Structures

 Concrete
o Pipes in concrete
 The minimum concrete cover over a conduit and other pipes should be at least
¾”
 Conduit should always be placed in the lower half of the structural slab
 The outside diameter of the conduit should be no larger than 1/3 of the
thickness of the slab
 Pipes carrying fluids or gases must be pressure tested prior to concrete
placement
o Forming corners in concrete adds to cost
 Uniform thickness
o Precast Panel
 Two points of bearing on the wstructure
 One rigid connection
 Other allows lateral movement
 Other connections to structure include
 Tiebacks
o The deeper the beam the more efficient the beam

 Slabs
o One way cast in place
 Expose the strucctual system while maintinang a high fire resistance rating
 Minimzed construction time with reused formwork
 Bearing walls (less expensive)
 Beams and girders (most expensive but more flexible for longer spans and
greater loads)
o A cored slab instead of a solid slab allows the depth to be increased without increasing
weight in the the center of the beam where it is not needed
 Foundations
o Soils
 Bentonite
 Expansive type of clay that can push foundations and loor slabs upward
when it gets wet
 Drilled piers are used to support the building weight on bedrock or
stable soil below the bentonite
 Grade beams span continuously between the piers and transmit
building loads from the superstructure to the piers
 Voids are left below the grade beams to allow the bentonite to expand
without transmitting uplift forces
o Piles
  Timber piles have the lowest initial cost and least load bearing capacity (25-40’,
30-80 kips)
o Deep excavation for a highrise
 A deep excavation could require the use of vertical soildre beams supporting
horizontal timber breast boards or cribbing
 Vertical soilder beams must be anchored into the adjacent earth with
grouted tieback rods
 Steel sheeting would require tiebacks for support
o Needle beams
 Temporary support a structure when it’s foundation is repaired or deepened
o Raft
 Used to distribute a building load over a large area of low bearing capacity soil
o Caisons with pile caps are used to distribute a load from one column to two or more
caissons or piers
o Spread footings can have impact from uplift to swelling clay soil
 Metals
 Lateral loads=regularity
o Building can’t rest on a a base smaller than the rest of the structure
o Stiffness and shape
o Symmetry
o Avoid reentrant corners and sudden changes in shape or stiffness
o Load path must be continuous
o Lateral load resisting elements should not be interrupted
o Soft story
 Supported on columns which creates a difference in stiffness from the rest of
the building above
 Bracing the columns would improve the condition
 A column stiffness varation results when the supporting columns on the first
floor have a different heights, as may be the case on a sloped site
o
 Seismic
o Square floor plan is prime
o Ibc
 Not covered in building codes are
 Landslides
 Avanches
 Soil liquefaction
 Covered
 Ground shaking
 Horizontal movement
 Vibration effects

