Important Questions and Answers from other selected units

1. Deduce the expression for the magnetic dipole moment of an electron orbiting around the
central nucleus.
Ans:
A revolving electron in an orbit of radius r moving with
velocity v behaves as a current loop of effective current
I =  e ( is frequency of revolution)
ve
I
2 r
Hence it acts like a magnetic dipole moment
ve evr
M  IA   r2 
2 r 2

2. (a) With the help of a diagram, explain the principle and working of a moving coil
galvanometer.
(b) What is the importance of a radial magnetic field and how is it produced?
(c) Why is it that while using a moving coil galvanometer as a voltmeter a high resistance in
series is required whereas in an ammeter a shunt is used?
Ans:
Principle : Galvanometer works on the principle that when an electric current is passed through a
coil placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque, whose magnitude is proportional to the
strength of electric current passed through it.
Working :

When a rectangular loop PQRS (suspended through a torsion head) ofsides ‘a’ and ‘b’ carrying

current I is placed in uniform magnetic field B such that area vector A makes an angle  with
direction of magnetic field, then forces on the arms QR and SP of loop are equal, opposite and
collinear, thereby perfectly cancel each other, whereas forces on the arms PQ and RS of loop are
equal and opposite but not collinear, so they give rise to torque on the loop.
or  = IABsin  [where A = ab]
and if loop has N turns, then  = NIABsin 
Due to this torque, the coil is deflected by an angle , where it is balanced by restoring torque C,
developed in suspension strip. C is restoring torque per unit deflection or torsional constant of the
strip.
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 So, by measuring a, we can measure current I in the coil.

NIAB = C
C
I 
NAB
(b) In order to make torque on the coil independent of angle  , the plane of coil should always
remain parallel to the field. For this purpose a radial magnetic field is applied.
(c) A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with it,
so that most of the voltage applied drops across it, enabling the galvanometer to measure much
larger voltages.

V
or R   Rg
Ig
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low shunt resistance in parallel to
it, so that most of the current by passes through the shunt resistance, enabling the galvanometer to
measure much larger currents.

VS  Vg or ( I  I g ) S  I g Rg
I g Rg
or S 
I  Ig

3. State BiotSavart law, giving the mathematical expression for it. Use this law to derive the
expression for the magnetic field due to a circular coil carrying current at a point along its
axis. How does a circular loop carrying current behaves as a magnet
Ans:
A current carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it. BiotSavart law states that magnitude of

intensity of small magnetic field due to current I carrying element dl at any point P at distance r
from it is given by:
  Idl sin 
| d B | 0
4 r2
Magnetic field on the axis of circular coil

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 
Small magnetic field due to current element Idl of circular coil of radius r at point P at distance x
from its centre is
 Idl sin 900 0 Idl
dB  0 2

4 r 4 (r  x 2 )
2

Component dBcosfdue to current element at point P is cancelled by equal and opposite component
dBcos of another diagonally opposite current element, whereas the sine components dBsin add up
to give net magnetic field along the axis. So net magnetic field at point P due to entire loop is
2
 Idl r
B   dB sin    0 2 . 2
0
4 (r  x ) (r  x 2 )1/ 2
2

2
0 Ir
4 (r 2  x 2 )3/ 2 0
B dl

0 Ir
B .2 r
4 (r 2  x 2 )3/ 2
0 Ir 2
B directed along the axis,
2(r 2  x 2 )3/ 2
(a) towards the coil if current in it is in clockwise direction.
(b) away from the coil if current in it is in anticlockwise direction.

4. Draw a schematic sketch of a cyclotron. Explain briefly how it works and how it is used to
accelerate the charged particles.
(i) Show that time period of ions in a cyclotron is independent of both the speed and radius of
circular path.
(ii) What is resonance condition? How is it used to accelerate the charged particles?
(iii) Show that cyclotron frequency is independent of energy of the particle. Is there an upper
limit on the energy acquired by the particle? Give reason.
Ans: Cyclotron is used to accelerate the charged particles to large velocities or large kinetic
  
energies. In cyclotron, both electric field E and magnetic field B are applied normally to velocity v
of the charged particle, such that electric field accelerates the charged particle and magnetic field
makes the charged particle move in circular paths repeatedly, so that charged particle is accelerated
to large velocities and hence large kinetic energies, under the combined effect of electric and
magnetic fields.

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 A charged particle produced at point P by a source is accelerated towards Dee D1 due to applied
mv
electric field, but moves along semicircular path of radius r  in D1 due to force of magnetic
qB
field on it.

