2

Temperature

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to

LO 2.1 State Zeroth law of thermodynamics

LO 22 Discuss the thermometric property of various thermonmeters and
methods used for temperature measurement
LO 2.3 Compare standard parameters of various thermometers
LO 24 Describe ideal gas equation of state and gas thermometers
LO 2.5 Explain how to use ideal gas concept to obtain ideal gas temperature
scale
LO 2.6 Relate Celsius temperature scale with ideal gas scale
LO 2.7 Examine the thermometric property utilized in electrical resistance
thermometer
LO 2.8 Understand the principle of working of thermocouple
LO 2.9 Discuss about international practical temperature scale and its need

2.1 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

LO 2.1
The property which distinguishes thermodynamics from
State Zeroth law ot
other sciences is temperature. One might say that temperature
bears as important a relation to thermodynamics as force thermodynamics
dues to statics or velocity does to dynamics. Temperature
s associated with the ability to distinguish hot from cold. When two bodies a
different temperatures are brought into contact, alter sometime
they attain a commo
temperatlure and are then sajd to exist im thhermal equilibrium.
When a body Ais in thermal equilibrium with u body B, and also vepanately with
body C, 1hen bodies B und C'will be in
thermal equilibrium with each other
Thus is known as the luw of ihermodynamics. N is the basis
zeroth oftemperature
measurenent
In order t0 oblain a quantilative measure ol lemperature, a referenee body is use
and a certain physical characteristie of this body which changes with temperature
is selected. The changes in thc selected characteristic ay be taken as an indicalo
 coooo Temperature 35

of changes in temperature. The selected characteristic is called the

thermometric
property, and the reterence body which is used in the determination of temperature is
called the thermonneter. A very common thermometer consists of a small amount of
mercury in an evacuated capillary tube. In this case the extension of the mercury in
the tube is used as the thermometrie property.
There tive different kinds of
are
thermometer, each with its own thermometric
property, as shown in Table 2.I

2.2 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE-THE

REFERENCE POINTS LO 2.2

The temperature of a system is a property that determines Discuss the

whether or not a system is in thermal equilibrium with other thermometric
property of various
Nstems. If a body is at, say, 70°C, it will be 70°C, whether
measured by a mercury-in-glass thermometer, resistance thermometersand
methods used
thermometer or constant volume gas thermometer. If X is for temperature
the thermometric property, let us arbitrarily choose for the measurement
temperature common to the thermometer and to all systems in
thermal equilibrium with it the following linear function of X:

Table 2.1 Thermometers and thermometric properties

Thermometer Thermometric propert Symbol

1. Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure P
2. Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume
3. Electrical resistance thermometer Resistance R
4. Thermocouple Thermal e.m.f.
5. Mercury-in-glass thermometer Length L

e (X) = aX, where a is an arbitrary constant.

IfX corresponds to 6(X,), then X, will correspond

to

eX).x
X

that is eX) eX.x,

X (2.1)

to each other as the ratio of the

wo temperatures on the linear X scale are

Corresponding X's.

2.2.1 Method Used Before 1954

with the
system whose
temperature (X) 0
The thermometer is first placed in contact
1s to be measured, and then in contact With an arbitrari1ly chosen standard system in
an casily reproducible state where the temperature is 6 (X,). Thus,
36 Fngincering hermodynamics

o(N)
o(X) (2.2
Then the thermometer at the temperature 0(X) is placed in contact with ane
arbitranly chosen standard system in another easily reproducible state where
other
the
temperature is & (\,). It gives

e(X)X2
e(X) X (2.3)
From Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3)
o(N)-0(X)= X-X2
e(X) X

