Grammar reference

ENTERTAINMENT Exercise 1
Read the first sentence in each pair. Complete the second
1A HABITS sentence so that it has a similar meaning. Use between
three and five words, including the word in bold.
Present 1 I only go to the cinema once a year at most. HARDLY
To talk about present habits we generally use the present simple. I cinema.
We can also use tend to + verb. 2 We used to fight constantly when we were kids. TIME
I listen to music all the time. We used when we were kids.
I tend to watch films on demand these days. 3 As a rule, people don't read on public transport here. TEND
Note that there are two possible negative forms for tend to. People here public transport.
I don't tend to go to the cinema that much. 4 We'd never get homework at my old school. USED
I tend not to go out during the week. We at my old school.
5 He was fitter before because he cycled 50 km every
DID YOU KNOW? day. WOULD
We can use do I does + verb in an affirmative sentence when we He used to b e cycle 50 km every day.
want to emphasize a contrast to a habit. 6 I did it all the time when I was younger, but I don't do it so
I'm mainly vegetarian, but I do occasionally eat meat. often now. AS
She works at home, but she does occasionally go into the office. I don't do i t to.

Past Exercise 2
To talk about past habits, we can use the past simple, used to + Complete the sentences so they are true for you, using at
verb, or would + verb. Used to and would (usually contracted least one frequency word or phrase.
t o 'd) have a similar meaning when talking about past habits. 1 I go to the cinema ...
However, using would in negatives and questions is less common. I go to the cinema from time to time, maybe once a month.
I listened to music all the time when I was younger. 2 I eat vegetarian food ...
I used to play computer games all the time. 3 At school, we used to get homework ...
Did you use to watch that cartoon when you were a kid? 4 As a child, I'd get into trouble ...
I didn't use to go out much. 5 I go out during the week ...
I never used to do much sport.
Common mistakes
I'd watch a lot o f reality TV when I was in my teens.
• I was-geing w ent I used to go swimming a lot when I was
Note that for used to, there is technically no final -d in negatives younger.
and questions. However, you may sometimes see it written with Don't use the past continuous to talk about past habits.
a final -d. The pronunciation is the same with or without the -d. • I w ou ld have used to have long hair when I was younger.
When forming the negative with never, we keep the final -d.
Don't use would to talk about past states.
Note also that we only use used to, and not would, to talk about • I don't go as much h ew as I'd like to.
past states (e.g. I used to have long hair. NOT I w ould have Don't use how instead of as in comparatives.
long hair.)
Exercise 3
We often use adverbs and adverbial phrases to express the Find the mistake in each sentence and rewrite the
frequency of the habit. Some common and useful examples sentence correctly.
include:
1 I was reading lots of sci-fi books in my teens. I must've read
always I constantly I all the time
hundreds of them.
often I normally I usually I generally I as a rule
2 My parents never used to go out late at night because we
sometimes I occasionally I (every) now and again I (every) now and would live in quite a rough area.
then I from time to time I hardly ever I rarely I once in a blue moon
3 We're both so busy these days, so we don't see each other as
phrases of specific time: once a week I two or three times a much how we used to.
month I a couple o f times a year, etc.
4 As a rule, I don't use to watch TV much these days. There are
We usually eat out a couple o f times a month. too many annoying ads.
I mostly eat vegetarian food as a rule. I guess I eat meat maybe
DID YOU KNOW?
once every couple o f weeks.
Would is actually more common than used to to talk about past
I hardly ever watch football these days. I used to watch it all
habits. We generally use used to to express facts and would to
the time.
express tendencies. So while we often introduce a topic with
He's often late for work. The traffic is sometimes unpredictable. used to, we tend to give the details with would.
We see each other every now and again. Once a month, maybe.
'Didyou use to watch that children's news show that was on
We also use phrases with don't ...a s much as I'd like to 11 want TV when we were kids?' 'Yeah, I'd watch It from time to time.
to 11 used to I we did before. M y parents w ould usually watch it with u s.'
I don't go out as much as I used to
We don't see each other as much as w e'd like to

166
1C ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with these adjectives, changing
Adjectives them into adverbs if necessary.
Adjectives can generally go in two positions:
• directly before the noun beautiful disturbing famous hard
The film had a really uplifting ending. interesting regular recent
It's a pretty catchy soundtrack.
It looks like a very old painting. 1 You can buy a season ticket for the museum if you're going
to be a visitor. It works out a lot cheaper.
• after noun + linking verb, such as be, becom e, get, go,
feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, stay, sound, taste 2 I've been working really to improve my English
and turn. and I feel I'm making progress at last.
3 The artist Vincent van G o g h cut off part of his
The ending was really uplifting.
left ear.
The soundtrack is pretty catchy
4 A report has found that children are being
The painting looks very old
exposed t o high levels of violence in video games.
Note that most adjectives can occur in both positions. However, 5 , this is one of only two portraits he ever painted,
some adjectives can only go in one position. but as you can see it's done - a real masterpiece.
That's the main reason. NOT That reason is main.
Exercise 3
Some people were asleep. NOT There were some asleep people.
Write the sentences with the adverb in brackets in the
Adverbs correct place.
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjective, but 1 I've seen him all day. (hardly)
some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: fast, hard, 2 He reacted badly to the news, (fairly)
early, late, right, daily, yearly. 3 I think that new graffiti is awesome, (really)
We arrived late for the meeting. 4 She really worked and got a grade A. (hard)
Did I do it right? 5 The car was completely destroyed, but he escaped without a
scratch, (amazingly)
Adverbs can go in a number of positions:
6 The special effects are amazing - realistic, (incredibly)
• before or after verbs (and after the object if there is one)
7 He escaped with no injuries, (unbelievably)
They slow ly wandered from room to room.
8 They got married in 2005, but he died after, (sadly, shortly)
He always paints quickly
She studied the manuscript carefully.
• before adjectives 2 SIGHTSEEING
His writing is absolutely impossible to read.
It was a strangely moving film. 2A RELATIVE CLAUSES
• before other adverbs
The traffic was moving really slowly Sometimes we use a relative clause to give information about
She speaks incredibly quickly. someone or something. The relative clause comes immediately
after this person or thing.
• at the start of sentences or clauses. This is to comment on,
or to show an opinion about, the whole sentence or clause. Defining relative clauses
Fortunately, no one was injured In the accident. A relative clause can give essential information about someone
I meant to be here earlier, but, stupidly, I got halfway here or something. This is sometimes called a defining relative clause,
before I realized I'd left your address at home. and the sentence would not make sense without the relative
clause. We do not need a comma before a defining relative
Exercise 1 clause.
Choose the correct option to complete these sentences He's the man th a t/w h o led our country during the war.
about the paintings on page 13. Highgate is the place w here Marx is buried
1 The two pieces were painted short I shortly before the artist's Bristol is the place w here I m et m y wife.
death.
2 Gabriel Metsu was both wide I widely admired and We can miss out the relative pronoun in a defining relative
reasonable / reasonably successful during his lifetime. clause if it is the object of the clause.
3 Unfortunate I Unfortunately, he died at the height of his He's the man (that) I spoke to earlier. (I spoke to the man; the
fame. man = the object)
4 Initial I Initially, they may strike you as fairly traditional I
Non-defining relative clauses
traditionally portraits.
A non-defining relative clause gives extra, non-essential
5 The young man sitting in the chair looks calm I calmly and
information about someone or something. The sentence would
is obvious I obviously thinking hard I hardly about what to
be clear and complete without the relative clause. This kind of
write.
relative clause always has a relative pronoun and we always
6 Dogs in paintings were a frequent I frequently symbol of separate the relative clause from the main clause with a comma.
loyalty and trust. I met my wife in Yonhi-Dong, which is a suburb o f Seoul.
Vaclav Havel, who was also a famous writer, was the first
Czech president.
Smith, w hose books have been translated into over
30 languages, was born in 1966.
Chosica, w here Emmanuel g rew up, is a town near Lima.

Grammar reference 167

Pronouns Exercise 3
In both kinds of relative clause, we can use the relative pronouns Complete the sentences with a non-defining relative
who or whom for people, which for things and whose for clause, using the information from these sentences.
possession. We can also use the relative adverb where. In a
defining relative clause, we can use that instead of which or It was very cheap. It was a huge relief. It's in north Italy.
who. They were all amazing. It was very kind of her. It meant we had to get a taxi.

Exercise 1
1 We saw the Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, Coyoacan and the Frida
Underline the relative pronouns and add a comma where Kahlo Museum, were Sil amazing
it is necessary. 2 I finally found my passport,
1 That was the home of Abram and Beatty Zimmerman, whose 3 We missed the last bus,
son is the famous singer, Bob Dylan. 4 The meal only cost €20,
2 We're meeting Jaime later. You know, the guy whose brother 5 My parents live in Bergamo
got us the tickets for the match.
6 A passer-by offered to help,
3 Apparently, the hotel where we're staying in Vienna overlooks
the river. Exercise 4
4 The 19th of July celebrates the day that we gained Complete the sentences with your own ideas.
independence. 1 I 'was horn in Gdansk is a city in the north o f Poland
w h ir h
5 The first place we will stop at is the Cavern Club which is
2 I was born i n , which
famous for its connection with the Beatles.
3 I live i n , which
Exercise 2 4 I recently v i s i t e d , which
Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence, using a 5 One day, I'd love to v i s i t ,w h i c h .
relative clause. 6 My favourite place in the world i s ,
1 The house was designed by Lutyens. He is considered one of w h ich __________
the UK's greatest architects.
The house was designed by Lutyens, who is considered one 2C TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE
o f the UK's greatest architects.
There is no future tense in English. We use different forms
2 After lunch, we went to check out the castle. It was very
depending on what we want to express.
grand.
3 We spent two days in Bergen and then drove down to It's important to note that the distinction between the uses of
Stavanger. My girlfriend has family there. future forms is often not clear or not important and we can
4 Chen's grandfather still lives at home with the rest of the sometimes use the forms interchangeably. For example:
family. His grandfather is 97. I'm staying In this evening. OR I'm going to stay in this
5 She was born in Valencia. Valencia is Spain's third biggest city. evening, (for a plan / intention / arrangement)
6 In the small village where he was born, there is a statue of You'll love Prague. OR You're going to love Prague, (for a
Arnold Schwarzenegger. He has been described as 'Austria's prediction)
most famous living son'.
The rules and explanations below are guidelines about how we
7 The palace dates back to the early 1700s. It has been home
talk about the future.
to the monarch for over a hundred years.
8 Claremont is a small town near Los Angeles. Smith grew up there. Present simple
We use the present simple to talk about something that is fixed
Commenting on a clause
as part of a timetable, itinerary or programme.
We also use a non-defining relative clause with which to
M y train leaves at nine.
comment on, or to give our opinion of, the whole of the
previous clause. This is common in spoken English. When does the exhibition start?
We spent a week hiking in the jungle, which was an Present continuous
incredible experience. We use the present continuous to talk about arrangements, or
We got lost, which meant we missed the start of the something that is agreed or finalized in some way.
performance. I'm meeting a friend later.
Common mistakes We're returning to the UK next year.
• We went on a guided tour round the old town, that which I'm staying in this evening.
was nice. Be going to
Do not use that in a non-defining relative clause. \Ne use be going to to talk about future plans and intentions
• He was born in Mendoza, which it is near the foothills o f the that were made before the time of speaking.
Andes. I'm going to do some exam revision tonight.
Do not use another pronoun as well as the relative pronoun. W e're not going to say anything to him.
The relative pronoun replaces the other pronoun.
Will
• She studied at Bologna University^which is the oldest
We use will to talk about decisions made at the time of
university in the world. ’
speaking. This includes promises, offers and requests.
Remember to use a comma before the relative pronoun.
I'll call her now and see what she says.
I'll help you with that.
Thanks. I'll pay you back tomorrow.