When it reaches the gap between the two dees, polarities of the dees is changed by oscillator and
now the charged particle is accelerated towards D2, where it follows semicircular path of increased
radius with increased velocity. This process repeats itself again and again and charged particle
spends the same time inside a dee irrespective of its velocity or the radius of circular path, as
 r  mv  m
t  . 
v v qB qB
2 m
So, time period of its motion is T  2t 
qB
Thus time period is independent of both the speed and radius of circular path.
1 qB
(ii) Frequency of motion of charged particle is v  
T 2 m
When this frequency v becomes equal to the frequency va of the applied alternating voltage source or
oscillator, then it is called resonance condition.
This ensure that the ions always get accelerated across the gap. Inside the dees the particles travel in
a region free of the electric field. The increase in their kinetic energy is qV each time they cross from
one dee to another. This is known as ‘cyclotron frequency’, which is independent of radius r of
semicircular path followed by charged particle or its velocity v. So if we set the oscillator at this
frequency, it automatically changes the polarities of the two dees.
When charged particle reaches near the periphery of dee, it is moving in a circular path of maximum
radius equal to radius R of dee and posses maximum kinetic energy
1 1 q2 B2 R2 q 2 B2 R2
K .Emax  mv 2max  m  when it is extracted from dees at point N.
2 2 m2 2m
5. (i) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. (ii) A jet plane is travelling towards west
at a speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage difference developed between the ends of the wing
having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at the location has a magnitude of 5 ×10–4
T and the dip angle is 30°?
Ans: Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that whenever there is change in magnetic
flux linked with the circuit, an emf is induced in it, whose magnitude is directly proportional to the
d
rate of charge of magnetic flux linked with the circuit. i.e.  
dt

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 (ii) EMF induced across the ends of the wings of plane is
  vBv .l  vB sin  .l
5
   (1800  m / s)  (5  104 T )  sin 300  25
18
1
   500  5 10 4   25  3.125V
2
6. (a) State Lenz’s law. Give one example to illustrate this law. “The Lenz’s law is a consequence
of the principle of conservation of energy”. Justify this statement.
(b) Deduce an expression for the mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids but having
different radii and different number of turns.
Ans:
(a) Lenz’s law states that the “induced current in a circuit always flows in such a direction that it
opposes the change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit or the very cause that has produced it”.

When the N pole of a magnet is moved towards a coil, the induced current in the coil flows in
anticlockwise direction on the side of magnet, so as to acquire north polarity and oppose the motion
of the magnet towards the coil, by applying repulsive force on it. Lenz’s law is in accordance with
law of conservation of energy. Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, it induces an
EMF in it. The induced current set up in the circuit flows in such a direction that it opposes the
change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit. In order to continue the change in magnetic flux
linked with the circuit, some work is to be done or some energy is to be spent against the opposition
offered by induced EMF. This energy spent by the external source ultimately appears in the circuit in
the form of electrical energy.
(b) Magnetic field due to current I2 in S2 is B2  0 n2 I 2

The magnetic flux linked with solenoid S1 is 12  N1 B2 A cos 00

 12  (n1l ).( 0 n2 I 2 ).( r12 ).1

 12  0 n1n2 r12l
I2
This gives the mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids.
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7. (i) Draw a labelled diagram of a step-up transformer. Explain its working principle. Deduce
the expression for the secondary to primary voltage in terms of the number of turns in the two
coils. In an ideal transformer, how is this ratio related to the currents in the two coils? How is
the transformer used in large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long
distances?
(ii) Write any two sources of energy loss in a transformer.
Ans:
Transformer: Transformer is a device by which an alternating voltage may be decreased or
increased. This is based on the principle of mutual-induction.
Construction: It consists of laminated core of soft iron, on which two coils of insulated copper wire
are separately wound. These coils are kept insulated from each other and from the iron-core, but are
coupled through mutual induction. The number of turns in these coils are different. Out of these coils
one coil is
called primary coil and other is called the secondary coil. The terminals of primary coils are
connected to AC mains and the terminals of the secondary coil are connected to external circuit in
which alternating current of desired voltage is required.
Step up Transformer: It transforms the alternating low voltage to alternating high voltage and in
this the number of turns in secondary coil is more than that in primary coil. (i. e. , NS > Np ).
A schematic diagram of stepup transformer is shown below.

Working Principle
It works on the principle of mutual induction. It consists of two coils primary P and secondary S
wound on a laminated soft iron core. The input voltage is applied across the primary coil and output
voltage is obtained across the secondary coil.
Magnetic flux S and P linked with secondary and primary coils at any instant are proportional to
the number of turns NS and NP in secondary and primary coils i.e.,
S N S d N  d 
 or  S  S   P 
P N P dt N P  dt 
N  N
or  S  S  P or S  S
NP  P NP
N
where S is called transformation ratio of transformer.
NP
In step up transformer, S > P and NS > NP and transformation ratio > 1
In an ideal transformer, there is no loss of energy or it is 100% efficient. Then
Power input = Power output
 I
or  P I P   S I S or S  P
 P IS
where IS and IP are currents in secondary and primary coils of transformer.

Transformer is mainly used in long distance transmission of electrical energy. At the electric power
producing station, a stepup transformer is used which increases the alternating voltage upto several
kilo volts, thereby decreasing the electric current flowing through transmission wires, As Joul’s
heating is proportional to square of current, so this decreases the loss of electrical energy across
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 transmission wires. Further a stepdown transformer is used to decrease the alternating voltage at
substation before distributing electrical energy for domestic use.

(ii) The two sources of energy loss in a transformer :

(1) Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in copper coils of a transformer. This is due to
joule heating of conducting wires. These are minimized using thick wires.
(2) Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer. This is due to
formation of eddy currents in iron core. It is minimized by taking laminated cores.

