TEACHING

INTRODUCTION

Teaching has been identified as a process that facilitates changes in learning and entails telling
and persuading, showing and demonstration, guiding and directing the learners’ efforts or a
combination of these actions.

Callahan and Clark (1979) concur with the above definition and they argue that although it
involves the above, it should also be seen as a means of helping one to learn because of the
impartation of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values involved.

Shiundu and Omulando (1992) defined teaching as a professional human activity in which one
creatively and imaginatively uses her/himself and his/her knowledge to promote learning and
welfare of others.

Teaching has also been identified as both an art and a science. As an art it calls for inspiration,
intuition, talent and creativity. Gage (1984) describes it as an instrumental or practical art which
requires improvisation, spontaneity, the handling of most of consideration of form, style, pace
rhythm and appropriateness. Yet as a Science, it requires one to have knowledge and skills on how
to select and apply the correct formula for each classroom situation. Silberman (1966) argues that
a science, it involves repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills that can be systematically
studied and described and therefore transmitted and improved.

As an art, teaching calls for reflective thinking (i.e being thoughtful and inventive) about the
content, methodology, resources, e.t.c. It means being dynamic and ready to adopt to changes
taking place in the curriculum, in the methodology of teaching, in research and in the field of
science and technology. It involves knowing where to get new knowledge, how to get it and how
to help learners understand it. Therefore, planning, solving problems creating instructions and
making decisions become key elements in reflective teaching.

Modes of Teaching

Teaching takes the form of training and at times of indoctrination, instructing conditioning.

1. Training as an activity of teaching because it focuses on shaping behavior so that an

individual is able to perform a certain skill. Teaching on the other hand is broader because
 it is concerned with not only performance of a skill but also on transmission of knowledge.
According to Green (1971), the dependent variable between teaching and training has to
do with the degree of intelligence displayed in the behavior one is seeking to shape. Bojana
(1988) distinguishes the two terms when he argues “training assumes the concepts of
competency, performance, proficiency and efficiency, while teaching implies rationality,
understanding, learning and the like.
2. Conditioning: Training becomes conditioning when it is aimed less and less at the display
of intelligence e.g. a dog salivating at the sound of a bell. Conditioning is a scientific theory
of behavior modification and is more related to training than to teaching but nonetheless,
it has an element of teaching. Simple conditioning enters into the teaching concept in so
far as it can be shown to have a place in teaching sequence or pattern of training which is
itself not mere conditioning. But it is aimed at shaping behavior expressive of intelligence
(Green: 1971).
3. Instruction: Although teaching and instruction are in many contexts synonymous, they
are not the same thing. Instructing is essentially related to the search for truth and
understanding and it involves giving reasons, evidence, argument and justifications. As an
activity it is allied more closely with the acquisition of knowledge and belief than with the
promotion of skills.
4. Indoctrination; It is an activity in teaching which aims at establishing certain beliefs or
matters of doctrine. It aims at inculcating the “right answer” but not necessarily for the:
right reasons” or even for good reasons. It is not of primary importance whether the belief
or doctrine transmitted is adapted for good reason, is based on evidence or is a true belief.

Illustration 1: Relationship between teaching and its modes

Training
Conditioning Teaching Indoctrination
Instructing
It can further be represented in a continuum.
Illustration 2: Teaching modes

Teaching

Training Instructing

Shaping of behavior Acquisition of knowledge

& skills

Conditioning Indoctrination

Adopted from Green (1971)

Components of Teaching

The main components of teaching are

1. Stating instructional objectives: This is identifying what to be achieved in a given teaching

situation
2. Identifying the content to be taught: it refers to specifying what to be taught, its structure
and role.
3. Selecting appropriate teaching methods and techniques. This relates to how to go about it;
in relation to the nature of the learners to be instructed;
4. Identifying suitable instructional resources. It points to what materials to be used for the
objectives to be realized.
5. Actual presentation of the content/lesson using appropriate methods and resources.
6. Giving tests and measurements to find out to what extent the objectives have been attained
7. Evaluation of all that took place in the whole process of learning
8. Getting feedback on whether the objectives set had been achieved or not

Shiundu and Omulando (1992:214) divide the above into four phases of a teaching activity:

 Curriculum Planning Phase

 Instructing Phase
  Measuring Phase
 Evaluating Phase

The above components aside, there are five step patterns that make up a model for good teaching.
It includes:

1. Diagnosing learner’s entry behavior>The teacher must diagnose the learner’s needs and
desires as a basis of determining what should be taught and where to begin. The teacher
has to relate the content to the child’s world so that it makes sense and should strive not
only to encourage creative abilities of each pupil but also help to develop them emotionally
and socially.
2. Preparing for teaching>This includes planning lessons motivating pupils, gathering
materials and arranging the selling for instruction;
3. Guiding the learners in the actual instruction>This means showing pupils how to perform,
how to present their information, e.t.c
4. Evaluating the learning outcome.>This is where the teacher assesses the pupils; progress
and the success of the instruction and
5. Follow-up> helping pupils to fill in what they have missed and to build on what they have
learned.

