What is sensitivity?

 response to external and internal stimuli

Key roles of the nervous system

 motor environmental conditions and detect changes in the environment.
 respond appropriately and rapidly.
 coordinate multiple responses by different parts of the body and regulate bodily
functions.
 nervous system is an important control and communication network that carries
out information processing in the body of the living organism. it carries out
information processing.

Three principal functions of the nervous system

 sensory input
 integration
 motor output

Structures responsible for functions

 receiving sensory stimuli → sensory receptors
 receiving and processing of information → spinal cord and brain
 carrying out motor responses → muscles and glands
  Glial cells
o provides support, nutrition, insulation and help with signal transmission in
the nervous system.
Neurons
 Three common features of neurons
o neurons are the longest-lived cells in the body.
o neurons are amitotic(do not undergo cell division) and are irreplaceable.
o neurons need a stable and abundant supply of glucose and oxygen to
support their high metabolic rate.
 What are neurons?
o basic functional units of the nervous system
o Structure of neuron
 cell body(soma)
 projections → dendrites and axons
o Functions
 Signal reception
 Signal integration
 Signal conductions
 Signal transmission
o unidirectional
 Three types of Neurons based on structure.
o Multipolar
 3 or more processes sticking out from the soma including on axon
and dendrites.
 Many branches increase SA to connect to more sensory receptor
cells to receive more incoming signals from sensory receptor cells.
o Bipolar
 Have 2 processes - an axon and a single dendrite extending from
the opposite sides of the cell body.
o unipolar
 only one process

 Three types of Neurons based on function.

o Sensory(afferent) neurons
 transmits electric impulses from sensory receptors towards the CNS.
 mostly unipolar
o motor(efferent) neurons
 transmits impulses from the CNS to the rest of the body(muscles
and glands)
 mostly multipolar
o Interneurons(association or relay neurons)
 found in the central nervous system(CNS)
 transmits impulses between sensory and motor neurons.
 most abundant
 mostly multipolar

 Functions of dendrite, axon, and cell body

o Dendrites
 receives incoming electrical signals or stimuli and conduct weak
electrical signals towards the axon/cell body.
 highly branched → increased surface is to increased oncoming
electrical signals to send to the human body.
o Cell body
  control centre for neurons
 integrates electrical signals coming from dendrites → send electrical
signal to axon.
o Axons
 extension of the cell body
 function: conduct electrical signals to synaptic over long distances
rapidly towards axon terminals.

 What is myelin
sheath?
o Myelin sheath is
formed by
Schwann cells(in
PNS)
o Myelin sheath is
formed by

oligodendrocytes(in CNS)

 Function of Myelin sheath

o Myelin sheath that wraps around the axon
o At regular intervals(internodes)
o provides electrical insulation.
o to reduce loss of positive ions
o as electrical signals are conducted along the axon as a fast-flowing
current.
 Nodes of Ranvier
o Myelin sheath only cover segments of the axon at regular intervals →
internodes (myelinated segments)
o unmyelinated gaps → nodes of Ranvier
o Functions: to pump in Na+ into the axon → regenerate electrical signal to
keep the signal strong and fast
 What is the role of the myelin sheath and nodes of Ranvier?
Both internodes(myelin sheath) and nodes if Ranvier enable particular type of
electrical signals → saltatory conduction
 Saltatory conduction
o Fast movement of electrical signals/AP at the internodes → due to
insulation of charges by myelin sheath
o Regeneration/influx of positive charges at the nodes of Ranvier
o Enables electrical signals/AP to travel in one direction from cell body to
synaptic terminals.
o This enables fast strong electrical signals/AP to be sent to the synaptic
terminals.

Conduction issues
 Muscle weakness
When the body attacks nerves, demyelination occurs and also causes damage
to Schwann cells. This causes positive charges from the axon to diffuse out of
the axon. Weakness is caused by weak signals reaching sensory cells at
muscles.
 Muscle numbness
 Numbness occurs when sensory neurons are attacked and hence there will be
no feeling in the muscle as no signals reach the muscle as all the charges
diffuse out due to the damage to the myelin sheath.
 Muscle paralysis
Paralysis occurs when both sensory neurons and motor neurons are attacked.
No signals reach the muscles from both types of neurons as the positive charges
diffuse out and there would be no feeling or movement in muscles.
 Why do some patients take longer to recover after remyelination?
Remyelination → make new Schwann cells → fast → quality would be poor →
smaller →less layers wrapped around the axon → lesser insulation → still
damaged again.
 What happens when electrical signals/AP are conducted and reach the
synaptic terminals?
Signal transmission - from one neuron to another cell(either neuron or another
body cell)
Function of synaptic terminal: synaptic terminals are the end point of a neuron.