8. (a) State the working principle of an AC generator with the help of a labelled diagram. Derive
an expression for the instantaneous value of the emf induced in coil. Why is the emf maximum
when the plane of the armature is parallel to the magetic field?
(b) A 100turn coil of area 0.1 m 2 rotates at half a revolution per second. It is placed in a
magnetic field 0.01 T perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. Calculate the maximum
voltage generated in the coil.
Ans:(a) AC generator: A dynamo or generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Construction: It consists of the four main parts:
(i) Field Magnet: It produces the magnetic field. In the case of a low power dynamo, the magnetic
field is generated by a permanent magnet, while in the case of large power dynamo, the magnetic
field is produced by an electromagnet.
(ii) Armature: It consists of a large number of turns of insulated wire in the soft iron drum or ring.
It can revolve round an axle between the two poles of the field magnet. The drum or ring serves the
two purposes : (i) It serves as a support to coils and (ii) It increases the magnetic field due to air core
being replaced by an iron core.
(iii) Slip Rings: The slip rings R1 and R2 are the two metal rings to which the ends of armature coil
are connected. These rings are fixed to the shaft which rotates the armature coil so that the rings also
rotate along with the armature.
(iv) Brushes: These are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods (B1 and B2 ) which are fixed and
constantly touch the revolving rings. The output current in external load RL is taken through these
brushes.

Working: When the armature coil is rotated in the strong magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes and the current is induced in the coil, its direction being given by Fleming’s
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 right hand rule. Considering the armature to be in vertical position and as it rotates in anticlockwise
direction, the wire ab moves upward and cd downward, so that the direction of induced current is
shown in fig. In the external circuit, the current flows along B1RL B2 . The direction of current
remains unchanged during the first half turn of armature. During the second half revolution, the wire
ab moves downward and cd upward, so the direction of current is reversed and in external circuit it
flows along B2RL B1. Thus the direction of induced emf and current changes in the external circuit
after each half revolution. If N is the number of turns in coil, f the frequency of rotation, A area of
coil and B the magnetic induction, then induced emf
d d
e  {NBA(cos 2 ft )}  2 NBAf sin 2 ft
dt dt
Obviously, the emf produced is alternating and hence the current is also alternating. Current
produced by an ac generator cannot be measured by moving coil ammeter; because the average
value of ac over full cycle is zero.
The source of energy generation is the mechanical energy of rotation of armature coil.
When plane of armature coil is parallel to magnetic field, then sint = 1, so emf is maximum, the
maximum value is e0 = NBA.
1
(b) N = 100, A = 0.1 m 2 , n = s–1 B = 0.01T
2
Maximum voltage generated in the coil is
e0 = NBA = NBA × 2
1
or e0 = 100 × 0.01 × 0.1 × 2 × 3.14 ×
2
or e0 = 0.314 V.

9. Derive an expression for the impedance of a series LCR circuit connected to an AC supply of
variable frequency. Plot a graph showing variation of current with the frequency of the
applied voltage.
Explain briefly how the phenomenon of resonance in the circuit can be used in the tuning
mechanism of a radio or a TV set.
Ans:
Expression for impedance in LCR series circuit : Suppose resistance R, inductance L and capacitance
C are connected in series and an alternating source of voltage V = V0sint is applied across it as
shown in figure. On account of being in series, the current i flowing through all of them is the same.

Consider the voltage across resistance R is VR , voltage across inductance L is VL and voltage across
capacitance C is VC . The voltage VR and current i are in the same phase, the voltage VL will lead the
current by angle 90° while the voltage VC will lag behind the current by angle 90° (figure). Clearly
VC and VL are in opposite directions, therefore their resultant potential difference = VC – VL (if VC >
VL).
Thus VR and (VC – VL) are mutually perpendicular and the phase difference between them is 90°. As
applied voltage across the circuit is V, the resultant of VR and (VC – VL) will also be V. From figure,

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 V 2  VR2  (VC  VL ) 2
 V  VR2  (VC  VL )2 ………………….(i)
But VR = Ri, VC = XC i
and VL = XL i …………………..(ii)
1
where X C   capacitance reactance and
C
XL = L = inductive reactance
2
V  1 
 Impedance of circuit, Z   R 2  ( X C  X L )2  R 2   L
i  C 

The practical application of series resonance circuit is in radio and T.V. receiver sets. The antenna of
a radio/T.V. intercepts signals from many broadcasting stations. To receive one particular radio
station./T.V. channel, we tune our receiver set by changing the capacitance of a capacitor in the
tuning circuit of the set such that resonance frequency of the circuit becomes equal to the frequency
of the desired station. Therefore, resonance occurs. The amplitude of current with the frequency of
the signal from the desired station becomes maximum and it is received in our set.
10. Describe briefly how a diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen due to a single narrow slit
illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Hence obtain the conditions for the angular
width of secondary maxima and secondary minima.
Ans: Diffraction of light at a single slit : When monochromatic light is made incident on a single
slit, we get diffraction pattern on a screen placed behind the slit. The diffraction pattern contains
bright and dark bands, the intensity of central band is maximum and goes on decreasing on both
sides.
Explanation : Let AB be a slit of width ‘a’ and a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident
on it. According to Fresnel the diffraction pattern is the result of superposition of a large number of
waves, starting from different points of illuminated slit.
Let be the angle of diffraction for waves reaching at point P of screen and AN the perpendicular
dropped from A on wave diffracted from B.
The path difference between rays diffracted at points A and B,
BP AP BN
In ANB , ANB 90and BAN 
As AB width of slit a
Path difference, a sin ………..... (i)
To find the effect of all coherent waves at P, we have to sum up their contribution, each with a
different phase. This was done by Fresnel by rigorous calculations, but the main features may be
explained by simple arguments given below :