 Retaining walls
o Less than 4’ high
  Constructed of any suitable material such as stones, loose laid blocks, or
preservative treated wood
o High walls
 Subject to sliding and overturning forces
 Engineered to resist expected loads
 Concrete or masonry
 Built on footings
o Battered wall
 Using a material, such as stones or brick, slightly angled to support the adjacent
earth
 Not appropriate for deep excavaction wall in a nurban area where space is
limited
o
 Wind
o Corners and eaves generally receive higher wind forces
o Wind pressure on a building
 Wind speed
 High terrain
 The buildings height and shape
o Row of trees of moderate density will reduce wind 30-40% on the leeward side up to a
distance of about 5 times the tree height
 Roof
o Is subject to uplift or suction
 Rigid frames
o Moment resisting connections between beams and columns is an appropriate system to
use for resisting lateral forces, up to 30 stories
o X or chevron bracing is required after that
 Wood
o I joists
 can be used around 45’ spans
 lumber flanges and a web made of plywood or oriented strand board
 spaced like sawn lumber beams and often frame into an LVL or glulam
 designed to replace standard solid wood joists and rafters and wwould be very
efficient in terms of both cost and structure
o gluelam
 more expensive than I joists
 heavier than necessary for standard floor or roof framing
o medium density fiberboard is a panel product and is not designed for structural uses
such as beams or joists
 parallel chord wood trusses could be used but the are more efficiently used for
longer spans
o Size of lumber is limited by size of trees
 Sawn lumber joists are usually available for spans up to 20
o Lumber joists
  Nominal depth of 6in-14in
 Often span 15’ to 20’ and sometimes more
o Fire cut joists
 Ends cut at an angle such that the longer end rests on a masonry bearing wall
and the shorter end is flush with the inside face of the wall
 Required in masonry walls to prevent the masonry from being pushed up and
out if the wood member should collapse during a fire
o Split
 A separation of the wood fibers along the grain that extends through the piece
of lumber
 The value of the horizontal shear depends on the integrity of the wood along it’s
grain, any break would reduce the ability of the wood to resist horizontal shear
o Saddle hanger
 Perforated metal designed to fit over a beam, that provide support for joists
framed perpendicularly to the beam
 This type of connection hardware allows the joists to be installed with their top
edges flush with the top edges of the beams.
 It avoids the requirements that the joists be placed over the beams which would
increase the total depth required for the floor structure
o Flitch beam
 Combines wood and steel into one member with load carrying capacity far
exceeding that of wood along
 Sometimes referred to as sandwich beams
 Masonry
o Bond beam
 Accommodate reinforcing and grout to span openings in masonry walls
 Used in place of steel lintels
o Bricks
 SW-severe weather
 Northeastern united states
 NW – normal weathering
 MW – moderate weathering
 FBX
 Finish experience
o Mortar Joints
 Concave joint
 Avoid all the following problems
 Has the advantage of being easily tooled, which compresses the mortar
 Trowel struck joints
 Water can accumulate on top of the brick and seep into the joint
 Weather struck joint
 Sometimes used, but water running down the brick above the joint may
not drip off and may instead run horizontally under the brick
 Raked joints
  Not recommended because water can pool in the tiny void between
bricks, seep into the pores of the materials, and eventually damage the
masonry and mortar
o Weep holes
 Should be located at any location wehre water may accumuluate within a multi-
wythe, cavity, or veneer wall.
 The weep holes allow the water to drain or be wicked out of the wall cavity
 Water tends to accumulate at the bottom of a wall or where any penetration
through the wall and craets a shelf
 Above a window
 At a steel angle
 Both flashing and weep holes at 24 in on center minimum should be provided at
each of the locations
 Weep holes ar eformed by placing short pieced of rope or plastic units in the
mortar joint as it is being laid
 the spacer is removed after the mortar hardens
 leaving a small hole
 some masons choose to simply leave a portion of the bed joint unmorarted
 gives a water way to escape from the wall
o Reglets
 Horizontal groves cast into concrete that all allow a piece of flashing to be
slipped inside and then carried across the airpspace and through the brick for
proper drainage and moisture control
o Efflorescence
 Occurs when salts leach out of the masonry assemply
 Produces a white powdery substance that stains the face of the brick
o Truck pointing
 Used to repair failing mortar joints
 Involves removing the deteriorated mortar to a certain depth and inserting new,
compatible mortar into the space, then stricking it with a new, water resistant
edge treatment
o Flashing
 Should always be extended at least ¾” in beyond the face of the brick and
turned down at a 45 degree angle for proper drainage.
 If flashing is terminated before the face of the brick, the moisture will seep into
the brick and mortar and can cause damage.
 The 45 degree bend provides a drip edge that leads the moisture away from the
face of the brick
Systems

 Evaporation, convection, radiation, latent heat?????????????????

