UNIT II

PV ENERGY SYSTEMS
A Photovoltaic (PV) energy system, commonly referred to as a solar power system, is a
technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity. It's a sustainable and renewable
energy solution that harnesses the energy from the sun and converts it into usable
electricity for various applications. PV energy systems have gained significant attention and
adoption as a clean energy source due to their environmental benefits and potential to
reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

Here's an introduction to the key components, working principles, and benefits of PV energy
systems:

Components of a PV Energy System:

 Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Panels): These are the heart of the system. Photovoltaic
cells, typically made from semiconductor materials like silicon, gallium arsenide and
cadmium telluride, etc. These cells vary in size ranging from about 0.5 inches to 4
inches. There are different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to interact
with incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.
 Inverter: The electricity generated by the solar panels is in direct current (DC) form,
which needs to be converted into alternating current (AC) for use in homes and
businesses. An inverter is used to perform this conversion.
 Mounting Structure: Solar panels need to be mounted at an angle to receive optimal
sunlight exposure. Mounting structures provide support and help position the panels
for maximum efficiency.
 Wiring and Connectors: Various wiring and connectors are used to interconnect the
solar panels, inverter, and other components to create a functional system.
 Batteries (optional): Some PV systems incorporate energy storage in batteries. These
batteries store excess electricity generated during sunny periods for use when
sunlight is insufficient, such as during night time or cloudy days.
 Charge Controller (for battery systems): If batteries are used, a charge controller
regulates the charging and discharging of batteries, ensuring their longevity and
efficient operation.

Working Principle:

 The basic working principle of a PV energy system involves the following steps:
 Sunlight (photons) strikes the surface of the solar panels.
 Photovoltaic cells within the panels absorb the sunlight's energy, releasing electrons
in the process (photovoltaic effect).
 The flow of electrons creates a direct current (DC) electric current.
  The DC current is sent to an inverter, which converts it into alternating current (AC)
electricity, suitable for powering homes and businesses.
 The AC electricity can be used immediately or fed into the electrical grid.
 If batteries are present in the system, excess energy can be stored for later use.

PV Energy Systems

Benefits of PV Energy Systems:

 Renewable Energy Source: Solar energy is abundant and renewable, making it an

environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels that contribute to climate change.
 Reduced Electricity Bills: PV systems can generate electricity on-site, reducing the
need to purchase electricity from the grid and leading to potential cost savings.
 Low Operating Costs: Once installed, PV systems have minimal maintenance
requirements, leading to lower operating costs over their lifespan.
 Energy Independence: Solar power systems allow individuals and businesses to
generate their own electricity, reducing reliance on external energy sources.
 Environmental Impact: Solar power produces no greenhouse gas emissions during
operation, contributing to a cleaner environment and reduced carbon footprint.
 Scalability: PV systems can be scaled to meet different energy needs, from small
residential installations to large commercial or utility-scale systems.
  Remote Power Generation: PV systems can provide electricity to remote and off-grid
locations, enabling access to power in areas with limited infrastructure.

The PV effect in crystalline silicon basic principles

The photovoltaic (PV) effect is the fundamental principle behind the operation of
photovoltaic cells, which are the building blocks of solar panels used in PV energy systems.
This effect involves the conversion of sunlight directly into electricity through the interaction
of photons (light particles) with semiconductor materials, typically crystalline silicon. Here
are the basic principles of the PV effect in crystalline silicon:

 Semiconductor Material - Crystalline Silicon: Crystalline silicon is the most common

material used in commercial photovoltaic cells. It is a semiconductor with specific
electrical properties that make it suitable for converting sunlight into electricity.
 Energy Absorption: When photons from sunlight strike the surface of a solar cell,
they transfer their energy to electrons in the semiconductor material. This energy
absorption causes electrons to be excited from their normal state, creating electron-
hole pairs (an electron in the conduction band and a positively charged "hole" in the
valence band).
 Creation of Electron-Hole Pairs: The energy from absorbed photons elevates some
electrons from the valence band (lower energy state) to the conduction band (higher
energy state), leaving behind holes in the valence band. This process effectively
generates electron-hole pairs within the semiconductor.
 Electric Field Formation: In a properly designed PV cell, there is a built-in electric
field due to the intentional doping of the semiconductor material. Doping involves
adding controlled amounts of specific impurities to the silicon crystal lattice, creating
regions with excess electrons (n-type) or excess holes (p-type).
 Electron Flow: Due to the electric field, the free electrons generated in the
conduction band are pushed towards the n-type region, which has an excess of
electrons. This movement creates an electric current.
  Hole Flow: At the same time, the holes left behind in the valence band move towards
the p-type region, where there is an excess of holes. This movement also contributes
to the electric current.