or. en-X)-0(X).
e(X)= (2.4)
X-X2
If we assim an arbitrary number of degrees to the temperature interval 6
then &(A) can be calculated from the measurements of X,
(X)- 6 (X,)
and X, X.
easily reproducible state of an arbitrarily chosen standard systenm is called a
An
fixed point. Before 1954, there were two fixed
at which
points: () the icepoint, the temperature
pure ice co-existed in equilibrium with air-saturated water at one
pressure. and (ii) the steam point, the atmosphere
of
temperature equilibrium between pure water
and pure steam at one atmosphere
between these two fixed points waspressure. The temperature interval, O(X)- 8.,.
chosen to be 100
The use of two fixed degrees.
points was found unsatisfactory and later abandoned
because of (i) the difficulty of
achieving
air-saturated water (since when ice melts, equilibrium stage/pt. between pure ice and
it surrounds itself
prevents intimate contact with air-saturated only with pure water and
the steam point to the water), and (ii) extreme sensitiveness or
change in pressure.
2.2.2 Method in Use After 1954
Since 1954 only one fixed
point has been in use, viz.
which ice, liquid water and water the triple point
at
vapour co-exist in of water, the state
at which this state
exists is equilibrium. The temperarui
273.16 K (the reason for arbitrarily assigned the value of 273.16 degrees Kelvin,
the triple point of water
using Kelvin's name will be o
by 6, and with X, explained later). Designat
property when the being the value of the
with water its
whosebody, temperature 6 is to be
measured,
thermometr
at
triple point, it follows that is placed in conta
6, ax,
273.16

Therefore, 6aX= 273.16 X

or, X
-273.16
X (2.5)
 Temperaturc 37

The temperature ot the triple point of water, which is an casily reproducible state, Is
now the standand fined point of thermometry

2.3 cOMPARISON OF THERMOMETERS

Apphing the above principle to the five thermometers listed
LO 2.3
n Table 2.1, the temperatures are given as follows: Compare standard
parameters
of various
.Constant volume gas thermometer e(p)= 273.16 P thermometers
P
. Constant pressure gas thermometer 6(V) =
273.16

3. Electric resistance thermometer R

e(R) =273.16
R,
4. Thermocouple O(E) = 273.16

5. Liquid-in-glass thermometer e(L)= 273.16

L
If the temperature of a given system is a measured simultaneously with each of
the ive thermometers, it is a found that there is a considerable difference among
the readings. The smallest variation is, however, observed among different gas
thermometers. That is why a gas is chosen as the standard thermometric substance.

2.4 IDEAL GAS

LO 2.4
lt has been established from experimental observations that
Describe ideal
the p - v - T behaviour of gases at a low pressure is closely
gas equation of
given by the following relation: state and gas
p o = RT (2.6) thermometers
where is the universal gas constant, 8.3143 J/mol K and
UIS the molar specific volume, m'/gmol. (see Sec. 10.3.).
Dividing Eq. (2.6) by the molecular weight j
pU = RTT (2.7)
where o is specific volume, in m'/kg, and R is the characteristie gas constant.
Substituting R= 1u J/kg K, we get in terms ofthe total volume V'of gas,

PV = nRT

PV mRT (2.8)
where n is the number of moles and m is the mass of the gas. Equation (2.8) can be
written for two states of the gas,
P-Pah (2.9)
T T2
38 Engincering Thermodynamics coccmooo000

ideal gas equation of state. At

At very
verv 1low
Equation (2.6). (2.7) or (2.8) is called the
approachideal gas behaviour.
pressure or density, all gases and vapours

Po
2.5 GAS THERMOMETERS
A schematic diagram of a constant volum
gas thermometer is given in Fig. 2.1. A small C
amount of gas is cnclosed in bulb B which is in
communication via the capillary tube C with one
limb of the mereury manometer M. The other
imb of ihe mereury manometer is open to the
B
M
atmosphere and can be moved vertically to adjust
the mereury levels so that the mercury just touches
the lip L of the capillary. The pressure in the bulb
s used as a thermometric
property and is given by Flexible tubing
P Pot PM Zg
where po is the
atmospheric pressure, Pm 1s the
density of mercury.
When the bulb is brought in contact with the Fig. 2.1 Constant volume gas
system whose temperature is to be
buib. in course of time, comes in
measured,
the thermometer
thermal equilibrium with the
the bulb expands, on
being heated, pushing the mercury downward. system. The gas in
limb of the manometer is then The flexible
The difference in adjusted so that the
mercury again touches the lip L
mercury level Z is recorded and the
bulb is estimated. Since the
volume of the pressure p of the gas in the
equation. trapped gas constant, from the ideal gas
is