168
Predictions Be due to
• For predictions based on direct present evidence (e.g. what We use be due to to talk about when things are scheduled to
we can see or hear or other information available), we usually happen. This is often for formal or officially arranged events or
prefer be going to. situations.
Look at the traffic. We're n o t g oin g to g e t there before six. The bus is due to arrive in five minutes.
It's g oin g to be a nice day. Entry reguirements are d u e to change next year.
• For predictions based more on personal feeling or opinion, we
Be likely to and be b o u n d to
usually prefer will. We often begin with I think and sometimes
add probably between will and the verb. • We use be likely to to talk about things that are probable -
we think they will happen. We use be unlikely to to talk
I think you'll lo ve Prague. It's a great city.
about things that are improbable - we don't think they will
I'll probably re g re t this tomorrow! happen. We can use highly and guite to show the degree of
Exercise 1
likelihood.
We're unlikely to arrive before midnight.
W hat are the phrases in bold expressing in the
co n versatio n s? Match the phrases in bold (1-8) w ith the It's highly likely the exhibition will be extended.
uses (a-d). • We use be bound to to talk about things we see as (almost)
certain to happen.
a something fixed, such as part of a schedule.
There's b o u n d to be a delay. There always is.
b an arrangement
It's b o u n d to be sunny in July.
c an intention or plan
d a decision made at the time of speaking Exercise 3

1 A: Have you emailed Simona about the trip yet? Read the first sentence in each pair. Com plete the second
sentence so th at it has a sim ilar m eaning. Use betw een
B: Ah, no, I haven't. Thanks for reminding me. 11'll do it in a
m inute. three and five w o rd s, including the w ord in bold.

2 A: Do you want to go for a bite to eat this evening? 1 I'm almost sure they'll be late. BOUND
B: Sorry, I can't. 2Jackie and M ark are coming round for Th ey late.
dinner. 2 It's very possible that the traffic will be bad at that time
3 A: Why are you wearing those old clothes? of day. LIKELY
B: 3l'm going to clean the w in d o w s. The traffic at that time of day.
A: Oh, right. Well, 4 I'II give you a hand if you like. 3 I'm pretty certain the concert will sell out. HIGHLY
4 A: I think Chris Briscoe needs to see you - something about It that the concert will sell out.
the Munich conference. 4 According to the itinerary, we get back to the hotel
B: Yes, I know. 5l'm going to arrange a m eeting with him at six. DUE
as soon as I have a moment. Do you know when 6the According to the itinerary, w e to the hotel at six.
conference is, exactly? 5 I don't think the restaurant will be full. UNLIKELY
A: Yes, the last weekend in November. The restaurant full.
B: Ah, OK. And 7are you going?
A: I can't, sadly. 8My brother's getting married that
weekend. 3 THINGS YOU NEED
Exercise 2
3A EXPLAINING PURPOSE
Choose the best options to com plete the conversations.
1 A: What time is the train I will the train be this afternoon? We can use the phrases in bold to explain the purpose or
B: 3.30, I think. function of something:
A: OK. So, I'll m eet / I'm meeting you at the station around It's u sed fo r cleaning bottles.
quarter past, then. It's u sed to clean bottles.
2 A: I'll see I I'm seeing Mary later. Do you want to join us? You use it fo r measuring angles.
We're going to try I We try that new pizza place. You use it to measure angles.
B: Thanks, but I've got my final exam tomorrow. I stay / I'm It's fo r peeling vegetables.
going to stay in tonight and do some last-minute revision. It's to peel vegetables.
But I w on't do I I'm not doing anything tomorrow night, if
you fancy doing something? Note the use of for + -ing and to + verb.
A: Sure. Let's do something then. It'll be I It's going to be We use the following phrases with can and could to explain a
good to help you celebrate the end of the exams. possible use of something:
3 A: I'm so excited about Paris next weekend! I can't wait! You can use it to open a jar.
B: Lucky you! It'll be I It's being amazing. When's your flight I It cou ld be u se d to unblock a sink.
When will your flight be?
A: Thursday afternoon. That reminds me, actually. I need to
book a cab to the airport before I forget.
B: I'll give I I'm going to give you a lift, if you want. It's not a
problem.
4 A: Look at this traffic. It's being I It's going to be a long journey.
B: Yeah. What time do you think we'll get / we're getting there?
A: Well, it's I it's going to be six at the earliest, I'd say.
B: OK, I phone I I'll phone Sandy and tell her we're being I
we're going to be a bit late.

Grammar reference 169

Exercise 1 Exercise 3
Complete the responses using the correct form of these Complete the sentences using so, if, to or in order to and the
verbs. ideas in brackets. You may need to add some extra words.
1 We need some m atches the stove, (light)
dean count cycle massage
2 Maybe you should wrap some tape round where there's a
measure remove run
c r a c k ( i t / not / get) any worse.
1 A: What's a pedometer? 3 You'll need wire cutters that - not scissors, (you /
want / cut)
B: It's like a watch. You use it t o how many steps
you take each day. 4 Have you got something I can stand o n this light
bulb? (I / can / change)
2 A: What's an anemometer?
5 Have you got a clip these papers together? (keep)
B: It's a device used fo r wind speed and direction.
6 A microscope is needed the organization of cells,
3 A: What's this?
(examine)
B: You use it t o your back and your neck. Perfect
after a stressful day!
4 A: What's this for?
3C SHOULDand SHOULDHAVE
B: It's fo r ice from the car windscreen. You can Use
use it f o r the mud off your shoes too! We use should to say what we think is the correct or best thing
5 A: Is it possible to walk along the river? to do. We often use should to give general advice, suggestions
B: Well, there's a pathway, but it's mainly used for or criticism.
a n d __________
Form
to /in order to, so and if • We use should (not / never) + verb to talk about the present.
We can use to I in order to, so and if to explain the reason or You should see complaints as an opportunity to improve.
purpose for using something.
You shouldn't lose your temper when making a complaint.
to /in order to We should never give terrorists what they want.
We use to + verb or in order to + verb. While to and in order to Stop distracting me. We should be working not chatting.
can be interchangeable, in order to is generally more common in • We use should (not/ never) + have + past participle to talk
formal contexts. about the past. We often use the form should've, especially in
I need a hammer to hang up this picture. more informal contexts such as speaking.
I could do with some scissors to open the packet. He should've checked the shoes at the point o f sale.
A cable is required in order to connect the device to the They shouldn't have parked here. They've blocked me in.
computer.
Note that we can use the continuous form with should.
So You don't know what to do? Well, you should've been
We can use so or so that with the same meaning. We use paying attention.
so (that) + clause.
Exercise 1
Have you got a bin bag so I can clear the table?
Complete the three conversations with the correct form of
Use a cloth so that you don't mark the table.
should and the verbs in brackets.
DID YOU KNOW? 1 A: You *1 (come) bowling with us. We had a great
So (that) is often followed by can. time.
Do you want to borrow a torch so you can see where you're B: Well, you 2 (not tell) me so late. It was too late
going outside? to rearrange things.
Pass me a cloth so that I can grip the lid o f this jar better. A: I know. Sorry. But maybe we 3 (go) next week
sometime if you fancy that.
If 2 A: Did you hear that Sally's been sacked? Someone saw her
We can use an //-clause to talk about possible situations in which in a shopping mall the other day when she 4
something might be necessary. (work). Apparently, she'd phoned in to say she was ill and
This is useful stu ff to have if you need to remove stains. she said that the doctor had told her that she 5
If you can't find anything else, hang it up with a nail. (stay) in bed for a few days. I think this wasn't the first
time that had happened.
Exercise 2 B: Well, fair enough, to be honest. She really 6____________
Complete the sentences using so, if or to. (know) better. She's only got herself to blame.
1 Have you got a dustpan and brush I can clean up 3 A: The neighbours kept me awake last night again.
this mess I've made? B: Really? Maybe you 7 (report) them next time.
2 I must buy some w ire hang this new photo up A: I have already, but the police don't seem to want to do
with. anything.
3 you want to put those shelves up properly, you'll B: They 8 (come and warn) them at least.
need a drill. A: Well, maybe, but I guess they had more important things
4 You'll need an adaptor you're going to use your to do.
laptop in the States. B: Did you tell them how often it's happening?
5 Put some cream o n protect yourself from the sun. A: Not really. Maybe 19____________ (not be) so calm when I
6 Can I borrow your stepladder I can change the spoke to them. Perhaps 11 0
(sound) a bit more
light bulb in the hall? desperate!
B: Yeah, maybe.
A: I don't know. Maybe we 1 1
(just move).
B: Yeah, but you 1 2
(have to). That's just wrong!

170
DID YOU KNOW? We also use such a lot o f + noun.
We often use the passive with should. There's such a lot of rubbish on the streets.
• For the present, we use should + be + past participle.
Cause and result
The shop assistant should be sacked.
When we use so and such to express cause and result, using that
• For the past, we use should + have been + past participle. to link the result clause is optional.
The shop assistant should have been sacked. There's so much traffic, it's usually guicker to walk.
Exercise 2 So few people had bought tickets that they decided to cancel
Complete the sentences with should and the correct the event.
passive form of these verbs. They did so badly in the elections that their leader resigned.
It was such a surprise, I didn't know what to say!
not allow check close down never post
Exercise 1
1 The w ebsite before it went live. The contact Choose the correct option to complete the clauses
details are not correct. expressing a cause (1-8). Then match them with the
2 The restaurant is filthy. It really I won't be going clauses expressing the result (a-h).
there again, that's for sure. 1 Our situation sometimes looks so I such bleak,
3 Fake news like th is It in the first 2 He was involved in so I such a terrible public scandal,
place. Social media platforms need better policing.
3 The government have lied so I such many times,
Common mistakes 4 Food prices have gone up so /su c h quickly,
• We should to go. We're already late. 5 The earthquake caused so / such a lot of damage,
• I should w orking be working in the office today, but there's a 6 So / Such few women are having babies these days,
public transport strike. 7 They've got so / such poor hospitals,
• He should took have taken it back to the shop sooner. 8 There's so / such little crime now,
You may also sometimes see or hear people use o f instead of
have. This is a common mistake. a there have been riots in the street markets.
• They should o f have had it fixed by a professional. b that most kids can't even get basic health care.
c they're actually making police officers redundant!
Exercise 3
d I've just lost faith in them.
Find the mistake in each sentence and rewrite the e the government's introduced tax breaks for big families to
sentence correctly. boost the birth rate.
1 I should rang you earlier, but I forgot. Sorry. f that it's hard not to feel pessimistic about the future.
2 It's terrible I have to work tonight. I should celebrating my g that tens of thousands are feared dead,
birthday with my friends! h that in the end he was forced to resign.
3 When you take it back, you should to ask for some kind of
compensation. Exercise 2
4 I sometimes think I should never gone to university because I Complete the sentences with many, much, few or little.
didn't enjoy it much and I have a huge debt now. 1 There's s o poverty in the world that surely tackling
5 They should of tried to sort it out instead of blaming me. that has to be our main goal.
2 So people bothered to vote that the election
results are almost meaningless!
4 SOCIETY 3 So people turned up to vote in the election, there
were the longest queues ever at the polling stations.
4A SOANDSt/C// 4 So new jobs have been created that there are
actually a lot of posts which are unfilled.
Use
5 So research has been done into the problem that
We use so and such to emphasize the degree of something.
it's hard to say what's causing it.
It was so interesting.
It's such a great idea. Exercise 3
Read the first sentence in each pair. Complete the second
We also use so and such to link cause and result. The so / such
sentence so that it has a similar meaning. Use between
clause expresses the cause and this is followed by a clause that
three and five words, including the word in bold.
expresses the result.
1 The meeting was so boring, I almost fell asleep. SUCH
I'm so tired, I can hardly stay awake.
I t , I almost fell asleep.
It was such a boring film that many people left before the end.
2 There is such a lot of fake news these days, you just don't
Form know what to believe. SO
• Use so + an adjective or an adverb. There these days, you just don't know what to
I'm so disappointed believe.
Things change so slowly. 3 It's been such terrible weather recently, I've hardly been
outside. SO
We also use so + few / many + countable noun and so + little I The w eather recently, I've hardly been outside.
much + uncountable noun.
4 The news has been so depressing recently that I've stopped
So few people voted for him. watching it. SUCH
There are so many homeless people these days. It's been recently that I've stopped watching it.
• Use such + noun and such + adjective + noun.
It's such a shame.
It was such a great day.