 Contact and Circuits: The separated electrons and holes move towards the surfaces
of the semiconductor material, which are equipped with metal contacts. These
contacts provide pathways for the generated electrons and holes to flow through an
external electrical circuit.
 Electricity Generation: As the electrons and holes flow through the external circuit,
they combine at the load (a device or appliance), creating an electric current that can
perform useful work, such as powering lights, appliances, or charging batteries.
 Balance of Electron Flow: For the PV cell to operate efficiently, there needs to be a
balance between the flow of electrons and holes. This balance is achieved through
the electric field and the specific design of the cell's layers and contacts.
 Continuous Operation: As long as sunlight is available, the PV cell continues to
generate electricity through the repeated absorption of photons and the movement
of electrons and holes.

FILM PV: A thin-film solar cell is made by depositing one or more thin layers of PV material on a
supporting material such as glass, plastic, or metal. There are two main types of thin-film PV
semiconductors on the market today: cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide
(CIGS).

PV technologies:

There are various types of PV technologies, including:

 Crystalline Silicon (c-Si): This is the most common type of solar cell technology. It
includes both monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells.
 Thin-Film Solar Cells: These solar cells use thin layers of semiconductor materials like
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS).
  Concentrated PV (CPV): CPV systems use lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight onto
high-efficiency solar cells, which can significantly increase their electricity
generation.
 Organic Photovoltaics (OPV): These are made from organic (carbon-based) materials
and offer flexibility and low production costs.
 Perovskite Solar Cells: Perovskite solar cells have gained attention for their potential
to be highly efficient and relatively easy to manufacture.
 Bifacial Solar Panels: These panels can capture sunlight from both sides, improving
their overall energy yield.
 Solar Tracking Systems: These systems automatically adjust the angle of solar panels
to maximize sunlight exposure throughout the day.

Electrical characteristics of silicon PV cells and modules

Electrical characteristics:

Voltage (V): Silicon PV cells and modules produce direct current (DC) electricity. The voltage
output depends on the design and the number of solar cells connected in series within a
module. The typical voltage for a single silicon cell is around 0.5 to 0.6 volts. Modules are
constructed by connecting multiple cells in series to achieve higher voltage outputs, usually
in the range of 12 to 48 volts for residential systems.

Current (I): The electric current generated by a PV cell or module is proportional to the
amount of sunlight it receives. More sunlight leads to higher current. The current is typically
measured in amperes (A). The current output of a single silicon cell can range from 5 to 10
amperes under standard test conditions.

Power (P): The power output of a PV cell or module is the product of voltage and current,
measured in watts (W). The power output is a crucial parameter and is used to rate the
capacity of a solar module. Under standard test conditions (STC), a typical silicon PV module
can generate around 250 to 400 watts of power.

Efficiency (η): Efficiency is a measure of how effectively a PV cell or module converts

sunlight into electricity. It is expressed as a percentage and represents the ratio of the
electrical power output to the incident solar power. Silicon PV modules have efficiency
values that typically range from 15% to 22%, depending on the specific technology and
manufacturer.

Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): This is the voltage across the terminals of a PV cell or module
when no current is flowing (i.e., when the circuit is open). It is the maximum voltage that
can be obtained from the module under no-load conditions.

Short-Circuit Current (Isc): This is the current through a PV cell or module when the voltage
across its terminals is reduced to zero (i.e., when the circuit is short-circuited). Isc represents
the maximum current that can be produced under short-circuit conditions.
Fill Factor (FF): The fill factor is a parameter that describes how effectively a PV module
converts available sunlight into electricity. It is a measure of how square or "fill" the current-
voltage (I-V) curve is. A higher fill factor indicates more efficient energy conversion.

