Chapter three fluid flow

3-1 The Nature of Fluid Flow

When a fluid is flowing through a tube or over a surface, the pattern of flow will vary
with the velocity, the physical properties of fluid, and the geometry of the surface.

 The first type of flow at low velocities where the layers of fluid seen to slide by
one another without eddies or swirls being present is called “laminar flow” and
Newton’s law of viscosity holds.
 The second type of flow at higher velocities where eddies are present giving the
fluid a fluctuating nature is called “turbulent flow”.

Reynolds Number (Re)

After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds discovered that the
flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid.
This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a circular
pipe as.

Where: u is the average velocity of fluid, which is defined as the volumetric flow rate
divided by the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

Laminar flow: Re < 2100

Transitional flow: 2100 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000

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3.2 Conservation of mass

Consider flow through the pipe-work shown in Figure (3.1), in which the fluid occupies
the whole cross section of the pipe.

Fig. (3.1)
A mass balance can be written for the fixed section between planes 1 and 2, which are
normal to the axis of the pipe. Thus, a mass balance can be written as

mass flow rate in - mass flow rate out = rate of accumulation within section

Where V is the constant volume of the section between planes 1 and 2, and ρ is the
density of the fluid averaged over the volume V.

In the case of unsteady compressible flow, the density of the fluid in the section will
change and consequently the accumulation term will be non-zero.

Thus, for incompressible flow or steady compressible flow, there is no accumulation

within the section and consequently equation 3.1 reduces to

In general, the velocity of the fluid varies across the diameter of the pipe but an average
velocity can be defined. If the cross-sectional area of the pipe at a particular location is
A, then the volumetric flow rate Q is given by

Substituting for Q in equation 4.3, the zero accumulation mass balance becomes

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3.3 Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible low where net frictional
forces are negligible figure (3-2).

Figure (3-2) the force acting on a fluid particle along a streamline.

Applying Newton’s second law in the s-direction on a particle moving along a

streamline gives
∑
Two component of acceleration

Substituting (3-8) in equation (3-7) yield

Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,

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Noting that and dividing each term by gives

By integration

For incompressible

This is the famous Bernoulli equation, which is commonly used in fluid mechanics for
steady, incompressible flow.

The Bernoulli equation can also be written between any two points on the same
streamline as

Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and
vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change. This phenomenon can be made
more visible by multiplying the Bernoulli equation by the density

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Chapter three fluid flow

Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents some kind
of pressure:

 P is the static pressure; it is represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the

fluid.
 u2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when the fluid in
motion is brought to a stop isentropically
 gz is the hydrostatic pressure, which is not pressure in a real sense since its
value depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects,
i.e., of fluid weight on pressure

The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total pressure.
Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a streamline is
constant.

The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure, and it is
expressed as

The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought to a
complete stop isentropically. The static, dynamic, and stagnation pressures are shown in
Fig. (3-3)

Figure (3-3): static, dynamic and stagnation pressures

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When static and stagnation pressures are measured at a specified location, the fluid
velocity at that location can be calculated from

Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

 Steady flow: it should not be used during the transient start-up and shut-down
periods,
 Frictionless flow: (valve and sharp entrance are disturbs the streamlined structure
of flow)
 No shaft work: pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices destroy the streamlines
 No heat transfer
 Flow along a streamline: no irrotational region of the flow

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)

This is done by dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g to give

Where
 P/ g is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that produces
the static pressure P.
 u2/2 g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach
the velocity u during frictionless free fall.
 z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid
 Also, H is the total head for the flow.

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Figure (3-4): HGL and EGL for frictionless flow in a duct

Example (3-1)
A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m from the
outlet tap. A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and water flows out from
the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine the water velocity at the outlet.

Solution:
P1 = Patm (open to the atmosphere), u1 = 0 (the tank is large relative to the outlet) and
z2=0 Also, P2 = Patm (water discharges into the atmosphere).

Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

√ √

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Example (3-2)
A pressurized tank of water has a 10cmdiameter orifice at the bottom, where water
discharges to the atmosphere. The water level is 3 m above the outlet. The tank air
pressure above the water level is 300 kPa (absolute) while the atmospheric pressure is
100 kPa. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the initial discharge rate of water from
the tank.

Solution:

√ ( *

√ ( )

Example (3-3)
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as shown in Fig.
below, to measure static and stagnation (static ' dynamic) pressures. For the indicated
water column heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.