AT RAp
i.e. the (2.10)
temperature increase is proportional to the
In a constant
pressure gas thermometer, the pressure increase.
keep Z constant, and the volume of mercury levels haveto be
the gas V, which would
system. becomes the thermometric vary with the
adjusted to
property. temperature or
i.e. the
AT AV (2.11)
temperature increase is
constant volume gas proportional to
thermometer is, however, the observed volume increase. Ihe
construction and is easier to mostly in use, since it is
operate. simpler
2.6 IDEAL GAS
Let us
TEMPERATURE
suppose that the bulb of a
thermometer contains an amount of constant volume gas LO 2.5
bulb is surrounded gas such that
by water at its when the Explain how to use
D. is 1000 mm triple
Hg. Keeping the volume point, the ideal gas concept
pressure
following procedure
be
V
constant, let the
conducted to obtain ideal gas
temperature scale
 Temperature 39

1. Surround the bulb with steam condensing at 1 atm, determine the gas pressure
p and calculate
273.16
T000
Remove some gas thom the bulb so that when it is surrounded by water at its
triple pomt,. the pressure p, is s00 mm Hg. Determine the new value of p and
then e for steam condensing at I atm.

273.16-
500
Continuc educing the amount of gas in the bulb so that p, and p have smaller
and smaller values. e.g. p, having. say, 250 mm Hg, 100 mm Hg and so on. At
cach value of p, calculate the corresponding 0.
Plot & vs. p, and extrapolate the curve to the axis where p, = 0. Read from the
graph
lim 6
P>0
The graph. as shown in Fig. 2.2, indicates that although the readings of a constant
volume gas thermometer depend upon the nature of the gas, all gases indicate the
same temperature as P, is lowered and made to approach zero.

O2

Air
373.15

e (K) 0 (steam) N2
= 373.15 K

H2

250 500 1000

- P, mm Hg

Fig. 2.2 Ideal gas temperature for steam point

A similar series of tests may be conducted with a constant pressure gas

eTmometer. The constant pressure nmay first be taken to be 1000 mm Hg, then
Umm Hg, etc. and at each value ofp, the volumes of gas V and P, may be recorded
when the bulb is surrounded by steam condensing at I atm and the triple point of
waler, respectively. The corresponding value of G may be calculated from

273.16

ad vs. p may be plotted, similar to Fig. 2.2. It is found from the experiments that
dlgases indicate the same value of 6asp approaches zero.
 O00000000000000000

Engincering Thernmodynamics oooomoooeooo

40

gas as pressure approan

real gas, as used in the
bulb, behaves as an ideal ches
Since a
in Chapter 10), the ideal gas temperature p:
Tis
be explained later
zero (which would
detined by cither of the two cquations:
T 273.16 lim
0 P

T 273.16 lim-
p0
(2.12)
where &has been replaced by T to denote this particular temperature scale, the ideal
gas iemperanure soale.
lfp, andp, arethe measured pressures at the steam point and the triple point
gets the value of the steam point temperature T,
as
respectively, one

T =273.16 (2.13)
which is equal to 373.15 K.
Similarly. the temperature T, at the ice point is

T 273.16 lim P (2.14)

P0P
which is equal to 273.15 K (Fig. 2.3).
450

400
Steam point
S
373.15
350

300
lce point
273.15

250

200
400 800 1200
P mmHg
Fig. 2.3 Steam-point and ice-point from constant
volume gas thermometer
Alternatively, if the ratio p,/p, is plotted against
one gets different curves as in Fig. 2.3. p, with different
gases in the bulo
all curves converge, and the However, when
ratio p/p, lends to a extrapolated to zero press re
constant value
giving
=lim = 1.366099 (2.15)
P0 P
This value may be considered as a
universal constant.
 oroo Tenpcrature 41