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 At the central point C of the screen, the angle is zero. Hence the waves starting from all points of
slit arrive in the same phase. This gives maximum intensity at the central point C.
If point P on screen is such that the path difference between rays starting from edges A and
B is , then path difference

asin  sin   
a

If angle is small, sin     ………………...(ii)
a
a
Minima : Now we divide the slit into two equal halves AO and OB, each of width . Now for every
2
a
point, M1 in AO, there is a corresponding point M2 in OB, such that M1M2  ; Then path difference
2
a 
between waves arriving at P and starting from M1 and M2 will be sin   . This means that the
2 2
contributions from the two halves of slit AO and OB are opposite in phase and so cancel each other.
Thus equation (2) gives the angle of diffraction at which intensity falls to zero. Similarly it may be
n
shown that the intensity is zero for sin   , with n as integer.
a
Thus the general condition of minima is
a sin n ………………………..(iii)
3
Secondary Maxima : Let us now consider angle such that sin    
2a
which is midway between two dark bands given by
 2
sin     and sin    
a a

Let us now divide the slit into three parts. If we take the first two of parts of slit, the path
difference between rays diffracted from the extreme ends of the first two parts
2 2 3
a sin   a  
3 3 2a

Then the first two parts will have a path difference of and cancel the effect of each other. The
2
remaining third part will contribute to the intensity at a point between two minima. Clearly there will
be a maxima between first two minima, but this maxima will be of much weaker intensity than
central maximum. This is called first secondary maxima. In a similar manner we can show that there

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 are secondary maxima between any two consecutive minima; and the intensity of maxima will go on
decreasing with increase of order of maxima. In general the position of nth maxima will be given by
 1
a sin    n    , [n 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . ] …………………..(iv)
 2
The intensity of secondary maxima decrease with increase of order n because with increasing n, the
contribution of slit decreases.
For n = 2, it is one-fifth, for n = 3, it is one-seventh and so on.
(b) Angular width of secondary maxima
 1
a.   n   
 2
 1
  n 
 2 a
y
and Linear width  
D
 1  D
 y  D.   n  
 2 a
If n 1, and 1 590 nm,
 1   D 3 D
y1   1   1  1
 2 a 2a
If n 1 2 596 nm
 1   D 3 D
y2   1   2  2
 2 a 2a
3(2  1 ) D
Linear separation = y2 y1 
2a
3(596  590)  10  1.5 3  6  103  1.5
9
 
2  2 106 4
4.5 × 1.5 × 10–3
6.75 10–3 6.75 mm

11. (a) Write three characteristic features to distinguish between the interference fringes in
Young’s double slit experiment and the diffraction pattern obtained due to a narrow single slit.
(b) A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is a
distance of 2.5 mm away from the centre. Find the width of the slit.
Ans:
Interference Diffraction
(i) It is due to the superposition of two (i) It is due to the superposition of secondary
waves coming from two coherent sources. wavelets originating from different parts of the
same wavefront.
(ii) The width of the interference bands is (ii) The width of the diffraction bands is not the
equal. same.
(iii) The intensity of all maxima (fringes) (iii) The intensity of central maximum is
is same. maximum and goes on decreasing rapidly with
increase of order of maxima.
n D
(b) The distance of nth bright fringe from central fringe is, yn 
d
9
n D 1  500  10  1
Width, d   3
2 104 m = 0.2 mm
yn 2.5 10

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12. (a) For a ray of light travelling from a denser medium of refractive index n1 to a rarer
n
medium of refractive index n2, prove that 2  sin ic , where ic is the critical angle of incidence
n1
for the media.
(b) Explain with the help of a diagram, how the above principle is used for transmission of
video signals using optical fibres.
Ans:
sin i n2
(a) Snell’s laws is  ………………… (i)
sin r n1
Critical angle is the angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction in rarer
medium is 90° i.e., i ic , r 90
sin i n sin ic n2 n
From (i) 0
 2   2  sin ic
sin 90 n1 1 n1 n1
(b) Transmission of video signals using optical fibre.
An optical fibre is a device based on total internal reflection by which a light signal may be
transmitted from one place to another with a negligible loss of energy. It is a very long and thin
pipe of quartz (n 17) of thickness nearly 104 m coated all around with a material of refractive
index 15. A large number of such fibres held together form a light pipe and are used for
communication of light signals. When a light ray is incident on one end at a small angle of
incidence, it suffers refraction from air to quartz and strikes the quartz-coating interface at an angle
more than the critical angle and so suffers total internal reflection and strikes the opposite face again
at an angle greater than critical angle and so again suffers total internal reflection. Thus the ray
within the fibre suffers multiple total internal reflections and finally strikes the other end at an angle
less than critical angle for quartz-air interface and emerges in air.

As there is no loss of energy in total internal reflection, the light signal is transmitted by this device
without any appreciable loss of energy.

13. Draw a schematic arrangement of the Geiger-Marsden experiment. How did the scattering of
-particles of a thin foil of gold provide an important way to determine an upper limit on the
size of the nucleus? Explain briefly.
Ans:
The Schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsdon Experiment (also known as Rutherford
Scattering Experiment) is shown in fig.

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 Observations: (i) Only a small fraction of number of a-particles rebound back. This shows that the
number of a-particles undergoing head on collision is very small. The conclusion is that the entire
positive charge of atom is concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus.