√ √ √

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3.4 Energy relationships and the Bernoulli equation

The total energy of a fluid in motion consists of the following components: internal,
potential, pressure and kinetic energies.
Total energy summing these components, the total energy E per unit mass of fluid is
given by the equation

Assuming the conditions to be steady, so that there is no accumulation of energy within

the fluid between points I and 2, an energy balance can be written per unit mass of fluid
as

After rearranging

A flowing fluid is required to do work to overcome viscous frictional forces so

that in practice the quantity Wo is always positive. It is zero only for the theoretical case
of an inviscid fluid or ideal fluid having zero viscosity. The work W i may be done on
the fluid by a pump situated between points 1 and 2.
If the fluid has a constant density or behaves as an ideal gas, then the internal
energy remains constant if the temperature is constant. If no heat transfer to the fluid
takes place, q=0. For these conditions, equations 3.18 and 3.19 may be combined and
written as

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For an inviscid fluid, ie frictionless flow, and no pump, equation (3-20) becomes

Dividing Eq (4-20) throughout by g,

Where ∆h is the head imparted to the fluid by the pump and hf is the head loss due to
friction. The term ∆h is known as the total head of the pump.
The general equation for pump and turbine can be rewrite as

Bernoulli's equation for the section between planes 1 and 2 shown in Figure below can
be written as

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Rearranging equation 3-25, the pressure drop Pl- P2 experienced by the fluid in flowing
from location 1 to location 2 is given by

Equation 4.26 shows that, in general, the upstream pressure P1 must be greater than the
downstream pressure p2 in order to raise the fluid, to increase its velocity and to
overcome frictional losses.
Denoting the total pressure drop (Pl- P2) by ∆P, it can be written as

Equation 3.27 shows that each component of the pressure drop is equal to the
corresponding change of head multiplied by ρg.

Example (3-4)

Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir by a pump that provides
20 kW of useful mechanical power to the water (Fig. below). The free surface of the
upper reservoir is 45 m higher than the surface of the lower reservoir. If the flow rate of
water is measured to be 0.03 m3/s, determine the irreversible head loss of the system and
the lost mechanical power during this process.

Solution:
The mass flow rate of water through the system is
̇

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P1=P2=atm u1=u2=0

Example (3-5)

In a hydroelectric power plant, 100 m3/s of water flow from an elevation of 120 m to a
turbine, where electric power is generated (Fig. below). The total irreversible head loss
in the piping system from point 1 to point 2 (excluding the turbine unit) is determined to
be 35 m. If the overall efficiency of the turbine–generator is 80 percent, estimate the
electric power output

P1=P2=atm

u1=u2=0

Equation (3-25) reduce to

̇ ( )

The electric power generated by the actual unit

̇ ̇

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3.5 Momentum of a flowing fluid

Consider the momentum change that occurs when a fluid flows steadily through the
pipe-work shown in Figure below

Rate of change of momentum = change of flow of momentum

̇ ̇

Consequently, Newton's second law of motion can be written as

Net force acting on the fluid = rate of change of momentum

̇ ̇

Thus a force equal to ̇ (u2- u1) must be applied to the fluid. This force is measured as
positive in the positive x-direction.

̇ ̇

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Momentum equation for flow along a streamline

Consider the system shown; since both momentum and force are vector quantities, they
can be resolving into components in the x and y directions

These components can be combined to give the resultant force

And the angle of this force

Force exerted by a jet striking flat plate

Consider a jet striking a flat plate that may be perpendicular or inclined to the direction
of the jet.

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Chapter three fluid flow

The general term of the jet velocity component normal to the plate can be written as:

( )

The mass flow entering the control volume

If the plate is stationary:

Thus the rate of change of momentum normal to the plate

Force exerted normal to the plate

 if the plate is stationary and inclined

( ) ̇

 if the plate is both stationary and perpendicular

( ) ̇

Example (3-6)

A jet of water from a fixed nozzle has a diameter d of 25mm and strikes a flat plate at
angle of 30o to the normal to the plate. The velocity of the jet is 5m/s, and the surface
of the plate can be assumed to be frictionless. Calculate the force exerted normal to the
plate (a) if the plate is stationary, (b) if the plate is moving with velocity u of 2m/s in the
same direction as the jet.

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Solution:

a) Force exerted normal to the plate = the rate of change of momentum normal to the
plate:

 if the plate is stationary and inclined

( ) ( )

 if the plate is moving with velocity 2m/s

( )

Example (3.7)

A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 14 kg/s in a horizontal pipe
upward 30° while accelerating it (Fig. below). The elbow discharges water into the
atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of the elbow is 113 cm2 at the inlet and 7 cm2 at
the outlet. The elevation difference between the centers of the outlet and the inlet is 30
cm. The weight of the elbow and the water in it is considered to be negligible.
Determine (a) the gage pressure at the center of the inlet of the elbow and (b) the
anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place.

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level (z1 = 0) and noting that P2 = Patm, the Bernoulli equation for a streamline going
through the center of the elbow is expressed as

(b) The momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow is

∑ ̇

( ( )( ) ( *)

( )

The negative result for FRx indicates that the assumed direction is wrong, and it should
be reversed. Therefore, FRx acts in the negative x-direction.

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Chapter three fluid flow

If we repeated example above for the figure below

Noting that the outlet velocity is negative since it is in the negative x-direction, we have

( ( )( ) ( *)

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