One may now decide to have a certain umber of

point and the divisions between the steam
ice point, say 100 as in the Kelvin and
Celsius scales so that
TT-100 (2.16)
Solving Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16)
T373.15 Kand 7, 273.15 K

2.7 CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE

The Celsius temperature scale LO 2.6
employs a degree of the samne
magnitude that of the ideal gas
as
scale, but its zero point is Relate Celsius
shifted so that the Celsius temperature of the
triple point of temperature scale
water is 0.01 degree Celsius or 0.01°C. Ift with ideal gas scalee
denotes the Celsius
temperature, then

IT-273.15°
Thus. the Celsius temperature t, at which steam condenses
at 1 atm. pressure

T,-273.15
=
373.15-273.15 =
100.00°C
Similar measurements for ice points show this
to be 0.00°C. The only Celsius
temperature on the Celsius scale
temperature which is fixed definition is by that of the
triple point.

2.8 ELECTRICAL RESs1STANCE

LO 2.7
THERMOMETER
in the resistance thermometer (Fig. 2.4), the change in
Examine the
thermometric
resistance of a metal wire due to its change in temperature property utilized in
S the thermometric property. The wire, frequently platinum, electrical resistance
may be incorporated in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The thermometer
platinum resistance thermometer
measures temperature to a high degree of
accuracy and sensitivity, which makes it
Suitable as a standard for the calibration
of other thermometers. NN
Inarestricted range, the following
quadratic equation is often used:
G Wheatstone
R=R,(1+At + BP) bridge
wnere R is the resistance of the
wire when it is surrounded by meltung
and A andB
platinum
iCe
w. R
are constants.

Fig. 2.4 Resistance thermometer

42 Enginecring Themodynamics

2.9 THERMOcoUPLE
LO 2.8
A thermocouple eineuit made up from joining two wires A and
B made of dissimilar metals is shown in Fig. 2.5. Due to the Understand the
Seebeck etfevt, a net e.m.f. is generated in the circuit which
principle of working
depends on the ditference in temperature between the hot and
of thermocouple
cold junctions and is. therefore. a thermometric property of the
cireut This e.m.f. be measured
can
by a microvoltmeter to a high degree of accuracy.
The choive of metals
depends largely on the temperature range to be investigated, and
copper-constantan, chromel-alumel and platinum-platinum-rhodium are typical
com-binations in use.

Wire A

- To potentiometer

Wire B
Test junction
Copper wires

EA Ice-water mixture

Reference junction

Fig. 2.5 Thermocouple

A
thermocouple is
calibrated by measuring the thermal
e.m.f. at various
nown temperatures, the reference junction being kept at 0°C. The
measurements on most thermocouples can results of such
of the form: usually represented by a cubic equation
be

Ea+ bt +ct+ dt
where e is the thermal e.m.f. and the
constants a, b, c and d are different for each
thermocouple.
The
advantage of a thermocouple is that it comes to thermal
system, whose temperature is to be measured, equilibrium with the
quite rapidly, because its mass is small.
2.10 INTERNATIONAL PRACTICAL
TEMPERATURE SCALE LO 2.9
An international temperature scale Discuss about
General Conference
was
adopted at the Seventh international
was not to
Weights and Measures held in 1927. It
on
replace Celsius or ideal gas scales, but to
the practical
a scale that could be
easily and provide temperature scale
rapidly used to calibrate the
scientific and industrial instrunents. and its need
incorporated into the scale in revisionsSlight refinements were

international practical scale adopted in 1948, 1954, 1960 and 1968. The
agrees with the Celsius seale at the
listed in Table 2.2. The detining fixed points
is divided into three temperature interval from the oxygen point to the
main parts, as given below. gold poin
 Temperature 43

. From 0 to 660°Cc A platinum resistance thermometer with a platinum

wire whose diameter must lie between 0.05 and 0.20 mm is uscd, and the tem-
erature is given by the equation:

RR1tAr Br)
vhere the constants
A and B Ro. are
computed by measurements at the ice point,
steam point and sulphur point.

