THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: SPINAL CORD and 2.

autonomic nervous system-

SPINAL NERVES (involuntary)
conducts impulses from brain and
INTRODUCTION
spinal cord to smooth muscle
Nervous System- the body’s control center
tissue to cardiac muscle tissue of
and communication network.
the heart and to glands
- shares in maintenance of
two divisions:
homeostasis with the endocrine
a. sympathetic division-
system by controlling the pituitary
stimulates/ speeds up activity
(master endocrine gland)
and thus involves energy
expenditure and uses
ORGANIZATION
norepinephrine as a
Two major categories:
neurotransmitter.
central nervous system
b. parasympathetic division-
- control center for the whole
stimulates/speeds up
system.
vegetative activities such as
- consist of brain and spinal cord
digestion, urination and
- body sensations and changes in
defecation and restores/slows
external environment must be
down other activities. uses
relayed here by receptors to be
acetylcholine as
interpreted and acted on.
neurotransmitter at nerve
peripheral nervous system-
endings.
- consists of all the nerves that
connects the brain and spinal cord
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE CELLS
with sensory receptors, muscles
nerve tissue- consist of neurons (groupings
and glands.
of nerve cells) to transmit information
two subcategories:
called nerve impulses in the form of
1. afferent peripheral system-
electrochemical changes.
consists of afferent or sensory
nerve- bundle of nerve cells or fibers
neurons that convey info. from
nerve tissue is also composed of neuroglia
receptors in the periphery of the
or glia cells (cells that perform support and
body to brain and spinal.
protection) that is 60% of all brain cells.
2. efferent peripheral system-
- located outside of CNS.
efferent or motor neurons, convey
info. from brain and spinal cord to
NEUROGLIA CELLS
muscles and glands.
- means nerve glue
two subcategories:
- do not conduct impulses
1. somatic nervous system- conducts
Different kinds:
impulses from brain & spinal cord
astrocytes
to skeletal muscle, causing us to
- star-shaped cells that wrap around
respond to changes in our external
nerve cells to form a supporting
environment.
network in the brain and spinal
cord.
 granular structures referred to as Nissi
- attach neurons to their blood bodies, also called chromatophilic
vessels. substance and where protein synthesis
- helps regulate nutrients and ions occurs.
that are needed by the nerve cells. two kinds of nerve fibers on nerve cell:
Oligodendroglia dendrites
- looks like small astrocytes - short and branched
- provide support by forming - receptive areas of neuron
semirigid connective-like tissue - multipolar neuron has many
rows between neurons in the brain dendrites.
and spinal cord. axon
- produce fatty myelin sheath on - nerve cell has only one.
neurons of brain and spinal cord of - begins as a slight enlargement of
CNS. cell body called axonal hillock.
Microglia cells - long process or fiber that begins
- small cells that protect the CNS and singly but may branch and at its
whose role is to engulf and destroy end has many fine extensions
microbes like bacteria and cellular called axon terminals that contact
debris. with dendrites of other neurons.
Ependymal cells - numerous mitochondria and
- line fluid-filled ventricles of the neurofibrils are in axon.
brain. large peripheral axons enclosed in fatty
- some produce cerebrospinal fluid myelin sheath produced by Schwann cells.
and other with cilia move the fluid neurilemma- portion of Schwann cell that
through CNS. contain most of cytoplasm of the cell and
Schwann cells the nucleus remain outside of the myelin
- form myelin sheaths around nerve sheath.
fibers in the PNS. nodes of Ranvier- narrow gaps in the
sheath.