At the distance of head on approach, the entire kinetic energy of a-particle is converted into
electrostatic potential energy. This distance of head on approach gives an upper limit of the size of
nucleus (denoted by r0) and is given by
1 (Ze)(2e)
Ek 
4 0 r0
1 2 Ze 2
 r0 
4 0 Ek
This is about 10–14 m.
14. Derive an expression for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated
through a potential V. Draw a schematic diagram of a localised-wave describing the wave
nature of the moving electron.
Ans:
Expression for de Broglie Wavelength associated with Accelerated Electrons
The de Broglie wavelength associated with electrons of momentum p is given by
h h
  …………... (i)
p mv
where m is mass and v is velocity of electron. If Ek is the kinetic energy of electron, then
2
1 21  p p2  p
Ek  mv m     p  mv  v  
2 2 m 2m  m
 p  2mEk
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 h
 Equation (i) gives   ………………. (ii)
2mEk
If V volt is accelerating potential of electron, then Kinetic energy, EK = eV
h
 Equation (ii) gives   ………………. (iii)
2meV
This is the required expression for de Broglie wavelength associated with electron accelerated to
potential of V volt. The diagram of wave packet describing the motion of a moving electron is
shown.

15. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a reflecting telescope. Mention its two advantages over the
refracting telescope.
Ans:
Reflecting type telescope:
It is a telescope with concave parabolic mirror as objective. It has several advantages over refracting
type telescope like having no chromatic aberration, no spherical aberration, has huge light gathering
power and low cost.
The magnifying power of reflecting telescope is given by
f
M  0
fe
(i) Cassegrain Reflecting Telescope
It consist of a large primary concave parabolic shape mirror having a hole at its centre. Another
secondary convex mirror before the focus of primary mirror forms the image

The parallel rays from astronomical object are reflected by primary concave mirror and then are
further reflected by convex mirror before getting focussed at eye piece. Eyepiece removes the
defects from the image and also act as magnifier.

(ii) Newtonian Telescope

Primary concave mirror of large aperture as objective reflects the parallel rays from astronomical
object.

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 Plane mirror M is placed at 45° with the axis of the tube. Light reflected from concave mirror falls
on plane mirror M and further deviated to form a real image at eyepiece located at convenient place
for observer. The eyepiece removes the defects from image and also act as magnifier.
Advantage of reflecting type telescope over refracting type :
(i) In refracting type the final image is formed after two times of partial refraction through the lens
major losses in the intensity take places due to partial reflection and refractions. In reflecting type all
the light intensity incident formes the final image as no loss of intensity can be ensured in reflection.
(ii) Glass of lens offers different refractive index to different colours hence chromatic aberration due
to which coloured image is formed take place in refracting type telescope. Reflecting telescope is
free from chromatic aberration as no refraction.

16. Describe Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference pattern due to a
monochromatic source of light. Deduce the expression for the fringe width.
Ans:
Young’s double slit experiment :

S is a narrow slit (of width about 1 mm) illuminated by a monochromatic source of light, S. At a
suitable distance (about 10 cm) from S, there are two fine slits A and B about 0.5 mm apart placed
symmetrically parallel to S. When a screen is placed at a large distance (about 2 m) from the slits A
and B, alternate bright and dark fringes running parallel to the lengths of slits appear on the screen.
These are the interference fringes. The fringes disappear when one of the slits A or B is covered.

Expression for fringe width : In Young’s double slit experiment we obtain two sources from a single
source.

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 Here S1P and S2P are nearly parallel since the distance S1S2 = d is much less than D. The angle that
these two lines make with the normal to the screen is taken as .

Path difference between the waves reaching the point P on screen is

P = S2P – S1P = S2P – MP = S2M = dsin
As angle is very small
dsin » dtan
yd  y
i.e. P   in NOP, tan    …………....(i)
D  D
We know, that for maxima
P = n …………………...(ii)
where, n = 1, 2, 3,....
From equation (i) and (ii), we get
n D
yn 
d
Similarly for minima
(2n  1) D
yn' 
2d
The fringe width is the separation between two consecutive maxima or minima,
D D
y  (n  1  n) 
d d
It is denoted by 
D
 
d

17. (i) Draw a neat labelled diagram of a compound microscope. Explain briefly its working.
(ii) Why must both the objective and the eyepiece of a compound microscope have short focal
lengths?
Ans:
(i) Compound microscope is used to see extremely small objects. It consists of two lenses.
Objective lens of short aperture and short focal length fo
Eye lens of large aperture and short focal length fe
Ray diagram of a compound microscope is shown below.

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 Working : A real, inverted and enlarged image A’B’ of a tiny object AB, is formed by objective. Eye
lens is so adjusted that A’B’ lies between its optical centre and principle focus Fe . A virtual and
magnified image A’’B’’ (erect w.r.t. A’B’) is formed by the eye lens.
(ii) Both, the objective and the eye piece of a compound microscope should have short focal lengths
to have greater magnifying power as magnifying power of a compound microscope is given by
L  D
M   1  
f0  fe 
where
L = length of microscope tube
D = least distance of distinct vision.

18. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a refracting telescope. Define its magnifying power and write
the expression for it. Write two important limitations of a refracting telescope over a reflecting
type telescope.
Ans:

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 The magnifying power of a telescope is measured by the ratio of angle () subtended by the final
image on the eye to the angle () subtended by object on eye.
f f  f 
M   0 or M   0 1  0 
fe fe  D
where fo is focal length of the objective and fe is the focal length of eye piece.
Any two limitations of refracting type telescope
(i) Image formed is of lesser intensity.
(ii) Image is not free from chromatic aberration due to refraction.
(iii) Image is not free from spherical aberration.
(iv) Objective of telescope should have a large aperture for resolving power.

19. (i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment.
Explain briefly its working.
(ii) An astronomical telescope uses two lenses of powers 10 D and 1 D. What is its magnifying
power in normal adjustment?
Ans:
(i) An astronomical telescope in normal adjustment. Ray diagram is shown below.

It is used to see distant objects.

It consists of two lenses:
Objective of large aperture and large focal length fo
Eyepiece of small aperture and short focal length fe
Working : A parallel beam of light from an astronomical object at infinity is made to fall on
objective lens. It forms a real, inverted and diminished image AB of the object. In normal

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 adjustment, AB lies at focus of the eye piece. So a highly magnified, erect image (w.r.t. AB) is
formed at infinity.
(ii) Here, power of objective lens = 1 D
Power of eye piece = 10 D
In normal adjustment
f P
Magnifying power, M   0   e
fe P0
 M  10

20. Use Huygen’s principle to verify the laws of refraction.

Ans:
Verification of Snell’s law of refraction by using Huygen’s principle.

We take a plane wavefront AB incident at a plane surface XX’. We use secondary wavelets starting at
different times. We get refracted wavefront only when time taken by light to travel along different
rays from one wavefront to another is same. We take any arbitrary ray starting from point P on
incident wavefront to refracted wavefront at point R.
Let total time be t
PO OR AO sin i ( AB ' AO) sin r
t   
v1 v2 v1 v2
AB 'sin r  sin i sin r 
t   AO   
v2  v1 v2 
As time should be independent of the ray to be considered, the coefficient of AO in the above
equation should be zero.
sin i v1 1
That is,    2 , where 12 is called refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1. This is
sin r v2
Snell’s law of refraction.

21. (a) What is linearly polarized light? Describe briefly using a diagram how sunlight is polarised.
(b) Unpolarised light is incident on a polaroid. How would the intensity of transmitted light
change when the polaroid is rotated?
Ans:
(a) If the electric field vector of a light wave vibrates just in one direction perpendicular to the
direction of the propagation then it is said to be linearly polarised.

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 Unpolarised light incident on air molecules is scattered and gets polarized.
(b) Same/Unchanged/constant

22. (a) Describe briefly, with the help of suitable diagram, how the transverse nature of light can
be demonstrated by the phenomenon of polarization.
(b) When unpolarized light passes from air to transparent medium, under what condition does
the reflected light get polarized?
Ans:
(a) If two thin plates of tourmaline crystals T1 and T2 are rotated with the same angular velocity in
the same direction as shown in the figure below, no change in intensity of transmitted light is
observed.

The phenomenon can be explained only when we assume that light waves are transverse. Now the
unpolarized light falling on T1 has transverse vibrations of electric vector lying in all possible
directions. The crystal T1 allows only those vibrations to pass through it, which are parallel to its
axis. When the crystal T2 is, introduced with its axis kept parallel to the axis of T1 , the vibrations of
electric vector transmitted by T1 are also transmitted through T2 . However, when axis of T2 is
perpendicular to axis of T1 , vibrations of electric vector transmitted from T1 are normal to the axis of
T2 . Therefore, T2 does not allow them to pass and hence eye receives no light. Light coming out of

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 the crystal T1 is said to be polarized i.e. it has vibrations of electric vector which are restricted only
in one direction (i.e. parallel to the optic axis of crystal T1).
Since the intensity of polarized light on passing through a tourmaline crystal changes, with the
relative orientation of its crystallographic axes with that of polariser, therefore, light must consist of
transverse waves.
(b) The reflected ray is totally plane polarised, when reflected rays and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other.

23. (a) Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and point out the characteristic properties of
photons on which this equation is based. Briefly explain the observed features which can be
explained by this equation.
(b) Define the terms (i) ‘cutoff voltage and (ii) threshold frequency’ in relation to the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show how the cutoff voltage and threshold frequency
for a given photosensitive material can be determined with the help of a suitable plot/ graph.
Ans: (a) Einstein’s photoelectric equation
1 2
K max  mvmax = h – 0
2
Characteristics properties :
(i) In the interaction of photons with free electrons, the entire energy of photon is absorbed.
(ii) Energy of photon is directly proportional to frequency.
(iii) In photon electron collision, the total energy and momentum remain constant.
Three features :
(i) There is no time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of electrons from the
surface.
(ii) The number of electrons emitted per second, i.e., photoelectric current, is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiations.
(iii) There is a minimum frequency of the incident radiations below which emission of electrons
cannot occur.
(iv) The maximum KE of electrons increases proportionally, with increase in the frequency of
incident radiations.
(b)
Cutoff Voltage : The minimum negative V 0 potential applied to the plate or anode, (A) for which the
photoelectric current just becomes zero.
Threshold frequency : The minimum frequency of incident radiation which is required to have photo
electrons emitted from a given metal surface.
As per Einstein’s photoelectric equation
eV0 = h – h0 . for  > 0
h
V0  (  0 )
e
Hence the intercept, on the yaxis, gives v0 (one can read V0, for any , from the graph)