Grammar reference 171

AB COMPARATIVES WITH THE... . THE... 5 SPORTS AND INTERESTS
We can show connections using the following basic patterns:
• the + comparative + noun + verb, the + comparative + noun
5B PASTMODALS
+ verb. Use
The m ore a fflu ent the area is, the nicer the cars are.
The b ig g er you are, the m ore difficult it is to find nice Should(n't) have
clothes. We use should have + past participle to show we think
The o ld er people get, the m ore fo rg etfu l they become. something in the past which didn't happen was a good idea or
the correct or best thing to do.
Note that we can sometimes omit the verb be.
We sh o u ld 've s e t o ff earlier to miss the traffic.
The more affluent the area, the nicer the cars.
I sh o u ld have p h o n e d you. I forgot, sorry.
• the more I less + noun + verb, the more I less + noun + verb
The m ore I earn, the m ore I buy. \Ne use shouldn't have or should never have + past participle to
The less you want, the m ore you have. show you think something that happened wasn't a good idea or
• the more I less I few er + noun, the more I less I few er + noun wasn't the correct thing to do.
The m ore traffic, the m ore pollution. You sh o u ld n 't have hit him. It was wrong o f you.
• It is possible to combine the patterns. I sh o u ld n e v e r have sp o k en to him. I regret it now.
The m ore m o n ey people have, the g re e d ie r they get. W ould(n't) have
The h u n g rier you are, the m ore you want to eat. \Ne often add a comment using would have I wouldn't
The m ore you practise, the ea sier it will become. have I would never have + past participle to show the likely
The less I know, the better. consequence if a past situation had been different.
I should've paid more attention. I w o u ld n 't have m ade that
Exercise 1 mistake.
Com plete the sentences w ith one w ord in each gap. It's your birthday? You should've said. I'd have b o u g h t you a
1 richer the c o u n t r y , l o w e r the birth rate. present.
2 The better educated p e o p l e , the We should've got here earlier. W e'd've g o t a better seat.
money they are likely to earn.
Could(n't) have
3 The stronger economy, the
unemployment there is. We can add a comment with could have + past participle to
show a possible consequence if a past situation had been
4 The hungrier people are, th e desperate they tend
different.
to be and the more conflicts will be.
They should've acted sooner. They cou ld have sa v e d his life.
5 The happier people are, th e illnesses they
They shouldn't have substituted the striker. They could 've won.
\Ne use couldn't have I could never have + past participle to
Exercise 2 show that something was not possible.
Com plete the sentences w ith the pattern the . . . , the ... I should've asked for help. It was obvious I couldn't have d on e
and the correct form of the w ord in brackets. it on my own.
1 (money) a person b o r r o w s , ( g r e a t ) the
Form
risk is for the bank.
The past form of most modal verbs is modal + have + past participle.
2 (long) you w a i t ( p l e a s u r a b l e ) the
Have is often contracted t o 've, especially in more informal contexts,
reward.
such as speaking. Would is often contracted t o 'd.
3 (colourful) the f l o w e r , ( p o w e r f u l ) the
I sh o u ld 've known.
smell needs to be.
We could 've got it cheaper.
4 (a liquid) heats u p , ( u n s t a b l e ) it
They'd have changed their mind.
becomes.
Exercise 1
DID YO U KN O W ?
Choose the correct option to com plete the short texts.
There are some useful fixed phrases with the . . . , the ...
1 He's to blame. He should have I would have dealt with
The bigger, the better. The fewer, the better.
the problem sooner rather than leaving it so long. Things
The sooner, the better. The more, the better. wouldn't have I couldn't have got so bad if he had.
The simpler, the better. The more, the merrier. 2 The fire was my fault. I shouldn't have I wouldn't have left
The faster, the better. The older, the wiser. the cooker on while I was out.
Exercise 3
3 It's my own fault. I should have I would have warmed up
more before I started playing. I wouldn't have / couldn't have
W rite a short reply to each question using the . . . , the
strained my back if I had.
better.
4 It's the team's own fault they got knocked out. They wouldn't
1 What size boxes do you want? have / shouldn't have underestimated the opposition. They
2 What kind of camera are you thinking of buying? should've / would've taken the game more seriously. They
3 When do you want this done by? could've / should've won if they had.
4 How do you want your coffee? 5 The game was pretty awful, but I suppose it should have I
5 How many people should we invite? could have been worse - we could have I would have lost.
A draw wasn't so bad.
6 Thanks for your help. I shouldn't have I couldn't have done
it without you. I certainly wouldn't have / shouldn't have
finished it on time anyway. That's for sure.

172
Exercise 2 The present perfect continuous is have I has + (not) been + -Ing.
Com plete the sentences w ith the correct form of the I've b een g oin g to the gym a lot.
w ords. It hasn't b een w orkin g for a while.
1 H ave you b een training much?

would / get should / set off should / warn Since, fo r and other tim e phrases
We use since and for when we talk about something that
A: Sorry we're late. W e earlier and avoided the started in the past and continues now. We use since + a point in
traffic. W e here much earlier. time and for + a period of time.
B: Yeah, sorry, I you about the traffic round here. I've been doing yoga since I w as a student.
It can be a nightmare at rush hour. I've been doing yoga fo r o v e r ten years.
She's worked there since a b o u t 2020.
could / be could / be should / have She's worked there fo r a g o o d fe w yea rs n o w

\Ne can also use phrases such as always, never, all my life, all
A: Poor Erika, getting knocked off her bike last night. Sounds
day, recently, etc. when we talk about something that started in
like she had a lucky escape.
the past and continues now.
B: Yeah, but to be honest, sh e lights on her bike.
I've alw ays loved sports.
She's only got herself to blame. It a lot worse.
She seriously injured. I've been training a lot recently.

Exercise 1
could/give should / not/ leave should/tell would / not/ enjoy Com plete the sen ten ces w ith the present perfect sim ple or
present perfect continuous form of the verbs. Then, think
A: Hey, y o u the concert so early last night. They about w h y the form is used in each case.
came back on stage and played a couple more songs after 1 S h e ( t r y ) to call him all morning, but she
you left. (not / be able) to get hold of him.
B: Ah, that's a shame. But I was feeling really hot and it was 2 I ( e m a i l ) them several times already, but they still
a bit too crowded in there. I really needed some fresh air. I (not / reply).
it. And also, I had to get the bus.
3 I ( g o ) skiing since I was a kid and I
A: I you a lift. Y o u me! (always / love) it, but I ( n e v e r / fancy)
snowboarding.
5C THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS 4 S h e ( t h i n k ) about dropping out of the course for a
few weeks now. I think s h e ( s t r u g g l e ) to keep up
Use with all the work they give her.
We use the present perfect simple and present perfect 5 I ( m e a n ) to ask Luis if he could help me for ages,
continuous in a number of ways to connect the past with now. but I ( n o t / find) the right moment to ask.
• We use the present perfect sim ple to talk about something 6 Apparently, w e ( g o ) to the same gym for years,
completed at some point before now, but which has a but w e ( n e v e r / run into) each other there.
connection to the present.
Finally, w e've finished! Exercise 2
H ave you fixed the running machine yet? Choose the correct option to com plete the sentences.
• We also use the present perfect sim ple to talk about how 1 I haven't seen 11 haven't been seeing him all day. He must be
many times an action happened from the past up to now. off work.
He's already m anaged eight or nine different clubs. 2 I've never had I I've never been having any interest in golf. I
She's b een to the gym three times so far this week. don't know why, really, because I've always loved I I've always
• We use the present perfect continuous to talk about been loving most other sports.
something that started in the past and continues now. There 3 I've trained I I've been training for the 10K a lot recently.
is usually a focus on continuous or repeated activity and on I've already got I I've already been getting my time down to
how long. under 50 minutes.
She's b een training hard for six months now. 4 What have you done I have you been doing? We've waited I
He's n o t b een feeling well for a while. We've been waiting for you for / since over an hour.
I've b een trying to fix my computer since this morning.
5 He hasn't played I hasn't been playing a single game for I
since the first week of the season. He's still injured.
DID YO U KN O W ? 6 I've played I I've been playing a lot of chess recently. In fact,
When we talk about how long an activity continued up to now, I've played I I've been playing just about every day for I since
there are certain verbs that we usually use with the present the last couple of weeks.
perfect simple instead of the continuous. We usually see these
things as more permanent situations or states. Exercise 3

W e've b een here for over twenty years. Com plete the sen ten ces so they are true for you. Try
to use both the present perfect sim ple and the present
They've k n o w n each other for a long time.
perfect continuous in your an sw ers.
Form
1 I h aven 't... since ...
The present perfect sim ple is have I has + (not) + past I haven't played rugby since I left school.
participle.
2 I've ... a lot recently.
He's se en the film a few times.
3 I've a lw a ys...
I h a ven 't b een there yet.
4 I've never...
H ave you finished?
5 I've ... f o r ...

Grammar reference 173

 6 ACCOMMODATION Exercise 1
Choose the correct option to com plete the sentences. In
som e cases both options are possible.
6A MODIFIERS
1 The town we stayed in was a b it/ quite dull, but the
We use modifiers to make adjectives, adverbs, nouns or verbs surrounding area was very / absolutely stunning. I hardly /
stronger or weaker. really loved the place.
2 We had hardly / almost any rain while we were there, but
M odifying adjectives
there was a bit / a bit o f a chill in the air most days.
We can use very I really I completely I totally I absolutely to
3 The place gets absolutely/ very packed with tourists in
make an adjective or adverb stronger.
August and there are hardly / almost no vacancies in the
The hotel was really nice The view from the balcony was hotels in the summer.
a bsolu tely amazing.
4 The place was a real / really tourist trap and everything was
I'm very tired In fact, I'm co m p letely ex h a u sted absolutely / very expensive.
Note that we use absolutely with extreme adjectives (e.g. 5 The food was a b it/ quite good. And it was quite / fairly
amazing, boiling, awful, enormous, packed) and we use very cheap. But a lot of it was a bit too / fairly spicy for my liking.
with more neutral adjectives (e.g. nice, hot, bad, big, busy). 6 The beach was fairly / a bit near, but it was quite / a bit too far
It was a b so lu tely enormous. to walk to. Luckily, the hotel pool was absolutely / pretty good.
NOT It was very enormous. Exercise 2
It was very big.
Read the first sentence in each pair. Com plete the second
NOT It was-absokrtefy-btg? sentence so th at it has a sim ilar m eaning. Use betw een
We can generally use really with both kinds of adjectives. three and five w ords, including the w ord in bold.
It was really b ad 1 We completely wasted our time. COM PLETE
It was really awful. It w a s time.
2 It was unbearably hot in the tent. ABSO LUTELY
We can use a bit I quite I fairly I pretty to make an adjective or
It the tent.
adverb weaker.
3 There were almost no people in the town centre last
The internet is a bit s lo w I think the router is quite far away.
night. HARDLY
The beach was p re tty b u sy today. It's normally fairly quiet.
There the town centre last night.
Note that we generally use a bit to express a negative idea. 4 Personally, I'd prefer it if the music wasn't so loud! BIT
They look a b it cheap. The m usic for my liking.
It's a b it expensive. 5 There was hardly anything to do during the day. A LM O ST
NOT It's a-btHtice. There during the day.
6 I liked the food a lot. REALLY
DID YO U KN O W ?
I food.
We can use (a bit) too + adjective to say that something is more
than we want or need.
The train is a b it too expensive. Let's go by bus.
6C HAVE I GET SOMETHING DONE
A useful pattern is a bit too ... for my liking. Use
This curry is a b it too spicy fo r m y liking We use have / get something done in two main ways:
• to say that someone does something for us, usually when we
M odifying nouns have arranged it and / or it is part of a service.
We can use a complete I a total I a real I an absolute I a bit o f a I We order our shopping online and have it d elivered
hardly any I almost no to make a noun stronger or weaker. We're having the house d eco ra ted at the moment.
There were hardly any activities going on there. It was I generally g e t my hair cu t once a month.
a com p lete waste o f time.
• to say that something unwelcome or bad happens to us. We
It was a b it o f a nightmare. Hardly anything went right. A n do not normally use get in this way.
absolu te disaster, in fact.
I ha d my bike stolen
We had alm ost n o time. It was a real rush.
They've h a d their apartment b roken into again.
M odifying verbs
Note that have / g et something done is a kind of passive
We can use really I absolutely I totally I almost I hardly to make a construction. In a normal passive structure, the focus is mainly
verb or verb phrase stronger or weaker. on the object (e.g. M y bike was stolen) but with have / get
I a b so lu tely lo v e d the place. I really liked the food. something done, the focus is on both the object and the person
We were really en jo yin g ourselves. I hardly n o ticed the rain. that the object belongs to (e.g. I had m y bike stolen).
I totally fo rg o t to pack my bag. We alm ost m issed the bus.
Form
The form is have / get + object + past participle. We can use
have / get in a range of tenses.
We have our car se rv iced every year.
I'm g ettin g my hair cut tomorrow.
I ha d my wallet stolen
I sh o u ld g e t my eyes te ste d
I ha d to have my picture taken for the college website.
I'm g oin g to g e t my hair d y e d blond.
I'd never have my hair cu t that short! It wouldn't suit me.