 Usage
o Electric lighting typically demands half of the total energy consumed by an office
building
o Heating and cooling systems is about 30%
o 20% is used for operating equipment in the building
o Midsize buildings
 3-9% of the gross area for HVAC systems and mechanical space
o Office buildings
 6%
 Electrical
o Voltage
 Three phase power (120/208)
 Small commercial buildings
 120/240 volatage,
 Single pahse systems
 Larger buildilngs with greater demand require higher voltage, three
phase services
o Light
 Cool white fluorescent (mercury)
 Makes things a little bluish
 Makes orange grayer
 Warm white fluorescent (mercury)
 Similar to incandescent
 More efficient
 Incandescent
 Provide warm colors more warm and good color rendering for other
colors
 Short life span
 Not as efficient
 Good light to show skin tones
 High coloring rendering index (cri)
 Low color temperatures
 Daylight
 Mercury vapor
 Metal halide
 Low pressure sodium
 Produce a monochromatic yellow light that would be appropriate in a
storage warehouse where people may have to discrimate between
colors
 Luminares
 Zonal cavity
 o calculates the total number of luminaires required to achieve
the desired average illumination on the work surface
o which is assumed to be 30” above the floor
 foot candles vs. lumens
 footcandles
o how much light hits a surface
o what architects look for
 lumens
o amount of light leaving a fixture
 luminous flux
 Glare/reflections
 1: 1/3 brightness ratio
 Veiling reflection
o Image of a light source is reflected from a viewing surface into
the eye
o To prevent, provide a background illumination (ambient
lighting) so the light sources are not concentrated in the area of
the lamp
 Office building with computers
o Veiling reflection for office tasks
o Reflected glare would be critical in using the monitors
o Daylight is best used to reduce electrical costs
o As voltage increases, current may be decreased and the system will still provide the
same amount of power
 Lower currents require smaller conductors
 Smaller conductors translate to less expense in conductors and conduit
 As well as easier installation of smaller wires
o Tranformer vault
 Should be near the exterior wall
 Ventilation
 Protection
 And ease of installation
 Plumbing
o As a slope of the drainage pipe decreases the size must increase
 Minimum slope of ¼ in/ft for pipes with a diameter of 2.5 or less
 1/8 in/ft for pipes from 3in-6in in diameter
 And 1/16” for pipes with a diameter of 8 in or larger
 With increase, cost does not change much because of trenching and backfill
o The difference in elevation between two points at the bottom, or invert, of a sewer line
is what causes the water flow
 Invert is also used to call out the bottom of drains, catch basins, and manholes
o Domestic water heating
 Solar water heating system
 lowest long term operating cost
  no fuel costs would be involved
 direct fired storage tank unit
 require purchasing of gas, oil or some other type of fuel to heat the
water
 ground source heat pump
 would not be able to supply water hot enough for domestic use
 used for heating the home, not water
 tankless instantaneous unit
 ongoing expenses due to it’s use of electricity
 not appropriate for domestic hot water generation
o Water
 Uphill water supply system
 40-60 ft tall buildings
 Factors include losses due to static head as well as pressure at the water
main which is generally anywhere between 40-80 psi
o Static head is the amound of pressure required to lift water
through a pipe system in a building .433 psi can lift water 1 ft.
for each foot of building height then .433 psi is lost.
 Hardness affects the general quality and taste of water as well as the longevitity
of the plumbing system
 Hard water deposits minerals that build up in pipes and on plumbing
fixtures
 Water softener filtration system should be installed
 Mechanical
o Heat gain
 People
 Motors
 Equipment
 Lighting
 Different types of occupancies
 Humidity and movement do not affect heat gain
o LAN
 Local area netowk
 Allows users to share data on a nonpublic netowkr
 WAN
 Wide area network
 Connects computers to a widely spaced locations to a private network
o Waterloop heat pump
 Extract heat from areas that need to be cooled
 Add heat to other areas requiring heating using very little, if any, additional
energy input
o Energy recovery ventilators
 Work best in climates where the difference between indoor and outdoor air
temperatures is high
o Heat pipes
o Recuperative fuel economizer
 Uses hot exhaust gas to prehead incoming air or water
 Would save energy by increasing the efficiency of the heating plant but would
not be as effective as the water loop heat pump
o Dual Duct systems
 It can provide heating and cooling simulataneously
 multizone system also has the capability
 Expensive
 Lots of ductwork
o Two runs to each space
 Not energy efficient
o Variable air volume
 Can’t run hot and cold at the same time
o Reheat systems
 Can’t run hot and cold at the same time
o Direct expansion
 Can’t run hot and cold at the same time
o Budgets
 Resturants hvac=40%
 Hospital 20% hvac
o Variable air volumne system
 Allow for individual control of temperature
 Quiet operation
 Minimal maintenance
o Packaged terminal units
 Permit the control of temperatures of individual spaces
 Do not operate as quietly
 Require more maintenance
o Fan coil terminals
 Permit the control of temperatures of individual spaces
 Do not operate as quietly
 Require more maintenance
 Exhausts all return air
 Fresh air quality
 Hospital
o Single Duct constant air volumn
 Units are relatively inexpensive to install and maintain
 To not offer individual control of temperatures
o Forced air systems
 Occupy the most space within the building because of the size of the mechanical
unit itself and the amount of ductwork necessary to distribute the conditioned
air
o Demand Controlled Ventillation
  Uses a carbon dioxide sensor to increase or decrease ventilation of a space
according to occupancy
 Used best for spaces wehre the occupancy of the space can vary greatly at
different times during the day or week and where there is not a high
concentration of air contaminants that need to be exhausted through a
contaminants that need to be exhausted through a continuously operating
heating ventilating, and air condition hvac system.
 Goof for long operating hours
 Varying occupancy levels
 Will increase ventilation of the space when necessary and decrease it when the
building is less full
o Vapor pressure
 Movement of moisture
o Wind pressure, stacked pressure, HVAC fans
 Influence infiltration and exfiltration rates
 Boilers and chillers
o Should be located adjacent to one another
o Same room
o At leat one exterior walls to permit access to fuel tanks and adequate ventilation
o Generally 12’ ceilings min.
o Long and narrow room
o Heavy and require additional structural support
o Locate them on the ground floor
o Noisy
o Soundproofed rooms is recommended
IBC/CODE

 Egress
o Exits
 Exit access
 Exit discharge
 Area of refuge
 exit enclosure
 exit passageway
 egress court
 public way
o 10’ between an elevator/in lobby
o Determines by occupant load
 How many exits
 How large the exit must be
 Where they must be located

