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Yolanda Abarca

Mr. Watwood

ESCI 1110

02 August 2023

Engineering professionals, specifically geotechnical engineers, classify soils according to

their tactile and engineering properties and their relationship to site development and foundation

support. Engineering classification systems today enable field observations and predictions of

soil properties and behavior to be easily transferred from field to lab. A formal soil description

and classification system is necessary to describe the ground investigation materials. To be

helpful in an engineering context, such a system must be comprehensive (covering all but the

rarest deposits), meaningful in an engineering context, and relatively concise. Distinguishing

between description and classification is essential: Soil description describes the physical

characteristics and state of the soil. A soil in situ can also be defined, or a sample of one can be

described. This is determined by examining the site, performing simple tests, observing the

conditions on site, and studying the geological history. Soil classification involves separating

soils into classes or groups based on their similar characteristics and potential behavior. In

engineering, a material's type should primarily be determined by its mechanical properties, such

as permeability, stiffness, stability, strength, and durability, making it ideal for various

engineering projects. When choosing the most suitable soil for engineering purposes, some key

factors are bearing capacity, cohesion, drainage, compaction, permeability, and settlement.

Permeability refers to the ability of the soil to allow water or other fluids to pass through

it; for specific engineering projects, such as the construction of dams, reservoirs, or underground
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structures, soils with low permeability are preferred to minimize water seepage. Different soil

types may be suitable for engineering based on these factors. For example, sandy soils are often

used for road construction due to their excellent drainage and compaction characteristics. Clayey

soils, on the other hand, are suitable for constructing foundations and retaining walls due to their

high cohesion. Generally, this soil type has numerous problems due to its low strength, high

compressibility, and high volumetric changes. Proper drainage is essential to prevent water

accumulation in the soil. Soil with good drainage characteristics helps maintain stability and

prevents the loss of structural integrity. Well-drained soils, such as sandy or gravelly, are suitable

for road construction and foundation structures. Sandy soil is excellent for drainage because

water penetrates quickly, while concrete and cement do not drain well. When water cannot

penetrate the ground, it creates runoff, which can cause more problems for construction projects

in other areas. The soil should have a high bearing capacity, which is its ability to support the

load exerted by structures or foundations. Soils with high bearing capacity are crucial for

constructing buildings, bridges, and other infrastructures. It is essential to have soil with a high

bearing capacity for your structure to be stable. Soils with higher bearing capacities are gravel

and sand, while those with lower capacities are silts and clays. There is no doubt that gravelly

soils have the best bearing capacity; however, fine-grained soils or gravel with a low relative

density value can significantly reduce their bearing capacity. Several studies have been

conducted on the bearing capacity of gravel soils as foundation soils. Many factors influence the

soil's bearing capacity, including the foundations' width and depth, as well as the shape and depth

of the groundwater. As a result, reservoirs and dams are constructed due to this technology.

Similarly, grouting methods are used for improving soil properties, respectively improving
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bearing capacity in foundations. When finer grains are mixed with water, they cause several

problems, but with a growing proportion of gravel grains, these problems are eliminated.

Cohesion refers to the ability of soil particles to stick together. Soil with high cohesion is

desirable for engineering purposes as it provides additional strength and stability. Cohesive soils,

such as clay, are suitable for constructing retaining walls and slopes. In terms of particle size,

clay is the finest soil, with a particle size range of less than 0.005mm. The smallest and most

numerous clay particles have significant plasticity and cohesion characteristics. Cohesive

bonding is facilitated by providing maximum surface area for bonding. No material class has a

texture range as versatile as clay, ranging from a liquid to a rock-hard mass. Clay displays a wide

range of appearances based on its moisture content. Clay masses are tough and challenging to

break when they are arid. A thin film of water between the clay particles is still responsible for

the complex mass's bonding power. Clay must be improved before it can be used in road

construction, dams, slurry walls, airports, and waste landfills. Improved graduation, a reduction

in plasticity and swelling potential, and an increase in strength and workability generally

improve the stability of clay. Clay is a fine-grained soil, but not all fine-grained soils are clay.

Clay miners- also are very electrochemically active; thus, they affect soil microstructures. Due to

these characteristics, many significant soil problems related to clay have been observed in the

past, the importance of which is understood.