174
Exercise 1 ' NATURE
Complete the conversations by reordering the words in
italics. 7A NARRATIVE FORMS
1 A: straightened / o f / getting I thinking I my hair I I'm. I'm fed
up with this hairstyle. When we tell a story about the past or describe a past event, we
B: Really? I'd love to have curly hair like you. often use a combination of the three narrative tenses.
2 A: that photo / get / should / framed / you. It's really nice.
The past simple
B: Do you think so? Maybe I will, then.
We generally use the past simple to tell the main events of
3 A: Someone broke into my friend's car and stolen I had I she I the story that follow each other. These events are often linked
her laptop and bag. together using words such as and, and then, after that, after,
B: Oh no! That's awful. before.
4 A: I'm going to have to stop the car. The engine's We pulled over and waited for the rain to stop and then we
overheating. continued our journey.
B: I told you should / w e / it / had / have / checked before we So, I sat down, started to read my book and then fell asleep. I
left. didn't wake up and I missed my stop.
5 A: I'm working at home this week, redecorated / we / the
office / 're having. The past continuous
B: Ah, had / we / ours / done last month. We use the past continuous to describe an activity or situation
that was already in progress and was interrupted by one of the
Exercise 2 main events of the story. We often link the two with when or
Read the first sentence and complete the second sentence while. Note that we only use while before the activity in the past
so that it has a similar meaning, using a have/get continuous.
something done structure. Use between three and five I met my wife when we were both living in Slovakia.
words. I was walking by the river when a dog ran up to me and I
1 Our luggage was stolen from our hotel room. nearly fell in.
We from our hotel room. I had an accident while I was driving to work.
2 Don't touch the gate. It's only just been painted. The past perfect simple
We've ju s t so be careful you don't touch it. We use the past perfect simple to show that an action happened
3 My car is at the garage at the moment, being repaired. before one of the main events or before the story began. We
I at the moment. often link the events with when and by the time.
4 They should send someone to repair the air conditioning in They'd already left by the time I got there.
here. When I got to work, I realized I'd left my keys at home.
They really ought t o in here.
DID YOU KNOW?
5 I usually do my weekly shop online and they deliver it to my
house. Continuous tenses are sometimes used to emphasize the
duration of an activity. Notice the time phrases.
I usually do my weekly shop online a n d to my
house. It was raining the whole time we were there.
We were waiting for hours for the fog to lift.
Exercise 3
Write comments for the situations. Use have/get Exercise 1
something done and these words. Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1 It was getting dark, so we decided / were deciding to go
hair/cut eyes/test it / look at it/deliver windows / clean home while we could still see the path.
2 The roads were really dangerous because the snow was
1 Your computer keeps crashing.
melting / had melted a bit the day before and had then
7 need to get it looked a t.'
frozen again overnight.
2 Your friend's windows are very dirty.
3 The sun was burning hot and I got really sunburned because I
'You n e e d ' was forgetting / had forgotten to put any cream on.
3 Your hair is too long and covering your eyes. 4 The other day, I sat / was sitting in a cafe when someone said,
'I really s h o u l d ' 'Hello you!' It was an old friend from school, who I didn't see
4 Your friend's vision is not as good as it used to be. / hadn't seen for years.
'You n e e d ' 5 I g o t/ was getting caught in a storm while I was walking
5 Your friend can't collect something from the shop. home, so I stopped / was stopping in a cafe until it had
'Why don't y o u ?' blown over.
6 I went away on holiday and when I had got back / got back I
found that some kind of bug ate / had eaten all the flowers in
my garden!
7 The fog was coming down / came down suddenly and took
us by surprise. We then got completely lost and had / were
having to phone for help.
8 It absolutely poured down all morning and by the time we
arrived / were arriving, the campsite still didn't dry out /
hadn't dried out, so the whole place was really muddy.

Grammar reference 175

Exercise 2 8 CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Com plete the text w ith the correct form s of the verbs.
A few months ago, 1*1 (fly) back from Bulgaria after a 8A SHOWING DEGREES OF CERTAINTY WITH MODAL VERBS
week visiting friends. I t 2 (rain) quite hard and it was
quite windy, but the plane 3 4
(take off) on time. So, we Certainty
4
____________ (be) in the air for about five minutes when suddenly We use must or can't to show we are certain about something.
there 5 (be) a huge flash of light and a really loud This is often when we give our opinion or speculate about
bang. The plane had been struck by lightning. Everything was something and have no direct evidence.
calm but we 6____________ (have to) return to the airport. They M y keys m u st b e here somewhere. I had them a moment ago.
needed to get an engineer to check for damage to the plane,
He m ust earn a lot o f money - he's always going on holidays.
but can you believe it, the nearest available engineer78
You can't be serious. That's a crazy idea!
(have) dinner in Milan in Italy! About six hours later, he finally
8
____________ (arrive). He 9_____________ (spend) 60 seconds It can't be easy doing three jobs a ta time.
checking the plane and we finally 1 0
(leave) two hours
The past form is must I can't have + past participle.
after that. It was a very long day!
It m u st have b een awful. Poor you!
It's a no parking zone. She can't have seen the sign.
7B PARTICIPLE CLAUSES It can't have b een easy being so poor.
A participle clause usually follows a noun. The participle clause
U ncertainty
gives more information about the noun in the same way that a
We use might (not) or could when we are not certain about
relative clause does. A clause that uses a present participle (the
something. This is often when we give our opinion or speculate
-ing form) has an active meaning and a clause that uses a past
about something that is possible.
participle has a passive meaning.
It cou ld be him who stole the money but I'm not sure.
. . . a range o f dishes featuring the insects (= a range of dishes
that feature the insects) This m ight b e Yuka's bag. It looks like it, but I'm not sure.
... experiments aim ed at combating illnesses (= experiments Dina m ight n o t k n o w what happened. I'll call her and tell her.
that are aim ed at combating illnesses) The past form is might (not) I could have + past participle.
Exercise 1 I suppose I could've left my passport in the hotel room. I m ight
n o t have lost it, after all.
Look at the sentences. Change the w o rd s in bold to a
present participle (-ing form ) or a past participle. She hasn't replied to my email. I guess she m ight n o t have
se en it yet.
1 All the passengers w h o w ere injured in the accident have
been released from hospital. Note that we do not use could not have to express uncertainty.
2 She works in an office w hich overlooks the main square. Dina could n o t have known what happened. I'll call her and tell
3 Anyone w h o finishes in the top three gets a medal. her.
4 The owner of a lottery ticket w hich w a s bought in Chester She hasn't replied to my email. I guess she cetdd-noHhave seen
almost six months ago has just one week left to claim the it yet.
million-pound prize.
\Ne can also use may instead of might. This is particularly
5 The people w h o live next door are really friendly.
common in more formal contexts, such as writing.
6 Tickets w hich w ere purchased online will be automatically
We m ay b e a few minutes late.
refunded.
Police believe that high speed m ay have p la yed a part in the
Exercise 2 crash.
Com plete the sentences using the correct form of the
Exercise 1
verbs.
Com plete the sen ten ces w ith m u st (have), can't (have),
1 The s u f f e r i n g ( c a u s e ) by vivisection is just awful. m ight (have), cou ld (have).
2 Supplies are slowly starting to reach the areas
1 Th ey be so fed up. That's the third time their
(affect) by the flooding.
house has been broken into this year.
3 She's part of a t e a m ( i n v e s t i g a t e ) the effects of a
2 It be easy for them, bringing up six kids on one
vegetarian diet on long-term health.
salary. But they never complain.
4 The police have said that some of the animals
3 That be the guy who stole your bike, but I'm not
(free) from the laboratories could be carrying diseases.
sure. It was dark and I didn't get a good look.
5 The government has promised to help rebuild all the
4 He's been working thirteen-hour days for weeks. He
p r o p e r t i e s ( d a m a g e ) in the recent forest fires.
be exhausted.
6 City Farms is a new p r o j e c t ( f u n d ) by the local
5 This doesn't look right. I think w e taken the
council and aimed at putting kids in contact with animals.
wrong turning earlier.
7 The low numbers of young p e o p l e ( t a k e ) part in
6 It been easy, only seeing your kids once a
sport o r ( d o ) regular exercise continues to be a
month. But it's great you see them more often now.
cause for concern.
7 It be great having a job where you travel all over
8 The g r o u p ( l e a d ) the protests has issued a
the world. Lucky you!
s t a t e m e n t ( o p p o s e ) all forms of hunting.
8 There's no sign of them breaking in, so I suppose I
left the door unlocked. I'm pretty sure I did lock
it, but I be wrong.
9 It been Harry that you saw - he was out of the
country at the time. I t been someone else.
10 Your glasses be somewhere here. You
looked very hard! Th ey be in the
garden shed - you went in there a few minutes ago.

176
DID YOU KNOW? Exercise 1
We can use the continuous form of the verb (be + -ing) after Complete the sentences with the preposition + noun
must, can't, could and might. phrases in the boxes.
He can't be earning much if he's only doing cleaning work.
to rehabilitation on punishing prisoners with prisons
We should get o ff the phone. She might be trying to call now.
I didn't time it, but I must've been waiting for over an hour. 1 The main problem is that we place too much
emphasis and don't pay enough attention
Exercise 2
Read the first sentence in each pair. Complete the second
sentence so that it has a similar meaning. Use between of academic study of philosophy of right and wrong behaviour
three and five words, including the word in bold.
1 The police believe it's possible the thieves got in through an 2 Ethics is a branch that involves analyzing concepts
open window. MIGHT The term comes from the Greek word ethos,
The thieves through an open window, according which means 'character'. Ethics is also a f i e l d _
to the police.
Exercise 2
2 I can't see how they did it other than knowing someone in
Complete the sentences with the noun + preposition
the bank. MUST
combinations.
Th ey in the bank in order to do it.
3 I'll check she's not waiting for us outside. It's possible access to addiction to awareness of ban on
she is. MIGHT criticism of damage to decrease in involvement in
She outside, so let me go and check.
4 He doesn't know what to do because I'm pretty sure he 1 Police have arrested a leading politician for h is a
wasn't paying attention. CAN'T corruption scandal.
He attention, or he'd know what to do. 2 The footballer admitted himself into a rehabilitation centre for
treatment for h is gambling.
5 I'm sure it took ages to write the report as it's so
detailed. MUST 3 The government is considering a complete the
ownership of guns.
That report to write, given it's so detailed.
4 Better the internet could help solve many of the
6 He's possibly the person I saw, but I'm not sure. COULD
problems that currently affect less developed countries.
I th in k who I saw, but I'm not certain.
5 The demonstration against rising prices of water turned into
a riot, resulting in widespread cars and buildings.
8C NOUNS WITH PREPOSITIONS 6 There has been som e the police handling of the
To define or to add information to a noun, we can follow the incident last week in which a man was shot.
noun with a preposition + the defining information. In the first 7 There's actually been a b ig the incidence of street
example below, 'on research' tells us more about and defines crime over the last few years.
'focus'. The defining information is usually a noun, noun phrase, 8 Nowadays, there's much greater the need for
pronoun, gerund or wh- phrase. recycling and energy conservation.
• noun + preposition + noun / noun phrase / pronoun
Exercise 3
There needs to be more focus on research.
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
We have access to world-class facilities.
1 A I'm afraid there's no room in I for the class for another
There seems to be no reason for it.
desk and chair.
• noun + preposition + gerund (-ing form of the verb)
B We've got room in I for one more person in our car.
I have no interest in watching crime shows.
2 A Police have discovered a terrorist threat o f/ to the president.
He had no excuse for driving so fast.
B The airport has increased security because of the threat
• noun + preposition + wh- phrase o f/ to terrorism.
I have great respect for what she has achieved. 3 A What's the name of that film with /abou t Jet Li that came
There will be an investigation into why it happened. out last year?
B It's a really interesting film with / about gun crime.
Prepositions
4 A The police have set up a meeting about / with the local
There are no rules about which prepositions go after which
residents about / with burglaries in the area.
nouns and you need to learn them individually (e.g. a focus on,
a responsibility towards, the difference between). Sometimes, B The survey looked at attitudes towards / among young
people towards / among politics.
we use a different preposition depending on what we are
expressing. 5 A There's a demonstration against/ o f racism being held next
It had a big impact on unemployment. week.
B The students are going to put on a demonstration o f / for
Let's see what the impact of the policy is.
what they've learned at the end of the course.
We gave a lot o f attention to the problem
They deflected attention from the real problem.
There was a demonstration against the war.
He gave a demonstration of how it works.