 ASHRAE
o Energy cost budget
 Building that utilizes passive solar heating
 Convenience store operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
 Office building powered with photovoltaic panels
 Retail store designed as a zero net nergy structure
 Plumbing
o Double Wall hung fixtures=24” clear space
o Single = 12”
o Tank type=16” ( not wall hung)
 More than 50 occupants=at least two exits
o Number of occupants * .2
 300 occupants (.2)= 60 in.
 Therefore 2- 3’ doors
 5’ width allows two wheelchairs to pass traveling in opposite directions, and provide a 5’ turning
diameter
o Two people walking
o People passing
o Comfortable use for walkers and other mobility aids
 44”- minimum corridor width for offices
o Less than 50 may be 36” wide
o Larger occupancies= wider corridors
 Power assisted doors can be used when bathrooms need to be updated to new standards and
clearances can’t be achieved
 18 clearance on a door swing to the side
 48” between two door swings (vestibule)
  42” long grab bar in restroom, 12” off of the wall

Materials and Methods (exterior)


 Glass
o Laminated Glass
 Acoustical control
 It’s mass and damping quality of the plastic interlayer
 Decorative purposes
 Decrotive interlay in between the sheets of glass
 Safety
 Security
 Not fire proof unless used with other glazing in an insulated glass unity
 Stronge
 Two or more layers
 Plastic board inbetween
 Bullet proof glazing
 Car windsheilds
 skylights
o LOW E
 Cold climate
 Low u value
 Minimize heat loss
 Allows solar heat gain
 Visible and hear infrared radiation to be transmitted through the glass
 Prevents long wave radiation from excaping the room
o Reflective glass
 Subject the surrounding buildings, streets, and pedestrian areas to harsh
reflective light and heat during most of the day.
 o Annealed glass
 Ordinary window glass
 Floating molten glass on top of molten tin
 Cooled into a perfectly flat sheet of solid glass
 Empering and heat strengthing can change its characteristic
 Most non critical glazing
 Same as flot glass

o Tempered and heat strengthened glass
 Formed by heating annealed glass to very high termps
 Heat tempered glass
 Heated and cooled slowly
 Tempered glass
 Heated to higher temperatures then cooled quickly
 Twice as stong as heat strengthedn glass and about four times as strong
as annealed glass
 In glass doors
 Windows
 Shelving
 Safety glass
o
 Studs
o Board feet
 Piece of lumber (1” x 12” x 12” long=144in^3) x length
 Cladding
o Substrate mounted system
 Provides a lot of flexibility but requires the building to be covered with a
supporting substrate
o Curtain wall panel system
 Economical and practical ony for structures with large numbers of identical
panels
o Metallic EIFS
 Provide a similar look but requires additional construction andwould be
separate from any spandrel or vision panel installation
o Curtain wall stick system
 Utilize a prefabricated system with a variety of glass vision and spandrel panels
 The panels can be a variety of sizes
 Roof
o Single ply
 Loose laid EPDM
 Weathers extremem temperature fluctuations well
 Can resist roof pavers
 Fully adhered ethylene propylene diene monomer EPDM
 Fully adhere polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
  Mechanically attached PVC
 Ceilings
o Space ceiling diffusers approximately the same distance apart as the room is high. Side
diffusers should be half the distance from the perimeter walls
 Interstitial spaces
o Between occupied floors require the most additional height per floor and the most total
building height because they must be high enough to accommodate a person accessing
the space for maintenance duties as well as ducts and equipment servicing the occupied
spaces below
 Metals
o Short spans
 Relatively small openings 8” and 12” thick brick walls
 Used steel lintels and alnglesa placed back to back
 Three steel angles are sometimes used
 The w shape beam is often used for longer spans or thicker walls
o Bolts/welds
 Reltively inexpensive
 Easy to install
 Welded studs
 One end of the bolt is welded to one piece of steel
 Minimize the number of holes that must be bunched for bolts
