What is Emotional Intelligence?

When Salovey and Mayer1 first used the term emotional intelligence in 1990 they described it as ‘a form
of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s own thinking and action.’ Some of
their initial studies produced some interesting results about the relationship between emotional clarity
and intelligence. For instance when an individual was able to identify and name a mood or feeling they
were experiencing, they generally recovered more quickly from the condition. Similarly individuals who
were able to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others’ emotions were better able to
respond flexibly to changes in their social environment and build supportive network

Definition of Emotional Intelligence :“The capacity to recognise our own feelings and those of others,
for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.” Daniel
Goleman.The Importance of Emotions Our bodies communicate with us to tell us and others what we
need. The better our communication the better we feel. Emotions help us to establish our boundaries.
Emotions have the potential to unite and connect us. Emotions can serve as our inner moral and ethical
compass. They are essential for good decision making.General principles

• All humans have emotional needs.

• Each of us has similar, but different emotional needs.
• Emotional needs vary more by degree than type. They also vary more than physical needs.
• Emotional needs are more basic and important than rights.
• Negative feelings are indications of our unmet emotional needs.
• Feelings are real and not debatable. Understanding Emotional Literacy
The knowledge that we might have about our own emotions and beliefs and those of others is of limited
value if we are unable to properly identify and label emotions as we experience them.
This is called emotional literacy. It is important to be able to separately identify our thoughts from our
feelings. Our thoughts are innumerable and much too diverse to codify whereas our emotions generally
fall into four categories:
• Sad
• Mad
• Glad
• Scared

Key Components of EI:

Self-Awareness: Recognizing and understanding your emotions.

Self-Regulation: Managing your emotions effectively.

Motivation: Using emotions to fuel goal-directed behavior.

Empathy: Understanding others’ feelings and perspectives.

Social Skills: Building strong relationships and managing conflict.

Effect on Personal Attraction:

EI greatly influences personal attraction, as individuals with high EI tend to be more empathetic,
approachable, and socially adept. They can better manage interpersonal interactions, making them
more appealing to others. For example, someone who listens actively and shows genuine concern is
often perceived as more attractive because they create a sense of emotional connection and trust.

Cognitive Dissonance

In the field of social psychology, cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon which is creating the
psychological uncomfortable which lead to the stress of a human being. When our actions conflict with
our prior attitudes, we often change our attitudes to be more consistent with our actions. This
phenomenon, known as cognitive dissonance, is considered to be one of the most influential theories in
psychology. However, the neural basis of this phenomenon is unknown. (Veen, Krug, Schooler & Carter,
2009). Individuals experience cognitive dissonance when theyhold two or more cognitions, which are
psychologically inconsistent. This situation makes them experience an unpleasant state of tension.
However, people prefer consonance so they will seek a stable state where there is a minimum
dissonance to make such inconsistent cognitions fit together.
1.2 Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive refers to mental awareness while dissonance means disharmony (Idowu & Esere, 2007).
Dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a
feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the
discomfort and restore balance. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that
smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance (McLeod, 2018). People
tend to seek consistency in their attitudes, beliefs or behaviors so when what they hold true is
challenged or what they do does not fit with what they think, the state of cognitive dissonance will occur
(Cherry, 2018). According to Franzoi (2000) cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort caused by
performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s attitudes. Further, it is a drive or feeling of
discomfort caused by

holding two or more inconsistent cognition The causes of cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance is
expressed from dimensions as forced compliance, psychological tension, phony, level of reward,
motivation to reduce tension (Oduh, 2009).

1.3.1 Forced Compliance

Sometimes we might find ourselves engaging in behaviours that are opposed to our own beliefs due to
external expectation, often for work, school, or a social situation. This might involve going along with
something due to peer pressure or doing something at work to avoid getting fired.