Grammar reference 177

 9 CAREERS AND STUDYING DID YOU KNOW?
There are several fixed expressions which use //-clauses. Here are
some useful ones:
9A CONDITIONALS WITH PRESENT FORMS
I f everyth in g goes according to plan, the new office will
We can use a conditional sentence to talk about things that open in August.
are possible or likely in the present or in the future. We use a I f the w o rst comes to the worst, I'll look for a new job.
present form in the //-clause and we can use a range of different I f a ll else fails, I'll ju st have to work part time while I study.
forms and modal verbs in the result clause.
Exercise 3
Look at the examples of the different functions. Note the form /
modal verb that is used in the result clause. Correct th e mistakes in th e sentences.
1 If everything comes according to plan, we'll be with you
Function Form by 6.30.
2 If the worst goes to the worst, I'll look for a new job.
to talk about general I f 1ask about doing other stuff, he
truths tells me to be patient. 3 If all other fails, I can always retrain and look for something new.
4 If nothing gets wrong, they'll be here next Monday.
to talk about definite I f they invest more in education, it'll
future results help the economy. 9B CONDITIONALS WITH PAST FORMS
to make offers / I'll give you a hand i f you n eed help
We can use a conditional sentence to talk about things that are
promises filling in the forms.
unreal, imagined or hypothetical in the present, future or past.
to express possibility I f 1g e t this promotion, 1can / c o u ld / Im agined / hypothetical present or fu tu re
m ig h t b u y a place o f my own.
We use a past form in the //-clause and we use would + verb in
to give advice I f it's that bad, you should th in k the result clause.
a b o u t leaving! Even if they d o u b led my money, I w o u ld n 't w a n t to work for
them again.
to talk about plans What are you going to do i f you If I d id n 't have so much work, I'd go away for the weekend.
d o n 't g e t the promotion?
I'd w a lk to work if It w a s n 't raining
to express obligation I f you w a n t to get in, y o u have to Im agined / hypothetical past
g e t really good grades.
We use the past perfect in the //-clause and we use would
have + past participle in the result clause.
Exercise 1
It w o u ld probably have been a different story if I'd been
W rite i f sentences using th e ideas below . Use th e w ords doing it on my own!
in brackets to decide w hich structures to use in th e result
H e'd have g o t a much better grade if he'd w o rk e d a bit harder.
clauses.
1 you / fail three subjects / repeat the whole year (obligation) \Ne can use might instead of would. M ight shows less definite
2 you / not feel well / take a day off sick (advice) results. We can use might in conditionals that refer to the
present, the future or the past.
3 you / ask my uncle for a job / you lose yours (possibility)
If they o ffe re d me a big pay rise, I m ig h t consider staying
4 I / be in big trouble / report not finished by Friday (definite
in the job.
result)
If it h ad n't been for her, I m ight never have heard about the job.
5 things not get better at work / I / hand in my notice (plan)
6 you're struggling / I / do my best to help (offer) DID YOU KNOW
D ifferen t present form s in //-clauses We can mix the present and the past in imagined / hypothetical
situations.
We can use the present simple, present continuous, present
perfect simple or present perfect continuous in an //-clause. This could be a past consequence of a present situation:
I get paid extra i f I w o rk overtime. (= always / whenever) If I w asn 't in the army, I w o u ld n ever have gone somewhere
I f you're having problems, you can always talk to me. (= now / like Haiti.
at the moment),
I f you 've finished, could you make me a coffee? (= already /
Or it could be a present consequence of a past situation:
before now) If w e'd set o f f a bit earlier, we w o u ld n 't be stuck in this awful
You can't concentrate properly i f you 've been w o rkin g too traffic.
hard. (= from the past to now) Exercise 1

Exercise 2 Com plete th e te x t w ith one w o rd in each gap (didn't,

had n't, etc. count as one w o rd here).
Choose th e correct option in each i f clause.
If it h a d n 't 1 raining that day I m ight 2 have
1 If you haven't heard I haven't been hearing from them soon,
seen the advert. I usually cycled to work, but that day it was
maybe you should call them.
pouring down and I was late, so I took the metro. I was
2 You should take some time off if you aren't feeling I haven't
working for a TV company at the time and it was good, but I
felt well.
saw this ad and it said 'Imagine if you 3 in your job
3 We might all lose our jobs if the company loses I has lost any for the rest of your life, h o w 4 you feel? What do you
more money. think you 5 have contributed to the world? Would
4 If you work I have been working here for more than two years, you 6____________ made your mark?' The advert really made me
they have to give you a month's notice if they want to sack you. think and it led me in a completely different direction. I became
5 If everything goes I is going according to plan, I'm going to a nurse. I liked the TV work, but I don't think i t 7 have
go and work abroad for a year. been as rewarding, even if 18____________ been promoted and
6 If you're thinking/you think of leaving your current job, I moved up the company. I doubt I'd 9 so happy now if
think we are looking for some new staff at my company. i t 10____________ been for that ad.

178
Exercise 2 Exercise 1
Read sentence a and complete sentence b so that it has Complete the sentences with the future perfect form of
the same meaning. the verbs.
1 A I'm amazed you didn't get angry when your boss said that 1 I'm helping a friend move house tomorrow, but we
to you. (finish) by five, so call me then.
B If my boss that to me, I furious. 2 Next month, w e ( l i v e ) in this apartment for two
2 A Our present success is a direct result of all your hard work. years.
B If i t for all your hard work, w e as 3 It's absolutely pouring down now, but they said it
successful as we currently are. (ease off) by late afternoon.
3 A I was very nervous in the interview. Maybe that's why I 4 Hurry up! The film p r o b a b l y ( s t a r t ) by
didn't get the job. the time we get to the cinema.
B If I more confident in the interview, I 5 OK, see you at 7. O h , y o u ( e a t ) or
____________ the job. shall we get something to eat here?
4 A I know him better than you and I can tell you now: that 6 I read the other day that by the time you're 60, you
was a stupid thing to say to him. (spend) nine whole years watching TV! How
B If y o u him as well as I do, y o u that depressing is that?
to him!
Common mistakes
5 A The money's terrible. I only stay because I find the work • If they w ill have fixed have fixed the car, I can drive you to
really rewarding.
the airport this evening. I'll call you when I w ill have finished
B To be honest, if I the work so rewarding, I have finished.
my notice tomorrow.
Don't use will in phrases with time adverbs (when, until, etc.)
6 A I only ended up doing this course because I didn't get the or //-clauses that refer to the future.
grades for the course I wanted to do.
B If I the grades I needed for the course I wanted Exercise 2
to do, I certainly this course. Find five mistakes in the sentences. Then correct the mistakes.
1 Don't call before noon - I'll be in a meeting. But we should've
finished by 1-ish.
10 SOCIALIZING 2 We have lived here for ten years next July. Maybe we'll have a
party to celebrate!
10A THE FUTURE PERFECT 3 When do you think you'll have finished with the book? I
promised I'd lend it to Jack when you will have read it.
Form 4 I should've finished the report by the end of tomorrow. But I'll
The future perfect is formed using will / w on't + have + past have let you know if it's going to be later than that.
participle.
5 You're arriving on Friday? I might already leave, I'm afraid!
They will have done all the painting by the weekend, so we But if so, see you next time.
can move in then. 6 We'll have done all the necessary checks by the end of the week.
Can I give it to you on Friday? I w on't have finished it before When we will have done that, we'll issue you with the pass.
then.

Use IOC QUESTION TAGS

We use the future perfect to talk about something that will be
Use
completed, or not completed, before a time in the future.
We use a question tag to invite people to agree with or confirm
I will have written my essay by Thursday (= M y essay will be
what we are saying.
finished before Thursday)
That was a great lecture, wasn't it?
We w on't have finished eating by nine. Can you call round a
bit later? (= We will still be eating at nine.) She speaks French, doesn't she?

Form
\Ne can also use the future perfect for a situation which
continues, but which has reached a significant point in time, Question tags are formed using an auxiliary verb (be, do, have or
such as an anniversary. a modal verb) + a pronoun.
They'll have been married for 50 years in November. If there is an auxiliary verb (be, have or a modal verb) in the main
I'll have w orked here for five years next month. part of the sentence, the question tag is made with the same
auxiliary verb.
We can also use should or might instead of will to show less
She's left, hasn't she?
certainty.
I should have finished by about six or so, but I'll call you if I He can speak French, can 't he?
haven't. If the main part of the sentence uses the verb be, the question
I might have got a new job the next time you see me! tag uses an appropriate form of be.
He's going to be late, isn't he?
Time references
We usually have a time reference with the future perfect. The phrases If the main part of the sentence does not have an auxiliary
often begin with by (by midnight, by this afternoon, by the time we verb (i.e. the present or past simple), the question tag uses an
get there, by the end o f the year, by then, etc.) and, less commonly, appropriate form of do.
with before (before midnight; before the end o f the month, etc.) He plays the guitar, doesn't he?

With affirmative sentences, we use negative tags.

It was a great game, wasn't it?
They've already left, haven't they?
Teresa lives near there, doesn't she?

Grammar reference 179

With negative statements, we use an affirmative tag. 11 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORT
The meeting shouldn't take too long, should it?
She hasn't seen it, has she? 11B COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
They didn't get there in time, did they?
Form
Note that with I'm . . . , we use aren't I? in the tag. And with I'm
A compound adjective is two words that function as an
n o t ... , we use am I? in the tag.
adjective. This could be a combination of different parts of
I'm invited to the party, aren't I?
speech, such as number + noun (e.g. 24-hour), noun + adjective
I'm not invited, am I? (e.g. world-famous), noun + noun (e.g. ground-floor), adjective
Here are some other question tags and their uses. + participle (e.g. broad-minded, easy-going), adverb + participle
(e.g. highly regarded).
You couldn't save my place in the gueue, could you? (to make
polite requests) As with many single-word adjectives, we can use compound
Let's start, shall we? (to make polite suggestions) adjectives + noun.
Pass me the salt, would you? (to make polite commands - She's an award-winning writer.
informal only) We stayed in a five-star hotel.