 moment connections require a continuous connection between two pieces of
steel, and welding achieves that continuous connection better than the use of
bolts
 welding is more efficient than bolted condstruction because there are no angles,
bolts, or washers to deal with and no clearance problems with wrenches
o Rivets
 Not as pupular as once were
 Still fabricated on a limited basis
 Has a cylindrical shank with aa head at one end and excess metal at the other
end.
 The shank extends through the parts to be connected and the remaining metal
is compressed to form the other head
 The head end is backed up by a pneumatic jackhammer.
 A second pneumatic hannper with a head shaped die is used to form the second
head
 The overall cost of riveted construction is usually higher because of the
increased labor and equipment requirements
o Deterioration
 Galvanic action
 Dissimilar metals should be physically separated by noncoducting
materials such as neoprene
 Direct contact with water will speed up galvanic action
 Moisture in air is sufficient to cause it
  Adding a third metal will still create the possibility of galvanic action
 Increasing the thickness of the material may postpone their complete
deterioration but will not prevent
o Oil canning
 Wavy appearance on metal siding
 Not strucutural – aesthetic issue
 Can be minimized through design of p anels, attachment hardware,
supporting structure
o A texture, ribbed, or matte finish will minimize the appearance
of waviness more than a smooth glossy finish.
o Allowing space at the hardware connections for expansion and
contraction will also help to minimize the waviness
 Most things to prevent fall under the contractor
 Can be written into architect’s specifcations to ensure proper handling
of materials and installation
 Panels should always be transported vertically rather than horizontalling
 Care should be taken not to twist them
 The supporting structure should be as flat or planar as possible
 Moisture protection/thermal insulation
o EIFS
 Barrier against moisture
 Moisture prevention depends on the finish and proper construction of joints
and details
 Problems if water leaks behind the finish and insulation and becomes trapped,
damaging framing and other building components
 Some proprietary systems are available that incorporate the rain screen
principle by using a mesh or some other means of allowing pressure to equalize
outside and inside of the system
 Any water that does leak through is drained to the outside through weep holes
 Puncturing g or dentin
 Addressed by using a polymer modified system or by using a high
impact PB system with fiberglass mesh and an extra layer of base oat
o Polyisocyanurate
 Highest r vauled for a 1” thickness
 Ranges from 6.25 ft^2-hr-degrees F/Btu to 7.2
o Polysyrene
 Next highest value at 5.0
o Resistance
 Number of hours needed for 1 Btu to pass through a 1 ft^2 of a material of a
given thickness when the temp is 1 degree F.
 A higher resitance means the heat takes longer to pass through and thus the
matericr insulatioal has a greater inusaltion value
o Conductance
  Reciprocal of resitance and is the rate of heat loss meansured in Btu/hr through
1 ft^2 of a material of a given thickness when the temperature differential is 1
degree F.
o Enthalpy
 Is the total head in a substance including latent heat and sensible heat
o Permability
 Is the property of a poruous material that permits the passage of water vapor
through it
o Vapor barriers always should be located on the warm side of insulation to prevent
moisture from condensing when it cools and reaches the dew point
 Moisture penetrating the insulation can reduce the insulation effectivemeness
and damage other materials
o Earth Sheltering
 Would offer the greatest degree of protection from cold winter winds
o Green roofs are primarily used to protect against solar radiation and to reduce run off
o Landscaping can reduce the negative effects of wind but not as well as solid earth
 Doors
o Shim
o A tapered piece of wood that when used in pairs, allows the position of a door frame to
be adjusted along the door’s height until the frame is plumb
Building Systems (interior)

