionary to look up the required data component structures and
relationships.
Any change made in database structure is automatically recorded in the data dictionary.

Data Storage Management:

Modern DBMS provides storage not only for data but also for related data entities.
Data Storage Management is also important for database “performance tuning”.
Performance tuning related to activities that make database more efficiently.
Data Transformation and Presentation:

DBMS transforms entered data to confirm to required data structures.

DBMS formats the physically retrieved data to make it confirms to user’s logical
expectations.
DBMS also presents the data in the user’s expected format.

Security Management:

DBMS creates a security system that enforces the user security and data privacy.
Security rules determines which users can access the database, which data items each user
can access etc.

DBA and authenticated user logged to DBMS through username and password or
through Biometric authentication such as Finger print and face reorganization etc.

Multiuser Access Control:

To provide data integrity and data consistency, DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to
ensure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without compromising
the integrity of database.

Backup and Recovery Management:

DBMS provides backup and recovery to ensure data safety and integrity.

Recovery management deals with the recovery of database after failure such as bad
sector in the disk or power failure. Such capability is critical to preserve database
integrity.

Data Integrity Management:

DBMS provides and enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing data redundancy and
maximizing data consistency.

Ensuring data integrity is especially important in transaction- oriented database systems.

Database Access Languages:

DBMS provides data access through a query language.

 A query language is a non-procedural language i.e. it lets the user specify what
must be done without specifying how it is to be done.

SQL is the default query language for data access.

Databases Communication Interfaces:

Current DBMS’s are accepting end-user requests via different network environments.

For example, DBMS might provide access to database via Internet through the use of
web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox or Microsoft Internet Explorer.

What is Schema?

A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. (or)

The logical structure of the database is called as

Database Schema. (or)

The overall design of the database is the database schema.

It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are associated.

It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.

EG:

STUDENT

SID SNAME PHNO

What is Instance?

The actual content of the database at a particular

point in time. (Or)

The data stored in the database at any given time is an instance of the database

Student

Sid Name phno

1201 Venkat 9014901442
1202 teja 9014774422

In the above table 1201, 1202, Venkat etc are said to be instance of student table.
 Difference between File system & DBMS:

File system DBMS

File system is a collection of data. Any 1. DBMS is a collection of data and user is
1.management not
required to write the procedures for
with the file system, user has to write the procedures managing
the
database.
File system gives the details of
2. the data 2. DBMS provides an abstract view of data that hides
representation and Storage of data. the details.
In File system storing and retrieving of data 3. DBMS is efficient to use since there
3.cannot are
wide
varieties of sophisticated techniques to
be done efficiently. store
and
retrieve the data.
Concurrent access to the data in the file system
4.Has 4. DBMS takes care of Concurrent access using some
many problems like : Reading the file while other form of locking.
deleting some information, updating some
information
File system doesn’t provide crash
5. recovery 5. DBMS has crash recovery mechanism, DBMS
mechanism. protects user from the effects of system failures.
Eg. While we are entering some data into the file if
System crashes then content of the file is lost
6.Protecting a file under file system is very difficult. 6. DBMS has a good protection mechanism.

Data Model
Data Model gives us an idea that how the final system will look like after its
complete implementation. It defines the data elements and the relationships
between the data elements. Data Models are used to show how data is stored,
connected, accessed and updated in the database management system. Here, we
use a set of symbols and text to represent the information so that members of the
organisation can communicate and understand it. Though there are many data
models being used nowadays but the Relational model is the most widely used
model. Apart from the Relational model, there are many other types of data models
about which we will study in details in this blog. Some of the Data Models in DBMS
are:
 1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-Relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object-Oriented Data Model
6. Object-Relational Data Model
7. Flat Data Model
8. Semi-Structured Data Model
9. Associative Data Model
10. Context Data Model

Hierarchical Model
Hierarchical Model was the first DBMS model. This model organises the data in the
hierarchical tree structure. The hierarchy starts from the root which has root data
and then it expands in the form of a tree adding child node to the parent node. This
model easily represents some of the real-world relationships like food recipes,
sitemap of a website etc. Example: We can represent the relationship between the
shoes present on a shopping website in the following way:

Features of a Hierarchical Model

1. One-to-many relationship: The data here is organised in a tree-like

structure where the one-to-many relationship is between the datatypes. Also,
there can be only one path from parent to any node. Example: In the above
example, if we want to go to the node sneakers we only have one path to
reach there i.e through men's shoes node.
2. Parent-Child Relationship: Each child node has a parent node but a
parent node can have more than one child node. Multiple parents are not
allowed.
3. Deletion Problem: If a parent node is deleted then the child node is
automatically deleted.
 4. Pointers: Pointers are used to link the parent node with the child node and
are used to navigate between the stored data. Example: In the above
example the 'shoes' node points to the two other nodes 'women shoes' node
and 'men's shoes' node.
Advantages of Hierarchical Model

 It is very simple and fast to traverse through a tree-like structure.

 Any change in the parent node is automatically reflected in the child node so,
the integrity of data is maintained.
Disadvantages of Hierarchical Model

 Complex relationships are not supported.

 As it does not support more than one parent of the child node so if we have
some complex relationship where a child node needs to have two parent
node then that can't be represented using this model.
 If a parent node is deleted then the child node is automatically deleted.

Network Model
This model is an extension of the hierarchical model. It was the most popular
model before the relational model. This model is the same as the hierarchical
model, the only difference is that a record can have more than one parent. It
replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph. Example: In the example below we can
see that node student has two parents i.e. CSE Department and Library. This was
earlier not possible in the hierarchical model.

Features of a Network Model

1. Ability to Merge more Relationships: In this model, as there are more

relationships so data is more related. This model has the ability to manage
one-to-one relationships as well as many-to-many relationships.
2. Many paths: As there are more relationships so there can be more than
one path to the same record. This makes data access fast and simple.
3. Circular Linked List: The operations on the network model are done with
the help of the circular linked list. The current position is maintained with
 the help of a program and this position navigates through the records
according to the relationship.
Advantages of Network Model

 The data can be accessed faster as compared to the hierarchical model. This
is because the data is more related in the network model and there can be
more than one path to reach a particular node. So the data can be accessed in
many ways.
 As there is a parent-child relationship so data integrity is present. Any
change in parent record is reflected in the child record.
Disadvantages of Network Model

 As more and more relationships need to be handled the system might get
complex. So, a user must be having detailed knowledge of the model to work
with the model.
 Any change like updation, deletion, insertion is very complex.

Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship Model or simply ER Model is a high-level data model diagram.
In this model, we represent the real-world problem in the pictorial form to make it
easy for the stakeholders to understand. It is also very easy for the developers to
understand the system by just looking at the ER diagram. We use the ER diagram
as a visual tool to represent an ER Model. ER diagram has the following three
components:

 Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or even a

concept. Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building, Department, etc
are some of the entities of a School Management System.
 Attributes: An entity contains a real-world property called attribute. This is
the characteristics of that attribute. Example: The entity teacher has the
property like teacher id, salary, age, etc.
 Relationship: Relationship tells how two attributes are
related. Example: Teacher works for a department.
Example:

In the above diagram, the entities are Teacher and Department. The attributes
of Teacher entity are Teacher_Name, Teacher_id, Age, Salary, Mobile_Number.
The attributes of entity Department entity are Dept_id, Dept_name. The two
entities are connected using the relationship. Here, each teacher works for a
department.

Features of ER Model

 Graphical Representation for Better Understanding: It is very easy

and simple to understand so it can be used by the developers to
communicate with the stakeholders.
 ER Diagram: ER diagram is used as a visual tool for representing the
model.
 Database Design: This model helps the database designers to build the
database and is widely used in database design.
Advantages of ER Model

 Simple: Conceptually ER Model is very easy to build. If we know the

relationship between the attributes and the entities we can easily build the
ER Diagram for the model.
 Effective Communication Tool: This model is used widely by the
database designers for communicating their ideas.
 Easy Conversion to any Model: This model maps well to the relational
model and can be easily converted relational model by converting the ER
model to the table. This model can also be converted to any other model like
network model, hierarchical model etc.
Disadvantages of ER Model
  No industry standard for notation: There is no industry standard for
developing an ER model. So one developer might use notations which are
not understood by other developers.
 Hidden information: Some information might be lost or hidden in the ER
model. As it is a high-level view so there are chances that some details of
information might be hidden.