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24. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when
electron in hydrogen atom undergoes transition from higher energy state (quantum number
ni) to the lower state, (nf). When electron in hydrogen atom jumps from energy state ni = 4 to
nf = 3,2,1, identify the spectral series to which the emission lines belong.
mv 2 1 e2 nh
Ans: Since,  . 2 and mvrn 
rn 4 0 rn 2
 0h2n2
Therefore, rn  …………….. (i)
 me 2
1 1 e2 1 e2 1 e2
Total energy, En  mvn2  .  .  .
2 4 0 rn 4 0 2rn 4 0 rn
1 e2 1 me 4
 En   .   2 . 2 2 [using (i)]
4 0 2rn 8 0 h n
 Rhc me 4
 En  where Rydberg constant, R 
n2 8 02 h3c
Energy emitted E = Ei – Ef
1 1
E  Rhc  2  2 
 n f ni 
But E = hu
1 1
   Rc  2  2 
 n f ni 
me 4 1 1
or   2 3  2  2
8 0 h n f ni 
Paschen, Balmer, Lyman

25. (a) Using de Broglie’s hypothesis, explain with the help of a suitable diagram, Bohr’s second
postulate of quantization of energy levels in a hydrogen atom.
(b) The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential
energies of the electron in this state?
Ans:
(a) According to de Broglie’s hypothesis,
h
 ……...(i)
mv
According to de Broglie’s condition of stationary orbits, the stationary orbits are those which contain
complete de-Broglie wavelength.
2r n………...(ii)
Substituting value of from (ii) in (i), we get
h
2 r  n
mv
h
 mvr  n ……..(iii)
2
This is Bohr’s postulate of quantisation of energy levels.

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 1 2 1 e2
(b) Kinetic energy, K  mv  . …(i)
2 4 0 2r
1 e2
Potential energy, U   . …(ii)
4 0 r
1 e2
Total energy E  K  U   . …(iii)
4 0 2r
Comparing equations (i), (ii), (iii), we have
K E and U 2E
Given E 136 eV (in ground state)
Kinetic energy, K 136 eV
Potential energy U 2 (136 eV) 27 2 eV

26. Draw a plot showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon versus the mass number A.
Explain with the help of this plot the release of energy in the processes of nuclear fission and
fusion.
Ans:
The variation of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number is shown in figure.

The binding energy curve indicates that binding energy for nucleon of heavy nuclei is less than that
of middle nuclei. Clearly a heavy nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei then binding energy per
nucleon will increase and energy will be released in the process. This process is called nuclear
fission. Nuclear fission reaction is
235
92 U  01n   141 92 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  3( 0 n )  200 MeV

(slow neutron)

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27. Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Write
two important conclusions which you can draw regarding the nature of nuclear forces.
Ans:

From the above plot, following conclusions can be drawn.

(i) Nuclear forces are short range forces
(ii) For a separation greater than r0, the nuclear forces are attractive and for separation less than r 0 ,
the nuclear forces are strongly repulsive.

28. Draw a plot of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number for a large
number of nuclei, 2  A  240. How do you explain the constancy of binding energy per
nucleon in the range 30 < A < 170 using the property that nuclear force is short ranged?
Ans:
The variation of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number is shown in figure.

Inferences from graph

1. The nuclei having mass number below 20 and above 180 have relatively small binding energy and
hence they are unstable.
2. The nuclei having mass number 56 and about 56 have maximum binding energy – 5·8 MeV and
so they are most stable.
3. Some nuclei have peaks, e.g., 2 He4 , 6C 12 , 8O16 ; this indicates that these nuclei are relatively more
stable than their neighbours.

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 Explanation: When a heavy nucleus (A  235 say) breaks into two lighter nuclei (nuclear fission),
the binding energy per nucleon increases i.e, nucleons get more tightly bound. This implies that
energy would be released in nuclear fission.
When two very light nuclei (A  10) join to form a heavy nucleus, the binding is energy per nucleon
of fused heavier nucleus more than the binding energy per nucleon of lighter nuclei, so again energy
would be released in nuclear fusion.

29. (a) Write symbolically the  – decay process of 1532 P .

(b) Derive an expression for the average life of a radionuclide. Give its relationship with the
half life.
Ans:
(a) – decay process of 1532 P
32
15 P   1632 S  1 e 0  
(b) The average or mean life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time for which the active
nuclei of the atoms of the radioactive substance exit. In mean life Ta, both number of nuclei, N and
rate of disintegration, R reduce to 1/e of their initial values.
N
i.e., when t = Ta then N  0
e
N
Using it in equation N  N 0e  t , we get 0  N 0e  t
e
 e 1  e  Ta
1
 1  Ta  Ta 

so, finally mean life is reciprocal of decay constant l.
0.693
Also half life T1/ 2   0.693Ta .