 Door Locks
o Unit Lock- installed with a notch cut into the leaf of the door
o Cylindrical Lock- through a hole drilled in the leaf
o Rim Lock- mounted on the face of the leaf
o Mortise lock – most secure because the mechanism is concealed within the leaf of the
door
 FIRE
o Fire Rated Ceilings
 Hold down clips
 Composition of the floor/ceiling assembly
o Wet pipe
 Always filled with water and are activated by the sprinkler heads through use of
a fusible link or other heat sensitive controls
 Immediately discharged
o Dry pipe
 Pilled with compressed air until the system is activated and then twater fills the
pipes and exits through the sprinkler heads
 Good choice for unheated buildings wehre water in the pipes could potentially
freeze and render they system useless.
 Must be connected to a pumper truck
 Used by fire department
o Preaction
 Admit water to the sprinkler pipes after the system detect a fire
 Water enters the pipes and the system sounds an alarm, allowing the fire to be
extinguished before the sprinkler heads open
 Popular where there will be a great deal of water damage to a building contents
if the sprinklers were activated
o Deluge
 Filled with water like a wet pipe system, but all of the heads discharge at the
same time
 Used where flammable materials are stored or where a fire could spread very
rapidly
 Potential for severe water damage is high
o Fusible link
 Activated by a rise in temperature indicating the presence of fire
o Annunciators
 Used by the fire department to give directions
o Smoke
 Photoelectric smoke detector
 Found in homes
 If the beam of light on the sensor is obscured by smoke the alarm
sounds
  Smoke begins when a fire reaches the smoldering stage
o Can be activated by occupants
 Fire extiguishers
 75’ from every occupant
 Wet stand pipes
 Can access hose and release the water as necessary
 Two way communication devices
 Can call for help if trouble evacuating
o Curtain board
 Draft curtain
 Assemblu suspended from the ceiling to prohibit movement of smoke and flame
 Since smoke rises and gaterhs at the ceiling the curtain board helps to block it
from entering an adjacent space
 Used to protect openings in the floor
 Depth varies
 wood
o Sawing
 Rift sawing
 boards are cut radially from the center of the lock.
 very large straight and consisten vertical grain
 this type of cut is typicall only used for sawing oak.
 The log must be repositioned for each cut
 Labor intensive
 Boards are not cut perpendicular to one another
 Great deal of waste inawing a quarter section of a log radialy toward the
center point of the tree
 Shifted slightly for each cut
 Grain is perpendicular to the face of the board
 Straight grain pattern
 Oak
o Reduce appearance of flaking
 Most expensive sawing technique
 Eah cut for a board is made by sawing a quarter section of a log
 Quarter sawing
 Involves dividing a log into quarters and then cutting boards
perpendicular to the grain
 It produces boards with straight grain running parallel to the length of
the board
 The grain is not as straight with quartersawing as in rift
 Similar to rift, except quartered log is held in stationary position as the
cuts are made wtoward the center point of the tree
 Yield are higher than those for rift
o Boards amade by cutting away from the center will have grains
at a slight angle to the face of the board
  Plain sawing/flat sawing
 the boards are cut in straight lines across the grain of the log
 the grain tends to be more uneven than quartersawn or rift saw
 it is this technique that produces the “curvy” grain often seen on
framing members
 boards cut from the periphery of the log tend to cup or warp a little
more than quarter or rift sawn boards because of the curve of the grain
 cutws an entire log in one direction
 most efficient
 boards cut near the tree edges will have a less uniform grain pattern
 cathedral pattern
o rotary slicing
 used only for veneer
 most varied grain pattern
 half rounded
 moderate amount of pattern
o scribe
 separate piece of trim that is cut sanded or otherwise shaped on the jobsite to
exactly match the irregularities of an adjacent material
 Elevators
o Hydraulic
 Lifted by a ram
 Ram is sunk into the ground the same distance as the height of the elevator’s
path of travel
 Low rise buildings(less than 6 stories)
 Travel much more slowly than electric elevators
 Used for freight or for low occupancy passenger elevators where speed is not an
issue
o Gearless traction
 High speeds
 Accommodate the rush of people entering and exiting an office building
 Quick cycles
o Geared traction
 Travel at slower speeds
 Offer options for adjusting the speed to suit the building conditions
o Electric
 Geared and gearless are electric
o Capacity vs. speed/height
o Elevator machine rooms should be placed above the hoistway
 Must be at least as wide as the elevator shaft and generally need to be more
than 12’ deeper than the hoistway
o Operating systems
 Selective collective operations
  Collects calls and answers the upcalls on the up trip, travels to the floor
level with the highest call, then collects and answers the down calls on
the return trip to the floor level with the lowest calls.
 Works best with more than one car
 Computerized controls
 Sophisticated
 Expensive
 Programmed based on data about building traffic patterns and analysis
 Single automatic push button dontrol
 Answers one call at a time
 Collective controls
 Answers all calls without differentiating between up and down calls so
waiting time and time spent on the elevator can be unacceptably long
 Rarely used in US
 Finished
o Cork
 Resilient material
 Similar to rubber tile
o Asphalt tile
 Seldom used
 Lowest resilience
o Linoleum and vinyl tile
 Low moderate resilience
o Urethane
 High performance coating and has superior resistance to abrasion, grease,
alcohol, water and fues
 Resists the adhesion of graffiti to surfaces and allows for relatively easy removal
of graffiti
o Wood floors
 Moisture is biggest problem
 Expansion at perimeter
 Installed on a slab on grade
 Placed on treated wood sleepers that are set in a layer of mastic
 Sleepers are generally 2x4s laid flat at 16in on center
 A layer of polyethylene vapor barrier should be placed over the sleepers
but under the finish flooring material
o Portland Cement
 Best durability and water resistance for high use wet areas
o Tactile finish
 Rough surface
 Applied to hardware on doors leading to building areas that would be
dangerous for a person with impaired vision
 Ex. Boiler room