DID YOU KNOW? Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated. However, you
We don't add question tags to questions. sometimes see them without a hyphen. And you may see the
same compound adjective written both with and without a
Are you doing anything this weekend, aren't you?
hyphen.
Do you want to go and get something to eat, don't you?
a five-star hotel a family-run restaurant a brightly lit room
Exercise 1
Decide which two short conversations are correct. Correct Note that many compound adjectives use the -ing form or the
the other four. past participle of a verb.
1 A: Would you like a coffee, wouldn't you? award-winning south-facing
B: No, I'm fine, thanks. I've just had one. badly maintained well-positioned
2 A: You knew him quite well, isn't it?
B: Yeah, we went to college together. \Ne use the singular form of a noun in a compound adjective.
3 A: You couldn't lend me a pound, could you? a six-hour flight NOT a six hours flight
B: Sorry, I haven't got any change on me. a three-year-old car NOT a three-years-old car
4 A: You weren't at the last class, you were?
Use
B: No. I was ill. Did I miss much?
We often use compound adjectives in place of longer phrases.
5 A: Lovely weather, isn't it?
They make what we say shorter and more concise.
B: Fantastic.
She's an award-winning writer. = She's a writer who has won
6 A: Haven't you heard of One Direction, have you? an award.
B: No. Why? Should I have? It's a six-hour flight. = The flight takes six hours.
Exercise 2 It's a well-positioned apartment = The apartment is well
positioned.
Add the correct question tags.
It's a 2,000-year-old temple = The temple is 2,000 years old.
1 She's S p a n i s h , ?
2 I'm on the list t o o , ? Exercise 1
3 We need to be there by s i x , ? Read the first sentence in each pair. Complete the second
4 Let's g o ? sentence so that it has the same meaning, using a
5 You couldn't give me a l i f t , ? compound adjective.
6 She's been there a few t i m e s , ? 1 The garden faces south.
7 Give me a h a n d , ? It's a garden.
8 He's going to be there t o o , ? 2 The building is very well maintained.
It's a building.
DID YOU KNOW? 3 The hotel has five stars and it has won some awards.
Other question tags are common in informal conversational It's a hotel.
English.
4 We stayed in an apartment which was equipped well and
You know where the cathedral is, yeah I right? had three bedrooms.
It's really good, no? We stayed in a apartment.
Exercise 3 5 We need to write an essay that has 3,000 words.
We need to write a essay.
Replace yeah?, right? and no? with more formal tags.
6 We had some delicious tomatoes that had been dried in
1 You've been to university, no? haven't you?
the sun.
2 It's a fantastic place to visit, no?
We had some delicious tomatoes.
3 You know where to go, right?
7 I know a lovely little restaurant by the sea run by a family.
4 We're going to meet them later, yeah?
I know a lovely little restaurant by the sea.
5 She shouldn't be here, right?
8 She's a scientist who is famous all over the world.
6 They can't come tomorrow, right?
She's a scientist.

180
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with compound adjectives using a Complete the sentences with your own ideas
word from each box. 1 One thing that drives me m a d _
One thing that drives me mad Is the increasing cost o f
densely 50 highly Italian
living.
meat vegetable 300
2 What always amazes me
3 What really worries me these days
free mile populated respected
4 One thing I loved doing as a child
rich speaking storey
5 The thing I find the most frustrating about learning English
1 She's lives in th e part of the country. She also
speaks German and French. 6 What's great about learning English
2 They're going to build a skyscraper on the site.
3 Apparently, Monaco is the m ost country in the
world.
12 HEALTH AND MEDICINE
4 Professor Boyle is one of the m ost academics in
his field. 12A POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS AND CHANGED PLANS
5 It's a round trip. It'll take about five hours by car.
Be meant to I Be supposed to
6 and diets are becoming more and
more popular. \Ne use be meant to I be supposed to + verb to talk about what
we expect to happen, usually because it is planned or required
lie EMPHATIC STRUCTURES or is the correct thing to do.
Hurry up! We're meant to be there in 20 minutes!
There are two common patterns we use to emphasize how we The meeting is supposed to finish at 10.30.
feel. In these patterns, w h a t... and the thing th a t... mean the
I'm supposed to be seeing a friend later, but I might cancel.
same thing and work in the same way.
Note that we often use be meant to I be supposed to + verb
annoys me t h a t ... when we think something might not happen as planned,
irritates me when ... required or expected.
worries me the fact t h a t ... We're meant to be going to the beach this afternoon, but rain
amazes me the w a y ... Is forecast.
What 's great the amount o f ... The taxi is supposed to be here at 9. Maybe I'll give them a call
is
The thing that 's really scary the number o f ... to see if it's on its way.
I find strange verb + -ing ...
\Ne also use be meant to I be supposed to + verb to report what
I love etc. we've heard or we understand about something.
I can't stand Cold showers are meant to be really good for you.
etc. I haven't seen the film, but it's supposed to be really good.

We can use the same pattern to talk about things that happened Should(n't) / Ought to
in the past. We can use should I ought to + verb in a similar way to be
The thing that amazed me was the fact that people stopped for meant to I be supposed to + verb. However, we also use should I
pedestrians at crossings. ought to to say what we think is probable or likely.
What I found strange was that there were so few people there. If the traffic is OK, we should be there in about an hour.
The report ought to be finished by Friday.
Exercise 1
Complete the second sentence in each pair using the word Exercise 1
in brackets, and any other words necessary, so that it Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words.
emphasizes the feeling in the first sentence. 1 The m e e t i n g ( s h o u l d / be) finished by three, so I
1 A The amount of pollution they have there is really should be able to call you then.
worrying. 2 Look at the weather! It's awful and the kids
B The t h i n g ( w o r r i e s ) of pollution they have (supposed / be playing) tennis at 2 o'clock.
there. 3 W e ( s u p p o s e d / be having) a meeting tomorrow,
2 A I find it strange that people prefer to drive rather than but there are so many people off with flu that we might have
walk or cycle. to cancel it.
B W h a t ( f i n d ) that people prefer to drive rather 4 I posted it this morning, so y o u ( o u g h t / get) it in
than walk or cycle. a day or two.
3 A When people get on the train while you're trying to get 5 Have you been to that new Vietnamese restaurant? It
off, it really annoys me. (meant / be) really good.
B W h a t ( a n n o y i n g ) getting on the train while 6 w e ( s u p p o s e d / wait) at reception, or
you're trying to get off. shall we go to her office?
4 A The government increased the prices on the buses and it 7 I ( m e a n t / be working) at home today, but they
made people angry. needed me in the office.
B W h a t ( a n g e r e d ) that the government put up 8 T h e r e ( s u p p o s e d / be) a bus strike today. But they
the price of bus tickets. all seem to be running as normal.
5 A Being able to travel around the world with my job is
great.
B W h a t ( l o v e ) able to travel round the world.

Grammar reference 181

Exercise 2 Exercise 3
Complete the sentences with your own ideas. Complete the sentences with your own ideas.
1 We were meant to go camping , but rain was forecast for the 1 I'm learning English not only ... , b u t ...
whole weekend. 2 Studying isn't just to ... , but it's also ...
2 I was supposed t o , but it was cancelled at the last 3 Not only do I ... , but I also ...
minute.
3 I'm supposed t o , but I really can't be bothered.
4 If all goes according to plan, I should 13 LIFE-CHANGING EVENTS
5 I've never been, b u t is supposed to be a really nice
place. 13A THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS
6 is meant to be really good for you.
Form
12C NOTONLY/ NOTJUST... The past perfect simple is had + past participle.
They h a d left by the time we arrived.
\Ne can use not o n ly ... but I it's also ... and not j u s t ... but I it's I hadn't b een there before.
also ... to show that two facts about a situation are important.
Many people go abroad for medical treatments. N ot only The past perfect continuous is had been + -ing.
because it's cheaper, b u t also to have a holiday W e'd b een thinking about moving for a while.
I have private medical care. This isn 't ju s t because the waiting She hadn't been w orking there for long before she was
time is much shorter, it's also that the service is much better. promoted.
I go to the gym n o t ju s t to exercise, b u t also to catch up with Use
friends.
We use the past perfect to show that something happened
Exercise 1 before another past action or before a specific time in the past.
The more recent action is usually in the past simple.
Complete the sentences with a phrase from each box.
H e'd ha d a couple o f big rows with his boss b e fo re he d ecid ed
isn H u st about isn't just about not just to to leave.
not only to not only for They'd already finished the meeting by lunchtime.
I'd b een looking for something else for ages b efo re I fo u n d
but also to but also because but they do
this job.
it's also about it's also about Past perfect simple or continuous?
We generally use the past perfect simple for single events and to
1 Medical tourism isn't just about cosmetic treatments,
talk about how many times something happened.
it's also about treating serious health issues.
We set o ff as soon as w e'd ha d breakfast.
2 I go to w o rk earn m o n e y , I really
W e'd already m et two or three times.
enjoy it.
3 We want to move h o u s e , g e t somewhere smaller, We use the past perfect continuous to show something
move to a quieter area. happened over a period of time.
4 Exercising feeling physically f i t , m e n t a l I'd b een thinking about a change o f career for a while.
well-being. The company ha d b een losing money for years.
5 I highly recommend this cafe - the coffee,
some great pastries too. DID YOU KNOW?
There are a few verbs that we generally do not use in the continuous
DID YOU KNOW? form. These include verbs that describe states such as thoughts and
We sometimes start the sentence or clause with not only. When mental states (e.g. agree, be, believe, disagree, forget, hate, know,
we do this, the subject goes after the auxiliary verb or the main like, love, owe, prefer) and possession (e.g. have, belong, own). For
verb be. Note that we add the auxiliary verb do in present and these verbs, we usually use the past perfect simple.
past simple sentences. This is the same word order as in questions. W e'd k n o w n each other for years. NOT We'd been knowing
N ot only is it an excellent restaurant, the food Is very healthy too each other for years.
NOT Not only it is an excellent restaurant, the food is very I'd alw ays p re fe rre d working from home. NOT I'd always been
healthy too. preferring working from home.
N ot on ly did w e w ait a long time, b u t the service was Time phrases
absolutely terrible.
With the past perfect, we often use time phrases that show
NOT Not only we waited a long time, but the service was sequence (e.g. by the time, before, after, already, as soon as) and
absolutely terrible. time phrases that show duration (e.g. fora while, forages, for three
Exercise 2 hours, for days I weeks I months / years, always and never). Note
that we usually use the past perfect simple with always and never.
Correct the mistake in the sentence beginnings. Then
The meeting had finished b y the tim e I g ot there. I'd b een
match the beginnings (1-4) with the endings (a-d).
stuck in traffic fo r o v e r an hour.
1 Not only the hospital is close by,
I bought a car as so o n as I'd p a sse d my driving test.
2 Not only the hotel was pretty rundown, I'd alw ays w a n te d my own car.
3 Not only arrived they late for the meeting,
4 Not only have been several doctors dismissed, Exercise 1
Choose the correct option to complete the conversations.
a the hospital has been heavily fined too.
1 A: So what made you decide to become a zoologist?
b but they were totally unprepared.
B: I'd always been I I'd always been being interested in
c it's also got an excellent reputation. science and I'd always wanted I I'd always been wanting to
d the food was awful too. work with animals, so it just seemed like a sensible choice.