1.3.2 Psychological Tension

Psychological tension is the mental anguish experienced by the individual as sequel to the awareness
that the person has behaved stupidly, unethically, immorally, illegally or unconventionally. This
distressing mental state occurs when people do things they would not want to do, or express opinions
that are contrary to opinions they are holding (Oduh, 2016).
1.3.3 Phony
The third dimension of cognitive dissonance is identified as phony, in which people exhibit pretentious
behavior, de-emphasizing the import of genuine and authentic behavior. In order to gain cognitive
consistency the subjects were motivated to reduce the tension. The subjects could reduce the mental
anguish through another dimension labelled phony or denial of reality (Oduh, 2016). In discussing
cognitive dissonance, Aronson (1992) clearly identified phony as a dimension of cognitive dissonance.
1.3.4 Level of Reward
A third dimension to cognitive dissonance is level of reward accruing from the behavior. The higher the
level of reward accruing to individuals who engage in unethical behavior the less the degree of
dissonance

Motivation to reduce tension

The psychological tension leads to another dimension of this construct which is the motivation to reduce
the tension. Reduction of psychological tension is accomplished through cognitive restructuring by
changing the way people think about the world as well as the way they behave. Those who are
dissonant could adopt few strategies to mitigate the psychological tension Impact of cognitive
dissonance on human being Cognitive dissonance can make people feel uneasy and uncomfortable,
particularly if the disparity between their beliefs and behaviours involves something that is central to
their sense of self. This discomfort can be manifest itself in a variety of ways. Human may feel anxiety,
embarrassment, regret, sadness, shame as well as on the highest extent stress. Cognitive dissonance can
even influence how people feel about and view themselves, leasing towards the negative feelings about
their self-esteem and self-worth. This going to play a role in how they act, think and make decisions. If
humans feel high disparity, that will lead to them to feel the dissonance. The dissonance a gain will lead
to the above negative consequence Example: A smoker knows that smoking is harmful to health but
continues to smoke. Resolution: The individual might resolve this conflict by: Changing behavior:
Quitting smoking. Changing belief: Downplaying the risks of smoking ("It’s not that dangerous"). Adding
new cognitions: Believing that smoking helps manage stress, thus justifying the habit.

Cyberbullying and Prevention

Cyberbullying refers to the use of digital platforms to harass, intimidate, or humiliate others. It includes
spreading rumors, sending threatening messages, or posting harmful content online. Prevention
Strategies:

Educating users about responsible online behavior.

Encouraging open communication between parents, teachers, and children.

Implementing strict laws and policies against cyberbullying.

Using privacy settings and blocking/reporting offenders.

Section B 1. Psychotropic Substances

Psychotropic substances are chemical compounds that affect the central nervous system, altering
mood, perception, or behavior. Examples include antidepressants, antipsychotics, and recreational
drugs like cannabis and LSD.To the man in the street the words"drug"and «narcotic"are often
understood to mean drugs of addiction.In so far as this attitude creates a respect for drugs-even a
healthy fear of them-e-this may be good.The use or misuse of drugs leading to habituation and addiction
is an old problem to the doctor and the pharmacist. In Britain it is not a very large or serious problem
and presents nothing comparable to the difficulties which arise from addiction to alcohol.These have led
the Minister of Health (England) to issue a recent directive to Regional Hospital Boards on the setting up
of special clinics for the treatment of alcoholism.In passing, while addiction to alcohol is often regarded
as a problem quite apart from addiction to drugs, the two addictions can exist in the one person and
complicate one another.In 1958 an Interdepartmental Committee on Drug Addiction was set up by the
Minister of Health and the Secretary of State for Scotland "to review the advice given by the
Departmental Committee on Morphine and Heroin Addiction (the Rolleston Committee) in 1926, to
consider whether any revised advice should also cover other drugs liable to produce addiction or to be
habit-forming; to consider whether there is a medical need to provide special, including institutional,
treatment outside the resources already available, for persons addicted to drugs; and to make
recommendations, including proposals for any administrative measures that seem expedient." Before
these problems can be discussed it is desirable that definitions be made which are generally, if not
always, accepted.The Interdepartmental Committee in its report (1961) has slightly modified the WHO
definitions of Addiction and Habituation, as follows.
1.Drug Addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of
a drug (natural or synthetic);its characteristics include:
(i) An overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the Drug and to obtain it by any
means

ii) A tendency to increase the dose, though some patients may remain m- definitely on a stationary
dose.
(iii) A psychological and physical dependence on the effects of the drug.
(iv) The appearance of a characteristic abstinence syndrome in a subject from whom the drug is
withdrawn.
(v) An effect detrimental to the individual and to society.
2.Drug Habituation (habit) is a condition resulting from the repeated consumption of a drug. Its
characteristics include:

(i) A desire (but not a compulsion) to continue taking the drug for the sense of improved well-being
which it engenders.
(ii) Little or no tendency to increase the dose.
(iii) Some degree of psychological dependence on the effect of the drug, but absence of physical
dependence and hence of an abstinence syndrome.
(iv) Detrimental effects, if any, primarily on the individual. It will be seen that addiction is differentiated
from habituation in that in the latter there is less tendency to increase the dose and absence of physical
dependence. This distinction is not absolute-the report accepts the existence of the stabilised addict and
indeed gives brief case histories of six such people who take their share in the work of the world wihout
increase of the dosage on which they are dependent for fr.eedom from pain. Where drugs are used in
this way for relief from chronic pain some authorities maintain that it is wrong to regard the sufferer as
an addict. Again the habitue' may find that his intake of tranquilliser or barbiturate 'increases yet he may
not suffer from physical dependence, or only to the extent to which the smoker exhibits such
dependence when deprived of his cigarettes. "Habituation" is also used in another sense by Wikler
(1961) as a synonym for relapse after cure, but such use of the word might lead to confusion. Prevention
of Drug Abuse in Society: Educating youth about the dangers of drugs. Strengthening family and
community support systems. Enforcing strict regulations on drug sales and trafficking. Promoting
healthy coping mechanisms for stress.

JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Introduction

A typical human resource manager understands that for the organization (s)he is leading to succeed,
questions about what must be done, how it must be done, the best person to do it, and how the person
can find satisfaction doing it, must be given definite and appropriate answers. It is an attempt to give
answers to these questions that the functions of job analysis and design comes in. In the following
paragraph, these concepts shall be discussed as they pertain to human resource management.

Job Analysis
Dissecting a job in order to give a general description of its component elements can be termed as job
analysis (Holst and Pancoast, 1921). It is a detailed and systematic study and presentation of information
such as skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities relating to the operation of a specific job. It is this
information that differentiates one job from another and determines the success of a worker in
performing his or her duties (PPMS job analysis into two subsets as

For a specific job to be properly analyzed, there is need to apply appropriate techniques and methods in
gathering information about such job. Such techniques and methods include personal observation,
personal interview, data collection through questionnaire, and review of records.watch Job Analysis

Job Description

Job title, Job location, Job summary, Reporting to, Working conditions, Job duties, Machines to be used,
Hazards, etc

Job Specification

Qualification, Experience, Training, Skills, Responsibilities, Emotional Characteristics,

Sensory demands, etc

Below are some uses of and reasons for

job analysis.

1. Determination of labour needs: Job analysis allows an organization to evaluate its labour

needs and make adequate preparation for it.

2. Recruitment and Selection: The information made available through job analysis forms the basis upon
which an organization recruits, selects, orientates, places ,trains, transfers, and

promotes employees.

3. Wage and Salary Administration: Employee information such as previous experience,

educational qualifications and the risks and hazards involved in performing Specific jobs, help in salary
and wages administration

Abstract and figures

A typical human resource manager understands that for the organization (s)he is leading to succeed,
questions about what must be done, how it must be done, the best person to do it, and how the person
can find satisfaction doing it, must be given definite and appropriate answers. It is an attempt to give
answers to these questions that the functions of job analysis and design comes in. In this chapter, these
concepts shall be discussed as they pertain management.

An illustration showing he branches of job analysis.

For a specific job to be properly analyzed, there is need to apply appropriate techniques

and methods in gathering information about such job. Such techniques and methods include

personal observation, personal interview, data collection through questionnaire, and review of

records.