Water Proofing

 waterproofing membranes
o easily punctured and require a protective covering when the foundation is backfilled
 usually building felt saturated with bituminous material
 sheet plastics
 thin sheets of bentonite clay
o required to control moisture that is affected by hydrostatic pressure
o more costly and difficult to apply
o hydrostatic pressure against the wall can be lessened
 providing geotextile matting (filter fabric)
 and foundation drain set in gravel at the footing
o waterproofing is the control of water and moisture that is subject to hydrostatic
pressure.
 Can refer to the application of watertight membranes, waterstops, or bentonite
panels when the building is below the water table
 Dampproofing
o Controls moisture that is not under hydrostatic pressure
o Membranes not required
o Control of water and moisture when hydrostatic pressure is not present
 Surcharging
o Preloading of the ground with fill material to cause consolidation and settlement of the
underlying soil
o Is used to increase the bearing capacity
o Decrease possible settlement
 Waterstop
o Preformed piece of material used to seal construction joints
o
Sound

 Reducing sound transmission

o Extending partitions from deck to deck and provide acoustical seals at the top and
bottom of the walls
o Building walls with staggered studs and mount the gypsum board on resilient channels
o Provide unfaced batt insulation in the partititions between the office and the corridor
 Increase absorption
o Specify absorpitive finish materials such as carpeting, draperies, and acoustical tile
 Acoustics
o Acoustically live
 Cathedral featuring an antique german pip organ
 Opera house
o Not acousitically live
 Talk radio recording studio
 Community playhouse often used for poetry recitation
 University leture hall
 Movie theatre
 Absorbtion
o An absorbtion doefficient in a fraction number cannot exceed 1, should be
between .2-.5
o Doubling the absorptive surfaces in a room results in a noise reduction of only 3 db,
which is barely perceptible. 5 db is clearly noticeable
o Absorptive treatments to the ceilings wil have a more efficient impact than similar
treatments to the wall.
 dB
o Increase 6dB for every doubling distance
 65 dB at 3 ft, 59dB at 6ft, and 53 dB at 12ft
Sustainability

 Rapidly renewable building material

o From plants that can be grown and harvested relatively quickly (within 10 years)
 Wheat board cabinetry
 Linoleum (made from jute, linseed oil and other natural ans sustainable
materials)
 Bamboo paneling
 Reuse building
o To keep costs down reuse..
 Structure
 Masonry walls
o To change
 Windows
 Non structural roofing materials (membrane, roofing, shingles)
 Passive solar
o Trombe Wall
o Sunspace
o Roof panel
o Direct gain
 Heat from the sun passing through the window is absorbed by the mass of the
concrete and distributed throughout the space
 Potable water
o Disinfect
 Chlorination
 Kills bacteria and viruses that may be in the water
 Ozonation and exposure to ultraviolet light
 Not as common as chlorination
o Zelite
 Soften water that has high mineral content
 Chemical/poison
o Radon
 detection and remediation can be done by any one from homeowners to
specialty contractors
o PV
 Removed by anyone
o Asbestos, lead, PCBs and vermiceulite
 Must be handled by a certified contractor
 Life cycle assessment
o Environmental impact or a particular material over its entire useful life including
disposal
o Compare two or more materials

HISTORY

 Pantheon
o Cooled through stack ventilation
 cool air is drawin into the building through the portico and travels through the
drum to cool the interior space before being vented trhough the oculus at the
top of the dome. Wind blowing over top creates negative pressure.
 Baroque
o Grand boulevards
o Symmetrical layout with visual connection with the plaza on a strong zix
o Diagonal avenues
SITE

 Net assignable area

o Specific functions
 Gross
o Circulation
o Toilet rooms
o Mechanical rooms
o Space for walls
 Stand off distance
o Distance between a building and the potential location of a blast threat
o For blast protection, this distances hould be maximized because blast energy decreases
exponentially with increased distance between the source of the blast and the building
 Security
o Natural surveilliance
 Make sure the lobby activity is visible from the street
o Photoelectric cells
 Perimeter security
 Doors, windows
 Pass a beam from one point to another and sound an alarm when the
beam is broken
o Pressure sensors
 Detect changes in pressure on the floor caused by a person walking
o Ultrasonic detectors
 Use high frequency sound wave to sense intruders
o Photoelectric beams
 Alarm sound when beam is broken
o Defensible space
 Oscar newman
 1970
 Pruitt igoe in st. lous, disaster in terms of vandalism
 Designing a space that allows residents a sense of ownership and concrol leads
to an envrionemtn that people care about and will work to maintaian and
protect
 Large public spaces are more likely to be vandalized
 When resident have the ability to oversee the stree, their feelings of association
with the neighborhood and thus neighbors looking out for one another are
further increased
o Cpted
 National crime prevention instituted
 Defensible space ideas
 Relies on inhabitants to plicie their own surroundisngs
  Design an environment that encourages them to do so by clearly defining public
and private spaces by making streets and, parking areas, and building entrances
more visible to those who live in the area
 Influencing behavior in positive ways through a neighborhood design
 Regulationg behavior such as a placing activities in particular locations is outside
it’s scope as in suggesting materials such as hardware
 Stairways and elevators should be located within view of other areas
 Using low plantings or post and rail fences helps to define private areas and
gives a sense of territorial reinforcement
 Locating entry entry doors and common areas within view of the stree or other
neighbords provides natural surveillance
 Short walks also make natural surveillance possilbe
O Electronic security system
 Video surveillance monitored by a central station is best
 Audio alarms are not appropriate to protect the exterior of a building because
of possible false alarms
 Motion sensors can be caused by animals or air turbulence
 Thermal detectors are only useful in relatively small rooms
 Local zoning
o Limit FAR and setbacks
o Set backs
 Affect buildings
 Accessory buildings
 And their various components
 Included
 Bay windows
 Roof overhangs
 Decks

