WEEK-1

CE 425
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Element of Seismology
Seismology is science dealing with all aspects of earthquakes.
• Observational Seismology
✓ Microseismology – recording earthquake
✓ Cataloguing Earthquake
✓ Macroseismology – observing earthquake effects
• Engineering Seismology
✓ Estimation of seismic hazard and risk
✓ Aseismic Building
• Physical Seismology
✓ Study of the properties of earth’s interior
✓ Study of physical characteristics of seismic source
• Exploration Seismology
✓ Applied seismic method
CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Earth Constitution
Three major chemical radial division:

• Crust
• Mantle
• Core

Earth Crust (Shallowest Layer)
• The crust is the most heterogeneous layer in the
Earth
• The crust is on average 33 km thick for continents
and 10 km thick beneath oceans; however it varies
from just a few km to over 70 km globally.
• The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
mostly chemical. The crust and mantle have
different compositions.
• This boundary is referred to as the Mohorovičić
discontinuity or “Moho”.
• It was discovered in 1910 by the Croatian
seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić.

The Mantle (Middle Earth)
• Earth’s mantle exists from the bottom of the crust to a
depth of 2891 km (radius of 3480 km) – Gutenberg
discontinuity
• It is further subdivided into:
• The uppermost mantle (crust to 400 km depth)
• The transition zone (400 – 700 km depth)
• The mid-mantle (700 to ~2650 km depth)
• The lowermost mantle (~2650 – 2891 km depth)
• The uppermost mantle is composed dominantly of
olivine; lesser components include pyroxene, enstatite,
and garnet

Earth’s Core
• Owing to the great pressure inside the Earth the
Earth’s core is actually freezing as the Earth
gradually cools.
• The boundary between the liquid outer core and the

solid inner core occurs at a radius of about 1220
km – Lehman discontinuity, after Inge Lehman
from Denmark.

Mechanical Layers
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• Mesosphere

Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is the uppermost 50-100 km
of the Earth.
• There is not a strict boundary between the

lithosphere and the asthenosphere as there is
between the crust and mantle.
• It consists of both crust and upper parts of mantle.
• It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long time

periods.

Asthenosphere
• The asthenosphere exists between depths of 100-
200 km.
• It is the weakest part of the mantle.
• It is a solid over short time scales, but behaves like
a fluid over millions of years.
• The asthenosphere decouples the lithosphere
(tectonic plates) from the rest of the mantle.

Tectonic Forces
• The interior of the Earth is dynamic – it Convection in the asthenosphere enables
cools down and thus provides energy tectonic processes – PLATE TECTONICS
for convective currents in the outer core
and in the asthenosphere.
• Additional energy comes from

radioactive decay...

Tectonic Plates
• Tectonic plates are large parts of lithosphere
‘floating’ on the asthenosphere
• Convective currents move them around with
velocities of several cm/year.
• The plates interact with one another in three
basic ways:
1. They collide
2. They move away from each other
3. They slide one past another

Major Tectonic Plates
MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES EARTHQUAKE EPICENTRES
OCEAN-BOTTOM AGE VOLCANOES

Major Tectonic Plates

Interacting Plates
• Collision leads to SUBDUCTION of one
plate under another. Mountain ranges may
also be formed (Himalayas, Alps...)
• It produces strong and sometimes very deep

earthquakes (up to 700 km).
• Volcanoes also occur there.

Interacting Plates
• Plates moving away from each other produce
RIDGES between them (spreading center).
• The earthquakes are generally weaker than in
the case of subduction.
• Plates moving past each other do so along the

TRANSFORM FAULTS.
• The earthquakes may be very strong.

Why do Earthquake Occur?
MYTHS AND LEGENDS
• When one of the eight elephants that carry the Earth gets
tired (Hindu)
• When a frog that carries the world moves (Mongolia)
• When the giant on whose head we all live, sneezes or
scratches (Africa)
• When the attention of the god Kashima (who looks after the
giant catfish Namazu that supports the Earth and prevents it
to sink into the ocean) weakens and Namazu moves (Japan)
• When the god Maimas decides to count the population in
Peru his footsteps shake the Earth. Then natives run out of
their huts and yell: “I’m here, I’m here!”

Why do Earthquake Occur?
What is an Earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the sudden, rapid release of
energy.
When an earthquake occurs, the elastic energy is released and sends out vibrations that
travel throughout the Earth. These vibrations are called seismic waves. The study of
how seismic waves behave within Earth is called seismology.

Focus and Epicenter
Focus
The exact location within Earth were seismic waves are generated by sudden release of
stored elastic energy. Most often located on a pre-existing fault.
Epicenter
The point on the surface of Earth directly above the focus.
Earth’s Surface
Epicenter
Fault
Plane
Focus

Causes of Earthquake
• Earthquakes occur when energy stored in elastically strained rocks is suddenly
released.
• This release of energy causes intense ground shaking in the area near the source of
the earthquake (Focus) and sends waves of elastic energy, called seismic waves, in
all directions throughout Earth.
• Earthquakes can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, and sudden
slippage along faults.
• Earthquakes are definitely a geologic hazard for people living in earthquake regions,
but the seismic waves generated by earthquakes are invaluable for studying the
interior of the Earth.

Causes of Earthquake
How does Earthquake Originate?
• Movement in areas along the fault plane stops (fault sticks).
• Elastic energy is stored in the rock as the rock becomes deformed and bends, much
like a bent stick.
• When the elastic strain built up along the fault exceeds the elastic limit, the rock will
break or slip at its weakest point which we call the focus.
• This slippage along the fault allows the rock to “snap back” and the vibrations sends
out waves of energy in all directions called seismic waves, or earthquake waves.
• The springing back of the rock is called “elastic rebound”.

Elastic Rebound Theory
The mechanism that cause earthquakes was not understood until H. F. Reid proposed
his idea of “Elastic rebound.”
• Reid suggested that most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage along a
fault zone.
Original position of
rocks before any
strain.

• The elastic rebound theory suggests that if movement along a fault gets stuck, elastic
strain energy builds up deforming rocks on either side of the fault.
Fault
A feature across the
fault bends as the rocks
on both sides of the
fault pushes in
opposite directions and
elastic strain builds up.

• When the rocks along the fault can no longer hold the strain slippage occurs at the
weakest point along a fault (focus) which causes rock to start moving on both sides
of the fault.
• Energy is released in all directions causing an earthquake
Fault
The fault ruptures

releasing elastic
energy.
Energy Released

• When the elastic strain is released the rocks on both sides of the fault will “snap-
back” to their unstrained positions.
Fault
Elastic strain on rocks

released.

Thank You!

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CE 425

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Three major chemical radial division:

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

• The boundary between the liquid outer core and the

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

• There is not a strict boundary between the

• It consists of both crust and upper parts of mantle.

• It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long time

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

• Additional energy comes from

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

OCEAN-BOTTOM AGE VOLCANOES

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

• It produces strong and sometimes very deep

• Volcanoes also occur there.

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

• Plates moving past each other do so along the

• The earthquakes may be very strong.

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

The fault ruptures

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Elastic strain on rocks

CE 425 – EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

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