Table 2.2 Temperatures of fixed points

Temperature °C
Normal boiling point of oxygen 182.97
Triple point of water (standard) +0.01
Normal boiling point of water 100.00
Normal boiling point of sulphur 444.60
(Normal melting point of zinc-suggested
as an alternative to the
sulphur point) 419.50
Normal melting point of antimony 630.50
Normal melting point of silver 960.80
Normal melting point of gold 1063.00

2. From-190 to 0°C The same platinum resistance thermometer is used,

and the temperature is given by
R=R,[1+ At+ B? +C(t- 100) P]
where R A and B are the same as before, and C is determined from a measurement
at the oxygen point.
3. From 660 to 1063°C A thermocouple, one wire of which is made of
platinum and the other of an alloy of90 percent platinum and 10 percent rhodium,
is used with one junction at 0°C. The temperature is given by the formula:
E a + bt + c?
where a, b and c are computed from measurements at the antimony point, silver point
and gold point. The diameter of each wire of the thermocouple must lie between 0.35
and 0.65 mm.
An optical method is adopted for measuring temperatures higher than the gold

point, The intensity of radiation of any convenient wavelength is compared with the
ntensity of radiation of the same wavelength emitted by a black body at the gold
point. The temperature is then determined with the help of Planck's law of thermal
radiation.
. A revised international temperature Scale, ITS-90, was
adapted in 1990 by the International Committee of Weights and Measures with

Ther refinements defining more fixed points and conforming more closely the
thermodynamic temperature scale based on the the second law of thermodynamics
(See Chapter 6).
 21
Zeroth Law ofThermodynamics
be measured. The circulating current duc to the e.m.f. developed can be measured by a milliammeter
and can be calibrated to indicate the hot junetion temperature.
When great accuracy is not required, as in Metal 1
measuring high temperature (such as tiurnamee
temperature). the cold junction reference
temperature may be the room temperature. It Cold Hot
Junction
(A B junction
may be noted that a little variation of the room
temperature will not atfect the temperature
measured much. Such devices are often referred Metal 2
to prometers. The rnge of temperature to Flg. 2.4. Thermocouple.
be measured depends upon the metals used in the thermocouple. Some of the commonly used
thermocouple wires combination are copper-constantan, iron-constantan, and chromel-alumel.

2.5 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SCALES

Following are the important scales commonly used for measuring the temperature of a body:
1. Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. The Celsius (also known as
centigrade scale) and Fahrenheit scales are the two commonly used
scales for measuring the temperature of a body. These scales are based
100 212
on two fixed points known as freezing point of water (or ice point)
under atmospheric pressure and the boiling point of water (or steam
point) as shown in Fig. 2.5.
In *Celsius scale, the freezing point of water (lower fixed point) 40
is marked as zero end the boiling point of water (upper fixed point) as
100. The interval between the two fixed points is divided into 100 equal
parts. and each part represents one degree celsius (briefly written as
1C).This scale is mostly used by scientists and engineers.
In **Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is marked as
32
32 and the boiling point of water as 212. The interval between these
two points is divided into 180 equal parts and each part represents one
degree fahrenheit (briefly written as 1°F).
The relation between the Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale is Celsius Fahrenheit

given byt Fig. 2.5. Celsius and

Fahrenheit scales.
C_F-32
100 180
or CF-32
5 9
It may be noted that Celsius and Fahrenheit scales show the same reading at-40°, ie. - 40°C=-40°F

(See Example 2.1.)

2. Kelvin and Rankine absolute scales. Whenever the value of temperature is used inn
thermodynamic calculations, then the value of temperature,whose reference point is true zero or
absolute zero is used. The temperature, below which the temperature of any substance can not fall,
is known as absolute zero temperature.
In case of Celsius scale, the absolute zero temperature is taken as- 273°C for all sorts of
calculations. The absolute temperature in Celsius scale is known as Kelvin (briefly written as K).
Such that
Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature + 273

or K °C+273
* The Celsius scale was suggested by Celsius in 1742.