o Bulidings to sites
o Types of structures
o “zones”
o How much building is permitted on a lot
o Allowable uses
o Parking requirements
o Special requirements of historic districts or areas subject to a disgin
o Site planning issues
o Minimum parking requirements
o Max area of exterior signage to control the overall amount of signage given
 Building code
o Limit building area based on construction type and occupancy group
 Frontage
 sprinkled
o Methods and materials of construction permitted within sites
 o Max occupancy
o Fire rated assemplies
o Types of materials
 Cost
o Life cycle analysis
 Sunk costs
 are expenses that have been incurred on a sproject prior to the baseline
date and cannot be recovered
 Disregarded when alalyzing life cycle costs because it is impossible to
make decisions about the best way to spend money
 New urbanism
o Town planning
o Adovcates more diverse housing opporutnities
o Less dependence on cars
o Reaction to suburban sprawl
 Congested roadeways
 Developedment of cookie cutter houses and
 Waseful use of land and resources
o Smart growth
o Mass transit
o Mixed use zoning with multi family housing, single family housing, and commercial uses
proximity to one another
o Blend of single family homes and aparmtnets in the same neighborhood
o More independent for those that can’t drive
o Narrow streets and frequent 90 degree intersections
o On street or small lot parking rather than vast parking lots
o Streets that are safe and interesting to pedestrians which encourage walking and enable
neighbors to know each other and protect their communities
 Climate
o Hot/arid
 Thermal mass maximized
 Openings should be minimized to reduce heat infiltration
 All windows should be shaded
 Compact form
o Cool to cold
 South facing windows
 Passive solar heat gains
 A compact form
 Mimiized the surface area to reduce heat loss during the winter
 Dark colors
 Absorb solar radiation than light colors
 Deciduous, not evergreen on the south side to let sun in the winter in
o Hot humid
  Natural ventilation
 High ceilings

o Heat island effect
 materials and paving to increase the temperature of their immediate
environment
 High albedo will reflect more of the sun’s heat, thereby reducing the heat island
effect
 Low conductivity will not have much of an effect on the site’s temperature
o Albedo
 Measure of how much of the radiant energy that a surface receives is reflected
rather than absorbed
 Fraction from zero to one
 A surface that reflects ¾ of the energy is receives has an albedo of .75 and
absorbs ¼
 Dark wood
 Low albedo and low conductivity such as dark wood is most comforatlbe
to moderate the microclimeate
 Brick, concrete and stone
 Higher albedors and make the surrounding area hotter in the summer
 High conductivity also makes them feel hot to touch
 Planting grass around pavers will improve the albedo or a brick deck slightly
o Wind
 Categories
 Sever wind exposure is category D
o Flat unobstructed terrain near large bodies of water
 Category b
o Urban and suburban wooded areas and terrain with
obstructions
 Category c
o Open terrain, such as in a desert area
 Wetlands
o Local and state governmental rles
o Us army corps of engineers regulations
o Established at the federal level
o LEED= preserving portions of the site that are within 100ft of any wetland as defined by
the us code of federal regulations or any isolated wetlands identified by sate or local
rule or within setback distances from weltlands prescribed in state or local jurisdictions
 Urban setting
o Regional destinations would benefit from being close to a highway
o Rear yard building is most appropriate for retail store
 Front is placed on lot line
 Rear is used for parking, service or other functions
 Exposes a maximum amound of storefront to the street
 o Courtyard
 Occupies all edges
 Security or privacy is needed for outdoor space
o Perimeter yard
 Monument
 Residential
o Side yard
 Semiprivate yard
 Orientation for solar access
 Roads
o Crown/high point in center for positive drainage
o Local streets
 Give direct access to bilding sites, often curvilinear
o Collector
 Connect local and arterial streets
o Arterial
o Interstates
o When a roads instersects another the minimum angle is 80degrees
 Water run off
o Retention pond
 Holding pond
 Catch basin
 Prevents excessive storm water runoff on a site from overloading the storm
sewer system by temporarily holding the water and releasing it at a controlled
rate
o Bioswale
 Construction that is designed to allow sediment to settle while water drains into
the gound
o Infiltration basin
o Retain stormwater until it can seep into the ground
o Catch basin
 Storm drainage structure that is designed to collect grit and trash while allowing
the storm water to flow out the drainage pipes
o Runoff coefficient
 Fraction of total precipitation falling on a survace that runs off the surface os is
not absorbed into the ground.
 Hard surface=more storm water would have to be diverted to a storm drainage
system or to a natural waterways
 Used to calculate the amound of runoff in cubic feet per second on a site
 Takes into account the rainfall intensity and the area of the site
 Valu ranges from almost zero for wooded areas with spongy soil, to 1.0
for totally water proof surfaces.
 Spatial positioned
o Proxemics
  Edward t. hall
o Design with a sense of territoriality
o Imagined separation
 Changes of level
 Juxtaposition of open spaces and spaces defined by stree furniture
 Landscaping
 Low walls
 Landscaped areas not instended for occupancy
 Indivudual seating
o Large numer of people when required for large events or could be used for individual
groupings of people