Temperature Coefficient: The electrical characteristics of PV cells and modules are

influenced by temperature. A negative temperature coefficient for voltage and a positive
temperature coefficient for current are common. This means that as temperature increases,
the voltage decreases while the current increases.

V-I characteristics

PV SYSTEMS FOR REMOTE POWER:

When a power source is far from a power load, the system is known as a remote power
system. Depending on the scale of this system, the load could be a couple feet from the
source, or thousands of meters away.

Large Scale Remote Power Systems

In a remote power system, a power supply is located separately from an electrical load.
There are both large- and small-scale remote power systems. A large-scale example is a
power transmission system. The power generator, in this case, is the remote power supply,
and it’s supplying power (ultimately) to homes and buildings (remote loads).

Small Scale On-Board and Off-Board/Remote Power Systems

A small-scale example involves charging cell phones. Cell phones are essentially circuit
boards (with casings) that require power to operate. When we use our phone charging
cords to power phones, we’re plugging these cords into AC outlets. Power is then converted
into DC power and stepped down within the charging blocks on phone chargers, so that the
proper power type (DC) and level can be delivered to our phones. This is also called an “off-
board” power system because power is prepared for supply “off” the circuit board (in this
case, within the charging block of phone chargers)

When power is converted to the proper type (AC or DC), and level, within the circuitry of a
load, this is considered an “on-board” power supply (or charger). An example of an on-
board power system would be the process of charging an electric vehicle (EV). Sure, you
plug a power supply into an EV, but an “on-board charger”, located inside the EV, converts
power from AC to DC, and involves a DC-DC converter for voltage regulation. Ultimately, it’s
this on-board charger that provides the EV with the power type and level it requires.

See below for an example of how an "on-board" charger is used when AC power is delivered
to it, versus when DC power is delivered to it.

Grid-connected PV systems.

A grid-connected photovoltaic system, or grid-connected PV system is an electricity

generating solar PV power system that is connected to the utility grid. A grid-connected PV
system consists of solar panels, one or several inverters, a power conditioning unit and grid
connection equipment.

Grid-connected PV systems

They range from small residential and commercial rooftop systems to large utility-scale solar
power stations. When conditions are right, the grid-connected PV system supplies the
excess power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the utility grid
Grid connected PV systems always have a connection to the public electricity grid via a
suitable inverter because a photovoltaic panel or array (multiple PV panels) only deliver DC
power. As well as the solar panels, the additional components that make up a grid
connected PV system compared to a stand alone PV system are:

Inverter – The inverter is the most important part of any grid connected system. The
inverter extracts as much DC (direct current) electricity as possible from the PV array and
converts it into clean mains AC (alternating current) electricity at the right voltage and
frequency for feeding into the grid or for supplying domestic loads.

It is important to choose the best quality inverter possible for the budget allowed as the
main considerations in grid connected inverter choice are: Power – Maximum high and low
voltage power the inverter can handle and Efficiency – How efficiently does the inverter
convert solar power to AC power.

Electricity Meter – The electricity meter also called a Kilowatt hour (kWh) meter is used to
record the flow of electricity to and from the grid. Twin kWh meters can be used, one to
indicate the electrical energy being consumed and the other to record the solar electricity
being sent to the grid.

A single bidirectional kWh meter can also be used to indicate the net amount of electricity
taken from the grid. A grid connected PV system will slow down or halt the aluminium disc
in the electric meter and may cause it to spin backwards. This is generally referred to as net
metering.

AC Breaker Panel and Fuses – The breaker panel or fuse box is the normal type of fuse box
provided with a domestic electricity supply and installation with the exception of additional
breakers for inverter and/or filter connections.
Safety Switches and Cabling – A photovoltaic array will always produce a voltage output in
sunlight so it must be possible to disconnect it from the inverter for maintenance or testing.
Isolator switches rated for the maximum DC voltage and current of the array and inverter
safety switches must be provided separately with easy access to disconnect the system.

Other safety features demanded by the electrical company may include earthing and fuses.
The electrical cables used to connect the various components must also be correctly rated
and sized.

The Electricity Grid – Finally the electricity grid itself to connect too, because without the
utility grid it is not a Grid Connected PV System.