**The Fahrenheit scale was suggested by Fahrenheit in 1720.

 4600r
22EngineeringThermodynamicsS
scale, the
absolute zero
temperature
is taken as
as
-

460°F. The
R), such that
Similarly, in case of Fahrenheit
as
Rankine (briefly writen
scale is known
in Fahrenheit
+ 460
absolute temperature temperature
Fahrenheit
Rankine temperature =
R-°F + 460
scales coincide?
or Celsius and
F'ahrenheit
temperature
the
which
Example 2.1. Ar
coincide.
Solution. and Fahrenheit
scales
which the Celsius
Letr= Temperature at -32
or 9
We know that

5x-5 x 32
9x 4x=-160
-160 or
9r- 5r
=

0=-40° Ans.
4
Fahrenheit scales coincide
which the Kelvin and
temperature at
Example 2.2. Find the
Solution.
Fahrenheit scales coincide.
the Kelvin and
Let x
=
Temperature at which
K or °C K-273
=°C+273
=

We know that
- 2 or
Of
-273F-32
We also know that 9
9
-273 -32
5
9x-9x 273 5 x -5 x 32

9x-5x =9 x 273 - 5 x 32 =2457 160

or
4x 2297

229=574.25°
4
Ans.
Example 2.3. Express the temperature of86°F and - 40°C intothefollowing units:
I. Celsius absolute; and2. Fahrenheit absolute
Solution.
Given: Fahrenheit temperature = 86°F

Celsius temperature = - 40°C

. Temperature in Celsius absolute (i.e. Kebvin)

First of al1, let us convert Fahrenheit temperature into Celsius temperature. We know that
CF-3286-32 = 6
5 9 9
C 6
5 30°C x

We also know that Celsius absolute (i.e. Kelvin),

K°C+ 273 30 +273 303 K Ans.
For 40°C; K 40+ 273 233 K Ans.
2. Temperature in Fahrenheit absolute (i.e. Rankine)
We know that Fahrenheit absolute (i.e. Rankine),
R °F + 460= 86+ 460 =
546 R Ans.
 Zeroth Law ofThermodynamics 2 3

Now converting - 40°C into degrees Fahrenheit. We know that

C F-32 40 F32

40x9
of F 32- 72
5

F-72 32 40°F
and R = °F + 460=- 40+ 460 =420 R Ans.

HIGHLIGHTS
1. Zcroth law ofthermodynamics states that when two systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
2. The temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or
environment.
3. The temperature is measured by an instrument called thermometer.
4. The thermocouples or pyrometers are commonly used for measuring large temperature
differences or high temperatures.
5. In Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is zero and the boiling point of water is 100.
6. In Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 and the boiling point of water is 212.
7. The relation between the Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale is

C =32
100 180 9

8. The temperature, below which the temperature of any substance cannot fall, is known as
ahsolute zero temperature.
9. The absolute temperature in Celsius scale is called Kelvin (briefly written as K), such that
Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature +273

Or K = °C+273

10. The absolute temperature in Fahrenheit scale is called Rankine (briefly written as R), such
that

Rankin temperature Fahrenheit temperature +460

R = F+460

EXERCISES
1. The Lemperature of steam in a boiler is 20°C. What is its temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and
degrees Kelvin? Ans. 392°F; 473 K]
2. The temperature of a slcam in a boiler is 343 K. What will be its temperature in degrees Celsius?

[Ans. 70°C]
3. The normal boiling point of liquid oxygen 1s
-18SC, What 1s the temperature Kelvin scale and
on
Rankine scale? Ans. 90 K; 162.6 R]
4. The boiling point of liquid hydrogen is 20.2 K. Convert the temperature into degrees Rankine.
Ans. 36.6 R]