Compaction refers to the process of increasing the density of soil by applying mechanical

force. Well-compacted soils have reduced void spaces, improving stability and load-bearing

capacity. Compacted grounds are commonly used for constructing highways, runways, and

barriers. In general, there are three types of soil: cohesive (clay), granular (sand), and organic

(for planting). Only two kinds of soil are suitable for compaction: cohesive and granular. The
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particles of cohesive soils adhere together, while the particles of granular soils crumble readily.

There are many different characteristics of soil types, from their ability to absorb water to their

difficulty in compacting. Before compaction can begin, it is also essential to consider the

moisture content of the soil. Moisture in soil plays a vital role in stability and reduction; too

much humidity weakens strength, and too little moisture results in poor compaction. Another

essential tip is getting the right amount of lift or depth of the soil layer. During trench filling,

placing the right amount of dirt and applying the right amount of compaction force is crucial. By

compacting the soil, the impact travels less and returns more energy to the machine, allowing it

to rise higher off the ground. Undercompaction can occur due to an incorrect lift containing too

much dirt or depth. Structures that rest upon settled soil will be affected by settlement. In

determining a soil's compaction susceptibility, its texture (the percentage of sand, silt, and clay)

is essential. In clayey soils, water can quickly fill the pores, making compacting difficult, as the

clay particles can move past one another at moisture contents sufficient to allow their movement.

Sands can be difficult to compress because of their relatively large size particles. The particles

settle into position with low mechanical force in sandy soils due to their lack of structure

regardless of compaction.

The settlement of soil is the downward movement or compression due to the weight of

structures or loads. Choosing grounds with low compressibility and high stiffness is essential to

minimize compensation. This ensures the long-term stability and performance of the engineered

systems. In addition to having low permeability and high compressibility, clay soils are cohesive.

A foundation settlement on clay soil is more significant than on sandy soil. A raft foundation has

a relatively higher settlement rate than other types of foundations on clay soil. A raft foundation

reduces soil stress by spreading the load over a large area. It is essential to predict the soil
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settlement in geotechnical design accurately, and it must be per the project's requirements. It is

possible to reduce settlement by ground improvement if the soil's characteristics do not meet the

earlier criteria and the superstructure design cannot be changed. As long as the soil has been

adequately compacted, there will be little evidence of settling. The cracking process relieves the

stresses created by the extreme differential settlement. The particles in drywall are much coarser

than those in cement. Approximately 5,000 square feet of interior surface area are contained in

one ounce of drywall dust. About 50,000 square feet of internal surface area is contained within

an ounce of cement dust.

Consequently, fine-grained soils such as clay may contain more water due to their larger

interior surfaces. It is necessary to overcome the surface tension between particles to force water

out of these spaces. Water clings to characters due to "surface tension." When a glass of water is

being filled, surface tension causes the water level to rise around the edges where it comes into

contact with the glass surface. Water is clinging to the glass. Fine-grained soils have a more

lavish interior surface area, which leads to greater surface tension. Water moves slowly through

fine-grained soils because they are usually low-permeability. Soil consolidation takes longer and

requires more pressure under these conditions. As soil consolidates, the resistance to stress of the

materials that compose it will reach equilibrium with the pressure exerted by the structure above

and the soil.

In conclusion, the most suitable soil for engineering depends on various factors

such as bearing capacity, cohesion, drainage, compaction, permeability, and settlement. By

carefully considering these properties, engineers can select the appropriate soil type for specific

projects, ensuring the stability and durability of the structures they design and construct.
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Works Cited

Atkinson, John. Soil Classification, environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMech/classification/de-

fault.htm. Accessed 01 Aug. 2023.

Home - Soil | Soil Science Society of America, www.soils.org/files/sssa/iys/may-soils-

overview.pdf.

Marc, BOULON. “Soils for Engineers.” Encyclopedia of the Environment, 13 May 2019,

www.encyclopedie-environnement.org/en/soil/soils-for-engineer/.

Roy, Surendra & Bhalla, Sanjeev. (2017). Role of Geotechnical Properties of Soil on Civil

Engineering Structures. 7. 103-109. 10.5923/j.re.20170704.03.

Smith. “Soil and Foundation Challenges: Ground Improvement Techniques.” GEOSOLV, 6 Apr.

2021, geosolv.ca/soil-types/. Accessed 31 July 2023.

Soil Mechanics and Classification - National Institute of Environmental ..., tools.niehs.nih.gov/

wetp/public/Course_download2.cfm?tranid=4432.

Ural, Nazile. (2018). The Importance of Clay in Geotechnical Engineering. 10.5772/

intechopen.75817.