THE STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

In cytoplasm of cell body, there is extensive
rough ER. In a neuron, the rough ER has
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION of
NEURONS
neurons- conduct impulses from one part
of the body to another.
three types of cells:
1. multipolar neurons- have several
(multi) dendrites and one axon.
- neurons in brain and spinal cord.
single cells called Schwann cells also called
neurolemmocytes
- surround the axon at specific sites
and form the fatty myelin sheath
around the axons in the peripheral
nervous system.
nodes of Ranvier also called neurofibril
nodes
- allows ions to flow freely from
extracellular fluids to the axons
- assists in developing action
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION of
potentials for nerve transmission.
NEURONS
2. bipolar neurons- have 1 dendrite
nerve cells pick up various changes in
and 1 axon.
environment from receptors.
- functions as receptor cells in
receptors- peripheral nerve endings of
special sense organs.
sensory nerves that respond to stimuli.
- only two (bi) process come off the
- change energy of a stimulus, like
cell body.
heat, into nerve impulse.
- found only in three areas of body:
- contact with only one end of
retina of eye, inner ear and
sensory neuron (the peripheral
olfactory area of the nose.
process in the skin)
3. unipolar neurons
- ensuring one-way transmission of
- only one process extending from
the impulse
the cell body
sensory/ afferent neuron- 1st nerve cell to
- single branch extends into a central
receive impulse directly from receptors.
branch that functions as an axon
- are unipolar type.
and a peripheral branch that
- central process of sensory neuron
function as a dendrite.
goes to spinal cord.
- most sensory neurons are unipolar
from sensory neuron, impulse may pass
neurons
through a number of internuncial or
- branch that functions as axon
association neurons.
enters brain/spinal cord
- found in brain and spinal cord
- branch functioning as a dendrite
- are of the multipolar type.
connects to a peripheral part of the
- transmit sensory impulse for
body.
interpretation and processing.
from association neurons, impulse passed depolarization- reversal of electrical charge
on final nerve cell, motor/efferent neuron. and creates cell’s action potential.
- multipolar type - process where nerves carry
- brings reaction to original stimulus impulses by creating electrical
- usually muscular (pulling away charges
from source of heat or pain) - potassium ions begin to move
- can also be glandular (like outside to restore resting
salivating after smelling freshly membrane potential.
baked cookies) - sodium-potassium pump begins to
function, pumping out sodium ions
PHYSIOLOGY of THE NERVE IMPULSE that rushed in and pulling back in
nerve cell similar to muscle cell where the potassium ions that moved
there are concentrations of ions on the outside, thus restoring the original
inside and outside of the cell membrane. charges.
repolarization- change in membrane
positively charged sodium (Na+) ions are in potential returning to a negative value.
greater concentration outside cell nerve fiber- acts like an electrical current,
greater concentration of positively charged and carries the nerve impulse along fiber
(K+) ins inside the cell - nerve impulse is a self-propagating
this situation is maintained by the cell wave of depolarization followed by
membrane’s sodium-potassium pump. repolarization moving down the
nerve fiber.
the inside of the fiber has negatively unmyelinated nerve fiber- conducts
charged chloride (Cl-) and other negatively impulse over its entire length
charged organic molecules. - conduction is slower than along a
myelinated fiber.
nerve fiber has an electrical distribution as - impulse travels only 0.5 m/sec.
well such that the outside is positively myelinated fiber- insulated by myelin
charged while inside is negatively charged a sheath
condition known as the membrane or - an impulse on a myelinated motor
resting potential. fiber going to a skeletal muscle
travel about 120m/sec.
Na+ and K+ ions tend to diffuse across the transmission occurs only at the nodes of
membrane but cell maintains the resting Ranvier between adjacent Schwann cells.
potential through the channels of the - action potential and inflow of ions
sodium-potassium pump that actively occur only at these nodes, allowing
extrudes Na+ and accumulates K+ ions. nerve impulse to jump from node
to node.
when nerve impulse begins- permeability impulse never vary in strength, if stimulus
to the Na+ ions changes. is barely great enough to cause fiber to
- Na rushes in causing a change from carry impulse, impulse will be the same
a negative (-) to a positive (+) strength as one excited by a stronger
charge inside the nerve membrane. stimulus. known as all-or-none law which
states that if a nerve fiber carries any  enzyme in the cleft,
impulse, it will carry a full-strength impulse. acetylcholinase, immediately
begins to break down acetylcholine
THE SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION after it performs its function.
Synapses- areas where terminal branches  ANS uses adrenaline (also called
of axon are anchored close to the ends of epinephrine) as transmitting agent.
dendrites of another neuron. best known neurotransmitters:
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
serotonin
dopamine
endorphins