30. State the law of radioactive decay. Plot a graph showing the number (N) of undecayed nuclei
as a function of time (t) for a given radioactive sample having half life T½ . Depict in the plot
the number of undecayed nuclei at (i) t = 3T½ and (ii) t = 5T½.
Ans:
Radioactive Decay Law : Laws of radioactive decay
(i) Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is independent of all physical and chemical conditions.
(ii) The disintegration is random and spontaneous. It is a matter of chance for any atom to
disintegrate first.
(iii) The radioactive substance emit  or  particles.
These rays originate from the nuclei of disintegrating atom and form fresh radioactive products.
(iv) The rate of decay of atoms is proportional to the number of undecayed radioactive atoms present
at any instant.
If N is the number of undecayed atoms in a radioactive substance at any time t, dN the number of
dN
atoms disintegrating in time dt, the rate of decay is so that
dt
dN dN
  N or   N ……....(i)
dt dt
where  is a constant of proportionality called the decay (or disintegration) constant, equation (i)
results
N = N0e–t ……………….. (ii)
where N0 = initial number of undecayed radioactive atoms.
If N0 is the initial number of radioactive atoms present then in a half life time T1/2, the number of
undecayed radioactive atoms will be N0/2 and in next half N0/4 and so on.

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 t
N  1  T1 / 2
Using,  
N0  2 
According to problem
t = 3T½
3 3
N 1 1 N
     N  N0    0
N0  2  2 8
and at t = 5T½
N
N 0
32
The graph shown below for the number of undecayed nuclei at t = 3T½ and t = 5T½ .

31. Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separations. Mark
the regions where the nuclear force is (i) attractive and (ii) repulsive. Write the characteristic
features of nuclear forces.
Ans:
The nuclear force must be of short range because its influence does not exist far beyond its nuclear
‘surface’. The graph of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as function of their separation is as
shown. It depicts the shortrange character of nuclear force. It is attractive for a separation greater
than r 0 (< 1 fm), but becomes strongly repulsive for separations less than r0. This region is known
as hard core. Nuclear attractive force is strongest when the separation is about 1 fm, or potential
energy of two nucleons is minimum.

Properties of nuclear force are:

Nuclear forces are short range forces and are strongly
Nuclear forces above 4.2. Fermi are negligible, whereas below 1 Fermi, they become
repulsive in nature. It is this repulsive nature below 1 Fermi, which prevents the nucleus form
collapsing under strong attractive force.
Nuclear forces are charge independent. The same magnitude of nuclear force act between a
pair of protons, pair of proton and neutron and pair of neutrons. The attractive nuclear force
is due to exchange of p mesons ( 0, +, –) between them.
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 Nuclear force of one nucleon at a time is only with nearest neighbouring nucleon and not
with all
neighbouring nucleons. Thus nuclear forces are saturated forces.
Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature and are 102 times stronger than electrostatic
force and 1038 times stronger than the gravitational force, in their own small range of few
fermi.

32. (a) State Ampere’s circuital law. (b) Use it to derive an expression for magnetic field insdie,
along the axis of an air cored solenoid. (c) Sketch the magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid.
How are these field lines different from the electric field lines from an electric dipole?
Ans:
(a) It states that the line integral of magnetic field induction along a closed path is equal to 0 -times
 
the current enclosed by the path i.e.,  B.dl  0 I
(b) Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Long Solenoid:
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a close-packed helix, carrying current. To construct a
solenoid a large number of closely packed turns of insulated copper wire are wound on a cylindrical
tube of card-board or china clay.

When an electric current is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is produced within the
solenoid. If the solenoid is long and the successive insulated copper turns have no gaps, then the
magnetic field within the solenoid is uniform; with practically no magnetic field outside it. The
reason is that the solenoid may be supposed to be formed of a large number of circular current
elements. The magnetic field due to a circular loop is along its axis and the current in upper and
lower straight parts of solenoid is equal and opposite. Due to this the magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of solenoid is zero and so the resultant magnetic field is along the axis of
the solenoid.

If there are ‘n’ number of turns per metre length of solenoid and I amperes is the current flowing,
then magnetic field at axis of long solenoid is B 0nI

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 N  NI
If there are N turns in length l of wire, then n  or B  0
l l
Derivation: Consider a symmetrical long solenoid having number of turns per unit length equal to n.
Let I be the current flowing in the solenoid, then by right hand rule, the magnetic field is parallel to
the axis of the solenoid.
Field outside the solenoid: Consider a closed path abcd. Applying Ampere’s law to this path
 
 B.dl    0 (since net current enclosed by path is zero)
As dl 0 B 0
This means that the magnetic field outside the solenoid is zero. 
Field Inside the solenoid: Consider a closed path pqrs. The line integral of magnetic field B along
path pqrs is
         

pqrs
B.dl   B.dl  
pq
 B .
qr
dl   B
rs
.dl   B.dl
sp
........(i)

 
For path pq, B and dl are along the same direction,
 
 
 B.dl   Bdl  Bl (since pq = l)
pq
 
For paths qr and sp, B and dl are mutually perpendicular.
   
   B.dl   Bdl cos 90  0
0
 B .dl 
qr sp

For path rs, B 0 (since field is zero outside a solenoid)

 
  B.dl  0
rs
In view of these, equation (i) gives
   

pqrs
B.dl   B.dl  Bl
pq
...............(ii)
 
By Ampere’s law  B.dl  0  net current enclosed by path
Bl 0 (nl I)  B 0nI
This is the well known result.
(c) The magnetic field lines of magnet (or current carrying solenoid) form continuous closed loops
and are directed from N to S pole outside the magnet and S to N pole inside the magnet and forms
closed loops while in the case of an electric dipole the field lines begin from positive charge and end
on negative charge or escape to infinity.

Prepared by: M. S. KumarSwamy, TGT(Maths) Page - 28 -