Reflexes
 What is a reflex action?
immediate, stereotyped response to a specific stimulus, without conscious
control(involuntary)
 Why are reflexes important?
o Maintain posture and balance.
o respond to changes in the external and internal environment to
 avoid danger.
 maintain optimal working conditions for cells(homeostasis)
 What is a reflex arc?
o shortest pathway along which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to
the effector to carry out a reflex action.
o components
 receptor
 sensory neuron
 spinal cord(CNS) → integration
 interneuron(some do not have interneuron)
 motor neuron
 effectors
Spinal cord
 grey matter consists of cell bodies
of neurons.
 white matter consists of axons of
neurons.
 In the spinal cord, white matter
makes up the outer layer,
consistent with its functions in
linking the CNS to sensory and
motor neurons of PNS. In the brain,
the white matter is predominantly in
the interior, where signalling between
neurons function in learning, feeling
emotions, processing sensory
information, and generating
commands
 The central canal runs along the
length of the spinal cord and contains
 cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) which is formed in the brain by filtration of arterial
blood. The CSF circulates slowing through cavities in the brain and central canal
in the spinal cord, and then drains back into the veins. This allows CSF to supply
CNS cells with nutrients and oxygen and carry away waste materials.
 The dorsal and ventral roots are very short and fuse to form the spinal nerves.
 Axons of motors neurons leave the spinal cord via the ventral root, sending
away motor signals generated by CNS to effector organs.
 Axons of sensory neurons enter the spinal cord via the dorsal root, sending
sensory signals to the CNS for integration and processing.
 Cell bodies of sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglion(enlarged
portion of dorsal root).
 Cell bodies of motor neurons are found in the grey matter of the spinal cord.
 Spinal nerves are mixed nerves as they contain both the nerve fibres of sensory
and motor neurons.
 As signal transduction between neurons occur predominantly in the grey matter
of the spinal cord, synapses formed between sensory neurons, interneurons and
motor neurons are found in the grey matter.
Reflex Arcs
 2 types of reflex arcs
 Monosynaptic reflex arc
o no interneurons - only 5 components
o e.g. knee-jerk reflex
o fast
o no sensation - posture/balance
o to test nervous system
 Polysynaptic reflex arc
o interneurons - 6 components
o e.g. pain withdrawal reflex
o response of pulling back is solely by spinal cord.
o interneuron sends message to the brain → remember sensation of pain
and fear → trying to avoid danger.
Monosynaptic Polysynaptic
Simple Complex
Interneuron absent Interneuron present
does not involve the brain brain is involved but does not control
reflex response
no feeling/sensation/perception feeling/sensation/perception of reflex
of reflex present

Knee-jerk reflex
 Stretch stimulus detected by
stretch receptors.
 response: reflex contraction of
extensor muscles - quadriceps
 monosynaptic reflex pathway
 how does it occur?
o When hit.
o Patellar tendon stretches →
Stretches quadricep.
o Stimulates stretch
receptors.
 o Stimulates sensory neurons to generate and conduct electrical signals
towards the CNS.
o In the spinal cord, sensory neurons transmit electrical signals to the motor
neurons.
o Motor neurons conducts and transmits electrical signals to the quadricep.
o Quadricep will contract causing the leg to extend and kick up.
Pain-withdrawal reflex
 pain stimulus detected by pain receptors.
 response → reflex contraction of flexor muscles → biceps
 polysynaptic reflex pathway
 How does it occur?
o stimulus → pain
o pain receptors under skin activated by pain stimulus → sensory neuron
conducts electrical signal towards the spinal cord → reaches spinal
cord(integration) → sensory neuron transmits electrical signals to
interneuron → interneuron conducts and transmits electrical signals to
motor neurons → receives electrical signal, conduct, and transmit to
effector (biceps) → contracts → pulls hand away.

Reflex vs voluntary action

 Reflexes are more rapid than deliberate action.
 Reflexes are involuntary and does not require conscious control while deliberate
action is voluntary and requires conscious control.
 Reflexes are a direct response to a stimulus, while deliberate action does not
require a stimulus.
 Spinal reflex in which signals are integrated in the spinal cord and bypasses the
brain, and motor signals are initiated in the spinal cord and cord , while a
deliberate action, motor signals are initiated in the brain.
 Reflexes are stereotyped in that response to the specific stimulus.

cannot feel Cannot feel  Sensory neurons are unable to conduct electrical
prick and prick signals to the spinal cord.
can  no electrical signals about the pin prick are sent to
move(block the brain.
ed at  no sensation of prick.
sensory  Unable to carry out reflex withdrawal of hand.
neuron) Voluntary  When the person makes a voluntary decision to
movement move his arm
 electrical signals generated in his brain will be
conducted down the spinal cord.
 and transmitted to the motor neuron.
 conduct electrical signals.
 arm contract
Can Can respond  Sensory neurons conduct electrical signals to
respond to to prick spinal cord.
prick but  which transmits to the interneuron connected to
can’t motor neuron which conducts electrical signals to
feel(blocked arm muscles – contract to move arm
at spinal Cannot feel  Sensory neuron also transmits electrical signals to
cord) prick interneuron which conducts signals to brain.
 Electrical signals are not transmitted to the brain.
 no sensation of prick
Can feel Cannot  Sensory neuron conducts electrical signals to
prick but voluntarily spinal cord.
cannot move  transmit to interneuron connected to motor
move(block neuron.
ed at motor  transmits electrical signals to motor neurons.
neuron)  unable to stimulate arm muscle to contract to
move his arm.
Can feel prick  Sensory neuron also transmits electrical signals to
the interneuron.
 which conducts signals to the brain?
 electrical signals travel along interneuron in the
brain
 sensation of prick
 Unable to carry out reflex removal of hand