182
2 A: How did you end up in this job? Common mistakes
B: I'd looked I I'd been looking for something for ages, and • She's such a slob. She is never doing never d o es any exercise.
I'd had I I'd been having a few interviews, but nothing • He is never listening never listens It's so annoying.
came of any of them, so in the end I took the first thing I
Don't use the present continuous to emphasize things that do
got offered. To be honest I'd never really considered I I'd
not happen. Use the present simple.
never really been considering this type of work, but I'm
quite enjoying it. • I wish she would live lived nearer.
3 A: Why did you move out? • I wish he would be w as happy
B: Well, my brother and I hadn't g o t / hadn't been getting on Don't use wish + would to talk about states, character or
for quite a few months, so in the end I decided it was time appearance. Use the past simple.
to move out and get a place of my own.
4 A: How did you two get together? • I wish I would work w o rk e d less.
B: Well, we were at uni together. I'd asked I I'd been asking • I wish I wotrld-have ha d more money.
her out three or four times before, but she'd always said I Don't use would after wish if the subject is the same. Use the
she'd always been saying no, so you can imagine my past simple.
surprise when she finally said yes!
Exercise 2
Exercise 2 Find six sentences which have mistakes. Then rewrite
Complete the sentences with the past perfect or past them correctly.
simple form of the verbs. Where both the past perfect 1 I wish he would tidy up sometimes. Constantly he's leaving
continuous and past perfect simple are possible, use the his stuff all over the place.
continuous form.
2 She's so stubborn. She's never admitting she's wrong! It's so
1 W e ( p l a n ) for it for ages, but it still annoying.
(come) as a bit of a shock. Once the kid s finally 3 He's so manipulative. He's trying always to make me feel guilty.
(leave) home, the h o u s e ( s e e m ) so
4 I wish he would be more assertive and that he'd defend
quiet and empty. It'll take some getting used to!
himself a bit more.
2 H e ( d o ) the lottery for years a n d never
5 She's so cheerful. She's always smiling and laughing. I wish I
(win) anything at all, so you can imagine how
would be a bit more like her.
much of a shock i t ( b e ) when h e ( f i n d
6 They're constantly talking and disrupting the class. I wish they
out) h e ( w i n ) £100,000.
just shut up for once.
3 W e ( d r i v e ) from Batumi to Tbilisi and we
7 I wish they wouldn't argue so much. They're constantly
(be) on the road for a few hours when my
shouting at each other.
husband s u d d e n l y ( r e m e m b e r ) he
(leave) the door unlocked! We had to turn round and go all 8 My sister always borrowing my clothes. I wish she'd just ask
the way back again! for once.
4 It was quite odd, really, because s h e ( t e l l )
everyone for ages how much she was looking forward to
retiring, but then after she f i n a l l y ( r e t i r e ) it was 14 BANKS AND MONEY
like she j u s t ( n o t know) how to fill her days and
s h e ( b e ) really bored. 14A PASSIVES
13B BEyLWAYSyCONSTAyny-ING. WISHJM WOULD Form
We form passives using different forms of the verb be + past
Be alw ays / co n stan tly + -ing participle.
\Ne generally use the present simple to talk about habits. M y wages are usually p aid into my account on the 22nd.
He b o rro w s my clothes all the time. (present simple)
A new security system is being installed at the moment.
However, to express annoyance or irritation about a habit or (present continuous)
repeated activity, we can use the present continuous with
Your new card w as se n t o u t to you last Monday, (past simple)
always I constantly
They said cash withdrawals w e re being m ade in Morocco.
He's alw ays b o rro w in g my clothes. It's so annoying.
(past continuous)
They're so aggressive. They're constantly g ettin g into fights.
The chegue has b een cleared, but you will be ch a rg ed for
Wish + w o u ld this, (present perfect simple / will)
\Ne use I wish + would(n't) + verb to show we want people to I suddenly realized I'd b een tricked, (past perfect simple)
stop or start doing something or to behave differently. They said the decision m ight be d ela yed but that it sh o u ld be
I w ish the kids w o u ld help out more. finalized by the end o f the month, (modal verbs)
I w ish he w o u ld n 't sh o u t so much. Use
Exercise 1 We use passives to say what happens to someone or something
(rather than what someone or something does). The most
Write full sentences using the ideas below.
common reason for using a passive is when we do not say who or
1 He / constantly / interrupt her / when / she / talk what does the action. This is usually because the person or thing
2 I wish / she / play her music so loud / while / I / try / study is obvious (e.g. millions o f emails are sent every day), unknown
3 My brother / always / borrow / my bike without asking (e.g. my bank account has been hacked) or unimportant (e.g. the
4 My boss / constantly / give / me extra work to do first online banking service was launched in 1997).
5 I wish / he / speak to me in that way / all the time
Sometimes, however, we use the passive and we also want to
6 They / always / joke / and / mess around say who or what performed the action. We add this information
7 I wish / my kids / help / around the house a bit more using by.
8 My neighbours / always / shout / at each other

Grammar reference 183

I w as o ffe re d yet another credit card b y m y bank last week! DID YO U KN O W ?
The dollar has b een stre n g th e n e d b y the new s. We use wish + would to say that we want something to change
Online banking w as lau nched b y m y bank in the late 1990s. or be different in the future.
I w ish the government w o u ld in v est in schools more.
Exercise 1
I w ish he w o u ld n 't w a ste his money the way he does.
Com plete the sentences w ith the correct passive form of
the verbs. Exercise 1
1 The computer's very slow this morning, I'm afraid. The system Com plete the dialogues w ith the correct form of the verbs.
(update) at the moment. 1 A: I wish w e ( t h i n k ) about it earlier.
2 I pay all my bills by standing order, so the money B: Oh well. We didn't. But we'll know for next time.
(send) automatically at the end of every month. 2 A: I wish I ( n o t have to) fill in my tax return!
3 I spoke to someone yesterday and they told me the money
B: I have an accountant to do mine. Do you want me to give
already (transfer) you her number?
4 My credit c a r d ( r e j e c t ) three times yesterday and 3 A: I wish the g o v e r n m e n t ( c u t ) taxes the other
I'd like to know why.
month.
5 We can't accept this cheque, I'm afraid. Look, it B: Yeah? I think we need to be paying more!
(not / sign) yet.
4 A: I wish I ( b o o k ) my holiday abroad months ago.
6 It's not my fault! Up until last week, all my correspondence
B: Me too. It's all so expensive now, especially flights.
from the b a n k ( f o r w a r d ) to the wrong address.
5 A: I wish I ( c a n play) the piano. I've wanted to be
7 According to our records, the l e t t e r ( s e n d ) to you
able to play it since I was a kid.
on the 28th of last month.
B: Well, it's never too late to learn.
8 We have all your details and y o u ( c o n t a c t ) as soon
as a d e c i s i o n ( m a k e ) . 6 A: I wish I ( c a n go) with you last night. It sounds
like you had a great time.
Exercise 2 B: Yeah, we did. And we missed you. Still, next time, yeah?
Rew rite the sentences using the passive so the m eaning is 7 A: I wish i t ( n o t rain) so much around here.
the sam e. B: Yeah, it can rain a lot, especially at this time of year.
1 They opened the bank in 1865. 8 A: I wish my n e i g h b o u r s ( s t o p ) playing that awful
The b ank_____________ music all the time. It's driving me mad.
2 Someone has stolen my wallet and passport. B: You should complain to the landlord - it's their responsibility.
My w a lle t_____________
Exercise 2
3 People send millions of spam emails every day.
Com plete the sen ten ces w ith your ow n w ish es.
Millions_____________
4 The bank told me that they would refund the money. 1 I wish I could ...
I that the money 2 I really wish I h a d n 't...
5 A group of billionaires started the charity in 2020. They 3 I wish I could've ...
predict that next year, it will have taken over a million children 4 I wish I had ...
out of poverty. 5 I wish I was ...
The charity They predict that next year, over a 6 I wish I'd ...
million_____________

14B WISH
We use wish to talk about something imaginary or hypothetical -
something we want to be different, but which is impossible. To 15A LINKING WORDS
express this hypothetical aspect, wish is followed by past forms.
We use linking words for a number of reasons.
w ish + past sim ple
To express order / sequence
We use wish + past simple to talk about a present situation.
• We usually use when, before, after and once + clause to link
I w ish I w as better with money. I'm always In debt.
two events within a sentence. Once has a similar meaning to
I sometimes w ish I ha d a car, but I can't afford one. when and after.
w ish + past perfect W hen the water is boiling, add the rice.
We use wish + past perfect to talk about the past. We often use A fte r the rice has cooked, add the spices.
it for past regrets. O nce the onions have turned brown, take them o ff the heat.
I w ish I'd in v e ste d the money instead o f spending it. Fry the vegetables w h en the oil is hot enough.
I imagine he w ish es he'd n e v e r so ld that painting. He sold it We went for a meal b efo re (we went to) the show.
for £6,000 and it's worth ten times that figure now. • We usually use when, afterwards or after that to connect two
I w ish I'd b een payin g attention. I'd know what to do If I had. ideas across separate sentences. However, they can join two
w ish + c o u ld / could have
halves of a sentence when they are used with and.
We use wish + could + verb to talk about ability and possibility Wash the chickpeas. Then / A f t e r that / A fterw a rd s, put
in the present. them in water to soak.
I w ish I cou ld help, but I've got people over for dinner. Mix the ingredients and then / a fter that / a fterw a rd s boil
them for a few minutes.
I sometimes w ish we cou ld sto p working, but we can't.
Peel the carrots and then / a fter that / a fterw a rd s cut them
We use wish + could have + past participle to talk about ability into thin slices.
and possibility in the past.
I w ish I cou ld have d o n e something, but it was impossible.
I really w ish I cou ld have gone, but I was ju st so busy

184
• Until shows that something continues up to a particular point 6 I'll get some more s n a c k s , w e don't run out. And
in time. I'll get some more non-meat ones some people
Fry the onions slowly u n til they are brown. are vegetarian.
• We use while + clause to show that things happen at the 7 He drank three coffees the meeting! Perhaps he
same time. needed i t stay awake!
He had a phone call w h ile he was having dinner and had to 8 Fry the carrots they are s o f t , add the
leave. peppers and mushrooms and fry for another two or three
W hile you're finishing the cooking, I'll get the table ready. minutes.
• We use during + noun to show that something happens 9 I don't buy these biscuits very o ften I find them so
'inside' another time or event. addictive I've had one, I have to finish the whole
packet!
He had a phone call during dinner and had to leave.
I don't usually have dinner before nine during the week.
15C PATTERNS AFTER REPORTING VERBS
To express reason and purpose
• We use to + verb phrase. This is sometimes known as 'the Different reporting verbs are followed by different patterns.
infinitive of purpose'.
Reporting verb + to + verb
Wash the mushrooms to remove any dirt.
I'm going to the shop to get some milk. agree arrange claim decide intend