1. Personal observation: Here, a human resource manager observes the employees who are actually
doing the job. (S)he watches out for the materials and equipment used, takes note of the working
conditions and probable hazards, and tries to appreciate all that the work involves. It is important to
state that observation could be done directly by the human resource manager or indirectly through the
employee‟s superiors (supervisors, mentors, foremen, etc) or external observers specially appointed to
watch employees performing their job - trade job analysts or special job reviewing committees
established for such purpose. Whether done directly or indirectly, the employees constitute the major
source of getting information for job analysis.

2. Personal interviews: Interview method, though time-consuming and relatively costly, could be used in
place of observation. It can also be used to complement personal observation in the case where
observation does not provide the human resource. Manager with sufficient information needed for
analysis. Interview, (whether oral or written, structured or open-ended), carried out with an employee
or group of employee, is the act of asking the employee(s) certain questions and the answers.

Job Design

Having considered job analysis, which comprises of job description and job specification, it is important
to consider a closely related concept – job design. What exactly is job design and how does it differ from
job analysis? In the following paragraph, an attempt would be made in providing answers to these
questions. Job design is the process of deciding on the contents of a job in terms of its duties and
responsibilities; techniques, systems, procedures, and methods to be used in carrying out the job; and
the relationships that should exist between the jobholder and his superiors, subordinates and colleagues
(PPMS, 2018).

Maintained that job design is the specification of the contents, methods, and relationships of jobs to
satisfy technological and organizational requirement as well as the social and personal requirement of
the jobholder. In other words, it is a deliberate and systematic attempt to structure the technical and
social aspects of work so as to improve technical and social aspects of work so as to improve technical
efficiency and job satisfaction.

From the foregone, it is clear that job design is the strategic structuring of a specific job so that the
employee performs the job efficiently and at the same time finds satisfaction in doing the job.
Therefore, a properly designed job achieves two things simultaneously – on the one hand, improved
performance, productivity, and technical efficiency of the organization while on the other hand intrinsic
motivation, job-satisfaction, and improved quality of working life of the employee. The main objective of
job design, which leans support on job analysis, is to integrate the wants or needs of the employee and
that of the organization. There are certain factors that influence job design, or rather, that must be
taken into consideration when designing a job. These include but not limited to intrinsic motivation; the
characteristics of task structure; the motivating characteristics of jobs; and the job characteristics model.
Below is a brief consideration of some of these factors.

a. The Process of Intrinsic Motivation

In the corporate world, different workers find satisfaction or motivation in certain jobs than others. For
example, a police officer was asked, “What motivated you to join the police?” He replied, “I was
attracted by the beauty of the uniform and the discipline within the formation”. There are people whom
the title “professor” makes so much meaning to them such that they would want to be in the teaching
profession irrespective of the pecuniary benefit.

b. Characteristics of task structure

Paying attention to number and nature of tasks is essential in job design. This will inform the allocation
of tasks among employees. While some tasks may be assigned to a team of employees, others may be
delegated to individual employees. It is important to note that there are employees who are more
effective, efficient and satisfied when working in teams than when working alone, conversely. Some are
less effective, less efficient, and less satisfied when faced with multi-skill nature of task than when faced
with single-skill nature of task. Therefore, the components of the structure of tasks should inform the
design of jobs.

c. Motivating characteristics of jobs

The postulation here is that job design should be influenced by the need to give employees the freedom
to participate in planning and control while performing their major function of execution of plans and
instructions. In other words, the responsibility of workers should include to a certain degree the
functions of planning and control. This can be achieved through empowering the employees. That is, by
giving individuals and teams more responsibility as well as autonomy to exercise discretion and make
decisions and ensure that they have the training, support, guidance, and feedback needed for maximum
utilization of their abilities and significant performance of task.

d. The job characteristics model

The job characteristic model provided three paramount factors (critical psychological states) that
influence job design. These are: „experienced meaningfulness of work‟, „experienced responsibility for
outcomes of work‟, and „knowledge of the actual outcomes of work‟. These three strongly underscore
motivation, job satisfaction and performance. Robertson et al (1992, as cited in Okunade, 2015)
submitted: „this element of the model is based on the notion of personal reward and reinforcement…
Reinforcement is obtained when a person becomes aware (knowledge of results) that he or she has
been responsible for (experienced responsibility) good performance on a task that he or she cares about
(experienced meaningless)
Approaches to job design

In a bid to integrate the wants or needs of the employee and that of the organization, there is need to
pay careful attention to the influence factors discussed above while at the same time approaching the
task within a theoretical framework. Below are some of the theoretical frameworks within which job
design can be approached.