Relational Model
Relational Model is the most widely used model. In this model, the data is
maintained in the form of a two-dimensional table. All the information is stored in
the form of row and columns. The basic structure of a relational model is tables. So,
the tables are also called relations in the relational model. Example: In this
example, we have an Employee table.

Features of Relational Model

 Tuples: Each row in the table is called tuple. A row contains all the
information about any instance of the object. In the above example, each row
has all the information about any specific individual like the first row has
information about John.
 Attribute or field: Attributes are the property which defines the table or
relation. The values of the attribute should be from the same domain. In the
above example, we have different attributes of the employee like Salary,
Mobile_no, etc.
Advnatages of Relational Model

 Simple: This model is more simple as compared to the network and

hierarchical model.
 Scalable: This model can be easily scaled as we can add as many rows and
columns we want.
 Structural Independence: We can make changes in database structure
without changing the way to access the data. When we can make changes to
the database structure without affecting the capability to DBMS to access the
data we can say that structural independence has been achieved.
Disadvantages of Relatinal Model

 Hardware Overheads: For hiding the complexities and making things

easier for the user this model requires more powerful hardware computers
and data storage devices.
 Bad Design: As the relational model is very easy to design and use. So the
users don't need to know how the data is stored in order to access it. This
ease of design can lead to the development of a poor database which would
slow down if the database grows.
But all these disadvantages are minor as compared to the advantages of the
relational model. These problems can be avoided with the help of proper
implementation and organization.

Object-Oriented Data Model

The real-world problems are more closely represented through the object-oriented
data model. In this model, both the data and relationship are present in a single
structure known as an object. We can store audio, video, images, etc in the database
which was not possible in the relational model(although you can store audio and
video in relational database, it is adviced not to store in the relational database). In
this model, two are more objects are connected through links. We use this link to
relate one object to other objects. This can be understood by the example given
below.

In the above example, we have two objects Employee and Department. All the data
and relationships of each object are contained as a single unit. The attributes like
Name, Job_title of the employee and the methods which will be performed by that
object are stored as a single object. The two objects are connected through a
common attribute i.e the Department_id and the communication between these
two will be done with the help of this common id.

Object-Relational Model
As the name suggests it is a combination of both the relational model and the
object-oriented model. This model was built to fill the gap between object-oriented
model and the relational model. We can have many advanced features like we can
make complex data types according to our requirements using the existing data
types. The problem with this model is that this can get complex and difficult to
handle. So, proper understanding of this model is required.

Flat Data Model

It is a simple model in which the database is represented as a table consisting of
rows and columns. To access any data, the computer has to read the entire table.
This makes the modes slow and inefficient.

Semi-Structured Model
Semi-structured model is an evolved form of the relational model. We cannot
differentiate between data and schema in this model. Example: Web-Based data
sources which we can't differentiate between the schema and data of the website. In
this model, some entities may have missing attributes while others may have an
extra attribute. This model gives flexibility in storing the data. It also gives
flexibility to the attributes. Example: If we are storing any value in any attribute
then that value can be either atomic value or a collection of values.

Associative Data Model

Associative Data Model is a model in which the data is divided into two parts.
Everything which has independent existence is called as an entity and the
relationship among these entities are called association. The data divided into two
parts are called items and links.

 Item: Items contain the name and the identifier(some numeric value).
 Links: Links contain the identifier, source, verb and subject.
Example: Let us say we have a statement "The world cup is being hosted by
London from 30 May 2020". In this data two links need to be stored:

1. The world cup is being hosted by London. The source here is 'the world cup',
the verb 'is being' and the target is 'London'.
2. ...from 30 May 2020. The source here is the previous link, the verb is 'from'
and the target is '30 May 2020'.
This is represented using the table as follows:
Context Data Model
Context Data Model is a collection of several models. This consists of models like
network model, relational models etc. Using this model we can do various types of
tasks which are not possible using any model alone.