• We use so (that) + clause. We can use either so or so that offer pretend promise refuse threaten
with the same meaning.
He ag reed to come with me.
Marinade the meat for an hour so th a t it doesn't dry out.
She o ffe re d to help us.
Drink plenty o f water so you don't dehydrate.
• \Ne use as + clause. As has a similar meaning to because. Reporting verb + -ing
Cook it on quite a low heat, as you want to make sure the admit consider deny imagine
meat is soft and tender.
miss recommend suggest
As Jenny doesn't eat meat, we went to a vegetarian restaurant.
The company d en ied being involved.
To express contrast
She recomm ends tryin g that new restaurant.
• We use although I even though + clause to link contrasting
ideas within a sentence. Reporting verb + person + to + verb
I like to make it quite spicy, alth o u g h I know many people
advise ask encourage invite persuade
prefer It milder.
remind tell urge warn
We eat there quite a lot, even though it's quite expensive.
• We use however in a second sentence. Note the different M y parents encouraged m e to go to university.
positions however can go in.
She asked m e to give her a hand.
She's mainly vegan. H ow ever, she occasionally eats eggs.
NOT She's mainly vegan, however she occasionally eats eggs. Reporting verb + preposition + -ing
It was pretty cold. We still went for a picnic, how ever. admit to apologize for confess to insist on worry about
I think it tastes disgusting. A lot o f people, how ever, love it.
We ap o lo g ized fo r being late.
To express condition
She insisted on p ayin g for the meal.
• We use if + clause. See Unit 9 for more about //sentences
It'll burn i f you heat it too quickly. Reporting verb + person + preposition + -ing:
I f the sauce is too thick, add a little more milk.
accuse somebody of blame somebody for criticize somebody for
• Provided has a similar meaning to 'if you make sure'.
forgive somebody for
It's fairly easy to do, p ro vid ed you give yourself enough time
to prepare everything. They accused m e o f breaking the window.
Provided you can get all the ingredients, it's quick and easy She forgave him fo r fo rg e ttin g her birthday.
to make.
• We usually use in case to express that we are prepared for Reporting verb + (th a t) clause
something that might happen.
admit arrange claim confess decide deny
/'// email you the recipe later in case you forget how we did it.
imagine insist pretend promise recommend suggest
Shall we make some veggie food in case anyone doesn't eat threaten warn worry
meat?
Exercise 1 He insisted th a t it wasn't his mistake.
Com plete th e sentences w ith app ro priate linking w ords. In They're suggesting that we meet a bit earlier.
some cases, th ere is more than one possibility.
DID YOU KNOW?
1 I'll pack some snacks we get hungry.
Some reporting verbs have more than one pattern.
2 He let the milk boil o v e r , I asked him to keep an
He decided to leave early.
eye on it.
He decided th a t he w o u ld leave early.
3 They'll cook whatever you w a n t , y o u order in
He a d m itte d causing the problem.
advance.
He a d m itte d to causing the problem.
4 Do you fancy going for a coffee the meeting has
finished? He a d m itte d th a t he h ad caused the problem.
5 Cook the pasta for about ten m i n u t e s , drain
it and mix it with the sauce. A n d the pasta is
cooking, you can maybe prepare the salad.
Grammar reference 185
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences. Complete the sentences with the future continuous form
1 In the end, the waiter offered giving I to give us the starters of these verbs.
for free as we'd been waiting so long!
advertise drive stay stop work
2 I was going to have the chicken soup, but the waiter
persuaded me trying / to try the pumpkin ravioli instead. 1 I to the airport at six. Let's speak before I leave.
3 A new campaign is being launched today, urging people not 2 My boss has just given me a load of extra work. Looks like I
to waste I not wasting food. late tonight!
4 The company confessed to use I using out-of-date 3 How long you in Milan? I'll be there
ingredients in their products. on the Friday if you're still there.
5 The company promised offering I that they would offer a 4 I for lunch in about half an hour. We can talk then
full refund. if you like.
6 They insisted knowing I to know I that they knew nothing 5 We the new post in a couple of weeks or so. I
about it. think you'd be an excellent candidate.
7 My boss suggested to apply I me to apply I that I apply for
his job when he leaves. Exercise 2
8 He's considering to make I making I that he's making a Match the existing plans (1-8) with the follow-up
complaint about the service. comments (a-h).
9 The doctor recommended to cut down I cutting down I me 1 Will you be translating the website content into any other
to cut down on red meat as far as possible. languages?
10 The government has been criticized for not to do I don't do 2 Your order will be going out today by special delivery,
I not doing enough to combat food fraud. 3 They'll be launching the product in the US first,
Exercise 2 4 When will she be starting her new job?
5 Will they be taking any new staff on during the summer?
Four of the sentences contain a mistake. Correct the
incorrect sentences. 6 I'll be going past the canteen,
7 Will you be using the computer later?
1 They've agreed changing the packaging to make it clearer
about the ingredients. 8 He'll be retiring in the summer,
2 David recommended trying the new pizza place by the main a so it should be with you first thing tomorrow.
square. b Because I must remember to ring and wish her luck.
3 Harry insisted to pay for everything, which was very kind of c Because that could be one way of breaking into some
him. overseas markets.
4 They encouraged that I apply for the job. d so we won't have to put up with his moaning for much
5 Sam's offered to take us all for dinner this evening. Are you longer.
free? e Because I'll watch that film I missed last night if you're not.
6 He threatened taking the restaurant to court over the food f so I might buy one when I'm in New York next month.
poisoning he got.
g Because I'll apply if they are.
h so I'll get you a coffee, if you like.
16 BUSINESS Exercise 3
Complete the sentences with your own ideas. Use three of
16A THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS these time phrases.

Form in ten minutes at 7.30 this evening at midnight

The future continuous is will be + -ing. at 8 tomorrow morning this time tomorrow next Saturday afternoon
I'll be waiting for you In reception. this time next week
W e'll be starting the meeting in a few minutes.
How long will you be staying? I'll be having dinner at 7.30 this evening.
1 I'll b e _____________
Use 2 I'll_____________
We use the future continuous to talk about something in 3 I _____________
progress at a time in the future. We often use it for plans and
arrangements or what we expect to be happening.
16C EXPRESSING OBLIGATION AND ABILITY
W e'll be moving to the new offices in July.
I can't make Friday. I'll be attending a conference in Bolton. Replacing must with forms of have to
That's a good guestion. I'll be talking about that later on. M ust and have to have a similar meaning and they are often
interchangeable. We use them to express present obligation or
One common use of the future continuous is to talk about a strong necessity.
plan or arrangement that is connected with or fits with another
You m ust/have to show some ID to get in the building.
action or event.
We absolutely must / have to secure this contract.
I'll be talking to the area manager later, so I'll raise your
concerns with her. However, when we express obligation / necessity using a past,
I'll be popping out to the cafe in a while. Can I get you future, present / past continuous or present / past perfect form
anything? or using an -ing form or infinitive, we use have to.
Will you be seeing Max later? I promised I'd get this report to Everyone had to attend the meeting.
him today. The office is being decorated, so we're having to work from
home this week.

186
This is the third time this month I've had to talk to you about this. Exercise 1
If w e'd done more market research, we w o u ld n 't have ha d to Com plete the sen ten ces w ith the phrases in the boxes.
redesign it so soon.
having to am going to have to had to
It's a risk investors are g o in g to have to take
've had to makes them forced us to
I sold my car last month, so I've b een having to take public
transport to work since then.
1 Sorry I didn't make it at the weekend. We had a bit of an
This device allows you to share files without you having to rely
emergency at work and I go into the office.
on a computer.
2 This is the third time this week I reinstall the
Is It usual to have to w o rk at weekends in your company?
software.
Force and m ake 3 We've got a problem at work. I'm afraid I cancel
When something creates an obligation for someone to do our meeting this afternoon.
something, we use force or make. Note we use force + to + verb 4 The disappointing sales rethink our advertising
and we use make + verb (without to). strategy.
The negative feedback that we got fo rced us to lo o k at the 5 Their boss o ften work late, sometimes until
design again. eight or nine.
If w e'd done more market research, it would've m ade us think 6 get up at five every morning is the biggest
a b o u t our product a bit more. downside of the new job.

Replacing can w ith form s of be able to 'll be able to being able to to be able to

Can and be able to have a similar meaning and they are 's been able to enabled us to allows me to
sometimes interchangeable. We use them to show a present
7 She speak several languages since she was quite
ability or possibility. Note that can is more common.
young, I think.
I can't I 'm n o t able to a tten d the meeting, I'm afraid.
8 I don't know the answer right now, but I let you
Can you I A re you able to w o rk this weekend?
know in a day or two.
However, when we express ability / possibility using a future or 9 I lik e work from home. I love the flexibility it
present / past perfect form or using an -ing form or infinitive, we gives me.
use be able to. 10 I'd love work just three days a week.
We'll soon be able to g en era te our own electricity. 11 Having flexible hours spend more time with my
Over the last few years, w e've b een able to keep ahead by family.
developing new products. 12 Restructuring the department increase
Being able to sp ea k another language has made a huge productivity quite considerably.
difference to my life.
Exercise 2
I'd love to be able to cod e computer programs.
Read the first sentence in each pair. Com plete the second
DID YO U KN O W ? sentence so th at it has a sim ilar m eaning. Use betw een
three and five w ords, including the w ord in bold.
We can sometimes use both could or be able to to talk about
the past. 1 We've been able to step up production thanks to the new
The first mobile phones cou ld / w e re able to sto re only about investment. ENABLED
ten phone numbers. The new investment up production.
2 With this device, you can monitor how much electricity you're
However, we only use be able to (not could) when the meaning using. LETS
is 'managed' or 'succeeded'.
The device how much electricity you're using.
In the end, we w e re able to fulfil all our orders before
3 It's great working from home. I don't need to get up so
Christmas.
early! G ET UP
Enable, allow, let The best thing about working from home is not
When something gives you the ability or possibility to do something, so early.
we use enable, allow or let. Note that we use enable I allow + 4 We've reached the factory's capacity, so we can't expand at
somebody + to + verb and we use let somebody + verb (without to). the moment. W ON'T
The loan en a b led us to b u y more stock. Without a new f a c t o r y , e x p a n d .
Working from home allow s m e to ch o o se my own hours. 5 They only found out because he forced me to tell
The development will let the d ep a rtm en t cut costs massively. them. M ADE
They wouldn't have found out if h e them.
6 We had to abandon the project in the end. FORCED
We abandon the project in the end.

Grammar reference 187

Irregular verbs
Infinitive Past simple Past participle Infinitive Past simple Past participle
be was / were been leave left left
beat beat beaten lend lent lent
become became become let let let
begin began begun lie lay lain
bend bent bent light lit lit
bite bit bitten lose lost lost
bleed bled bled make made made
blow blew blown mean meant meant
break broke broken meet met met
bring brought brought pay paid paid
build built built prove proved proven
burn burned / burnt burned / burnt put put put
buy bought bought read (/ri:d/) read (/red/) read (/red/)
catch caught caught ride rode ridden
choose chose chosen ring rang rung
come came come rise rose risen
cost cost cost run ran run
cut cut cut say said said
deal dealt dealt see saw seen
dig dug dug sell sold sold
do did done send sent sent
draw drew drawn set set set
dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt shake shook shaken
drink drank drunk shine shone shone
drive drove driven shoot shot shot
eat ate eaten show showed shown
fall fell fallen shut shut shut
feed fed fed sing sang sung
feel felt felt sink sank sunk
fight fought fought sit sat sat
find found found sleep slept slept
fit fit / fitted fit / fitted smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt
freeze froze frozen speak spoke spoken
fly flew flown spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt
forget forgot forgotten spend spent spent
get got got spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt
give gave given spread spread spread
go went gone stand stood stood
grow grew grown steal stole stolen
hang hung hung stick stuck stuck
have had had swim swam swum
hear heard heard take took taken
hide hid hidden teach taught taught
hit hit hit tell told told
hold held held think thought thought
hurt hurt hurt throw threw thrown
keep kept kept understand understood understood
know knew known wake woke woken
lead led led wear wore worn
lean leaned / leant leaned / leant win won won
learn learned / learnt learned / learnt write wrote written

188
Vocabulary reference
1 ENTERTAINMENT 13 LIFE-CHANGING EVENTS

1A USING PAIRS OF ADJECTIVES FOR EMPHASIS 13C VALUES AND CONCEPTS

When we describe things, we often use pairs of adjectives When we talk about values (e.g. honour, courage) and when we
that have similar meanings to emphasize what we mean. talk about a concept in general or an abstract concept, we don't
We sometimes repeat the same adverb with each adjective. usually use articles (a / the).
It's very moving - ju st very, very sad. People here find death an awkward subject.
It's great, absolutely amazing Family is core to the Hindu faith.

3 THINGS YOU NEED 14 BANKS AND MONEY

3B WORD FAMILIES 14C METAPHORS CONNECTED TO MONEY

Suffixes - word endings - often indicate a particular word form. Many words and expressions, such as those connected to
For example, the suffix -er or -or often indicates a noun that money, are used metaphorically. Often this metaphorical usage is
describes what people do: a collector, a hoarder, a writer, a more common than the literal usage.
teacher. All these nouns have connected verbs: collect, hoard, The odds o f winning the UK lottery are 45 million to one. (literal)
write, teach. When you learn connected word forms, try to also A: What are the odds he'll be late? (metaphorical)
learn the collocations that go with these words.
B: Oh, he's bound to be!

6 ACCOMMODATION 5 FOOD
6C IDIOMS 15B PREFIXES
In Exercise 2, you heard these two idioms: You're taking the
In the article, the author mentions that a dish can be overcooked
mickey and I'm completely out o f pocket.
and under-seasoned. We make lots of words by using prefixes
An idiom is a group of words that means something different to like over- and under- before a root word. They modify the
the meaning of the individual words. You can sometimes work meanings of the words they are added to. For instance, an
out the meaning of an idiom from the words and the context. overcooked dish is one that has been cooked for too long, while
If you look up the idiom in a dictionary, it's usually listed under an under-seasoned dish does not have enough seasoning, e.g.
the entry for the noun. salt, and is tasteless.

You will know the word water as in drink some water, but in
one of the conversations in Exercise 4 you heard this: I've been
watering [the plants] every day.

Most words have more than one meaning. Sometimes you can
tell a word is being used in a different sense because the form of
the word is different (here, water is a verb in the present perfect
continuous). Sometimes the word has a connected meaning as
here (give water to plants), but sometimes it is less clear, and you
need to look at the words around it to work out the meaning in
this context, as in these examples in this unit.
The snow's beginning to settle (= it's something snow does)
It'll really settle your stomach. (= it's something you do to
your stomach)

If you think of words as often being part of collocations

and phrases, you will also start to notice other vocabulary
connected to them. This will boost your understanding of
how words work.

Vocabulary reference 189