The classical approach:

The classical approach to job design is based on the scientific management theory in which the
management takes all the decision and the workers‟ responsibility is to perform the instructions
received from the management. This approach to job design is obsolete as it hampers the participatory
role of employees and this in turn lowers job satisfaction derive by workers through participation in
planning and decision making.

The behavioural approach:

The limitations of the classical approach to job design led to the search for alternative ways of designing
jobs. This search brought about redesigning of jobs, work structuring, job enrichment, participative
system, etc in order to improve the quality of work life. Unlike the classical approach, the behavioural
approach to jobs design is not only concern with the technical aspects of jobs but also takes care of the
social aspects of jobs. One most popular behavioural approach to job redesign is the Job characteristics
model discussed above. In addition to these two major approaches to job design, Okunade (2015) listed
five peripheral approaches to job design. They include:

a. Job rotation: This comprises the movement of employees from one task to another to reduce
monotony by increasing variety.

b. Job enlargement: This means combining previously fragmented tasks into one job, again to increase
the variety and meaning of repetitive work.

c. Job enrichment: This goes beyond job enlargement to add greater

Methods of Conducting Job Analysis:

Observation: Watching employees perform tasks.

Interviews: Talking to employees about their duties.

Questionnaires: Gathering data from employees.

Work Sampling: Measuring time spent on tasks.

Flow and Channels of Communication in an Organization

Flow of Communication:

Downward Communication: Information from management to employees (e.g., instructions or policies).

Upward Communication: Feedback or reports from employees to management.

Horizontal Communication: Collaboration between peers or departments of the same level.

Diagonal Communication: Communication across various levels or departments, often seen in cross-
functional projects.

Channels of Communication:

Formal Channels: Emails, reports, meetings, and other structured forms of communication.

Informal Channels: Casual conversations or social interactions, often quicker and more flexible.

Theories of Communication

Shannon-Weaver Model:

Views communication as a linear process involving a sender, message, medium, receiver, and feedback.

Emphasizes the need to overcome "noise" or disruptions to ensure effective communication.

Berlo’s SMCR Model:

Breaks communication into Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Stresses the sender's communication skills, the clarity of the message, the medium’s efficiency, and the
receiver's understanding.
Conclusion

The concepts discussed, ranging from emotional intelligence to communication theories, highlight
critical psychological and organizational dynamics. Understanding and applying these principles can
enhance personal growth, workplace efficiency, and societal well-being.
Reference

Emotional Intelligence

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantam Books. Mayer, J.
D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications.
Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197-215.

Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press. Harmon-Jones, E., &
Mills, J. (2019). Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology. American
Psychological Association.

Cyberbullying

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2014). Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to
Cyberbullying. Corwin Press. Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following You Home from School: A Critical Review
and Synthesis of Research on Cyberbullying Victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 277-
287.

Psychotropic Substances

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2020). The Science of Drug Use and Addiction: The Basics.
National Institutes of Health. World Health Organization (WHO). (2010). Lexicon of Alcohol and Drug
Terms Published by the World Health Organization.

Job Analysis and Job Design

Dessler, G. (2020). Human Resource Management. Pearson Education. Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L., &
Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job and Work Analysis: Methods, Research, and Applications for Human
Resource Management. Sage Publications.

Communication Theories

Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois
Press. Berlo, D. K. (1960). The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

General References for Drug Addiction and Cyberbullying Prevention

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). World Drug Report. StopBullying.gov.
(2023). What is Cyberbullying? Prevention and Intervention.