THE REFLEX ARC

reflex- involuntary reaction to external
stimulus.
- an involuntary reaction to a
stimulus applied to our periphery
and transmitted to the CNS.
reflex arc- pathway that results in a reflex
- basic unit of the nervous system
- simplest and smallest pathway able
to receive a stimulus, enter CNS for
mediate interpretation and
produce a response.
FIVE COMPONENTS:
- synaptic cleft- area that is one-way 1. sensory receptor in the skin
junctions that ensure that the 2. sensory or afferent neuron
nerve impulse travels in only one 3. association or internuncial neurons
direction. within spinal cord
transmissions across synapse are brought 4. motor or efferent neuron
about by the low concentrations of 5. an effector organ like a muscle.
neurotransmitters that moves across the knee-jerk reaction/ patellar tendon reflex-
gap. reflex arc when below of the knee is hit by
 as nerve impulse travel down the a rubber mallet.
fiber, causes vesicle in the axon
endings of a presynaptic neuron to reflexes also occur within bodies to help
release chemical neurotransmitter. maintain homeostasis.
 most of synapses uses heart beat rate, digestion, and breathing
acetylcholine as neurotransmitter. rates
 acetylcholine allows impulse to coughing, sneezing, swallowing and
travel across synaptic cleft to the vomiting are other ex. of automatic
postsynaptic neuron.
subconscious reactions to changes within ascending tracts- conducts impulses up the
or outside of the body. cord and are concerned with motor
functions.
descending tracts- conducts impulses
down the cord and are concerned with
motor functions.
nucleus- mass of nerve cell bodies and
dendrites inside the CNS.
- consist of gray matter
horns- areas of gray matter in the spinal
cord.

THE SPINAL CORD

- begins as a continuation of the
medulla oblongata of the
GROUPING OF NEURAL TISSUE brainstem.
white matter- groups of myelinated axons - length is approx. 16 to 18 in.
(myelin has whitish color) from many - dm varies at different levels
neurons supported by neuroglia. because it surrounded and
- forms nerve tracts in the CNS. protected by bone (vertebrae) and
gray matter- gray areas of nervous system, (intervertebral disk)
consisting of nerve cell bodies and meninges- series of connective tissue
dendrites. membranes that protects spinal and brain.
- can consist of bundles of - 3 protective membrane layer
unmyelinated axons and their surround the brain and spinal cord
neuroglia. - do not attach directly to the
- gray matter on surface of brain is vertebrae separated by epidural
called the cortex. space
nerve- bundle of fibers located outside of - space contains loose connective
CNS. most are white matter. tissue and some adipose tissue that
ganglia- nerve cell bodies that are found acts as a protective cushion around
outside the CNS, that are generally group spinal cord.
together forming spinal meninges- assoc. specifically with
- primarily made up of unmyelinated the spinal cord.
nerve cell bodies, they are masses meninxes:
of gray matter. duramater- means tough mother.
tract- bundle of fibers inside CNS. - outermost spinal meninx
- can run long distances up and - forms a tough outer tube of white
down the spinal cord fibrous connective tissue
- also found in the brain and connect arachnoid mater- spider layer
parts of the brain with each other - middle spinal meninx
and with spinal cord.
- made of myelinated fibers and are
classified as white matter.
 - forms a delicate connective - sensory roots and contain only
membranous tube inside the sensory nerve fibers.
duramater. - conducts impulses from the
pia mater- delicate mother periphery like the (skin) to spinal
- transparent fibrous membrane that cord.
forms around and adheres to -fibers extend into the
surface of the spinal cord (and posterior or dorsal gray
brain) horns of the spinal cord.
- contains numerous blood vessels anterior or ventral root
and nerves that nourish the - other point of attachment of the
underlying cells spinal nerve to the cord.
subdural space- - this is a motor root
- space between dura and arachnoid - contains motor nerve fibers only
- contains serous fluid and conducts impulses from spinal
subarachnoid space cord the periphery (like muscles).
- bet. arachnoid and pia - connects with the anterior or
- the clear and watery cerebrospinal ventral gray horns of the spinal
fluid circulates. cord.
dorsal root ganglia
- contains only sensory nerve fibers. THE SPINAL NERVES
- 31PAIRS of spinal nerves.
- from union of the dorsal and
ventral roots of spinal nerves
- all spinal nerves are mixed: contain
both motor and sensory fibers.
- most of spinal nerves exit the
vertebral column between
adjacent vertebrae.
- named and numbered acc. to
region and level of the spinal cord
from w/c they emerge.
FUNCTIONS of the SPINAL CORD
major function of spinal cord
- to convey sensory impulses from 8 pairs of CERVICAL NERVES
the periphery to the brain and to 12 pairs of THORACIC NERVES
conduct motor impulse to the 5 pairs of LUMBAR NERVES
periphery. 5 pairs of SACRAL NERVES
ascending nerve tract 1 pair of COCCYGEAL NERVES.
descending nerve tract - also numbered acc. to order
Second principal function: (starting superiorly) within the
- provide a means of integrating region.
reflexes - C1 TO C8
posterior/ dorsal root - T1 TO T12
 - L1 TO L5
- S1 TO S5
- Cx (coccygeal)

spinal tap at level 3-4 of lumbar vertebra

for collection of cerebrospinal fluid.