Principles of Teaching

These are beliefs or ideas which teachers should use as guides when planning their own teaching.
They are as follows

1. Respect for each child. This is where the teacher’s procedure of teaching should recognize
the rights of children as human beings with respect and dignity. Each child should therefore
be respected and treated as an individual whose personal development and fulfillment is an
end in itself
2. Concern for learners’ experience and activity. Learners experience refers to one’s active
interaction with his/her world and the understanding that results from that interaction. The
activity refers to physical activity or handling and exploring things and the mental activity
of thinking that is of searching for connections between old experience and new experience
that will make sense to the child and that will satisfy his/her need to understand and to
control his/her world
 3. Helping the learner to see purpose, value and point of what s/he is doing. For children
meaning emerges from purposeful action, so whatever content is taught or activities are
planned, they should be undertaken for real reasons that make sense to the child. The
teacher therefore has to arrange situations that have interest and meaning for the child and
that demand exploration and understanding because meaning is only constructed by the
learner through experience
4. Helping and encouraging children to explore to think and to learn in their own way. The
teacher has to recognize the differences in children and plan the teaching based on these
differences
5. Assisting and encouraging learners to share their experiences; thinking and learning. The
learners are seen as social in nature and can only develop when they have plenty of social
experiences. They should therefore be given opportunities to work with others in their own
way
6. Realizing that teaching should proceed in an educationally logical order. Learning makes
meaning when teaching is done in sequential steps starting from simple to complex, each
step building on the …before it. This leads to further development of skill or understanding
or attitude.
7. Evaluating learning from time to time in order to take stock of progress and of difficulties
and to look again and again at objectives and procedures used.

These principles are from constructive perspective of teaching where teaching is not viewed as
telling or transmitting fixed truths to students but rather as providing students with relevant
experiences and subsequent opportunities for dialogue so meaning can be evolved and be
constructed. (Arends 1994; 4)

Characteristics of Effective Teaching

Although effective teaching must be based on the academic ability of it teacher, the command of
the subject matter and the ability to assess the leaners ‘academic achievements and social learning,
there are other high attributes required.They include:

1. Being knowledgeable on theory and practice of teaching and learning and using this
information to practice.
 2. Commanding a repertoire of best teaching models, strategies and procedures and using
them for classroom instruction and interacting with other adult members of the school.
3. Having disposition and skills to approach all aspects of your work in reflective, collegial
and problem –solving manner
4. Viewing learning and teaching as a lifelong process and having disposition and skills for
working toward improving your own teaching well as improving schools

Reflective Teaching

Although teaching entails the foregoing, its account would be incomplete if the reader is not made
aware of the new emphasis in teaching. According to Bennaars (1998; 30), education practice in
Africa lacks reflection. Presently most teachers in African schools operate as mere instructors,
rigidly sure of their facts, unwilling To tolerate critical questions, and
highly authoritarian in their behavior.

He continues to lament that these teachers have eschewed a liberating or enabling pedagogy for
the sake of high performance in the examination.

Reflective Teaching as a notion stems from Dewey’s notion of reflective action as opposed to
routine action. The latter is guided by factors such as tradition, habit, and authority, and by
institutional definitions and expectations. The former involves a willingness to engage in constant
self-appraisal and development, implying flexibility, rigorous analysis and social awareness. This
notion when applied to teaching call for a new approach: reflective teaching. This is a vision of
teaching that is both liberating and empowering (Banners: 1998).

Pollard (1997) defines it as a process through which the capacity to make a professional judgement
in deciding how to act can be developed and maintained.

Berens (1997) sees reflective teaching as encompassing a situation where teachers encourage
interactive learning so that they are able to think reflectively and teaching. It operates at the
technical, practical and critical levels of reflectivity (Gore: 1993:149)

Pollard (1997) gives six characteristics of reflective teaching which are essential to any educational
practice;
Reflective teaching implies an active concern with the immediate aims and the consequences of
the classroom practice as well as means and technical efficiency. This refers to one being critical
of aims and objectives of education in one’s country. Are they professionally practicable or
impracticable, educationally sound or mentally questionable? The teacher’s professional
experience, knowledge and judgements should be brought to bear on policy-makers directly. This
would in turn contribute to political process of the teacher’s role as both a citizen and a
professional.

1. Reflective teaching is applied in a cyclical or spiraling process in which teachers monitor,

evaluate and revise their own practice continuously. Teaching is dynamic and it calls for
planning, marking, provision and acting. Data have to be monitored, observed and
collected on the learners regarding their intentions, actions and feelings. This may lead the
teacher to revise his or her classrooms policies, plans and provisions before starting to teach
again.
2. Reflective teaching requires competence in methods of classroom enquiry, to support the
development of teaching competence. This is required in gathering (empirical)analyzing
and evaluating information. Empirical competences relate to knowing what is going on in
a classroom or schools, collecting data, describing situation, processes, causes and effects
with care and accuracy. Analytical competency is necessary when interpreting descriptive
data and placing data in a framework which enables a reflective teacher to relate them one
with the other and to begin to theorize them about them. Evaluative competency is needed
for making judgement about the educational consequences of the practical enquiry and its
application to future policy and practice.
3. Reflective teaching requires an attitude of open mindedness, intellectual responsibility and
whole heartedness One has to be open-minded about other people’s view especially
students,accept responsibilities concerning any decision and action considered,and be
dedicated ,single-minded, energetic and enthusiastic in all undertakings.
4. Reflective teaching is based on teaching judgement, which is influenced partly by self –
reflection and partly by insights from educational disciplines. The teachers have to use their
judgement all the time as they adapt their teaching to the ever changing learning challenges
which their circumstances and pupils present to them.
 5. Reflective teaching or professional learning and personal fulfillment are enhanced through
collaboration and dialogues with colleague’s. Thus; it calls for interaction among teachers
both in the academic and social set-up.

This calls for certain roles of the teacher. These roles according to Woodfolk (1990) include among
others:

1. An instructional expert: The teacher has to know and identify teaching materials and
methods to use in classes, based on abilities, needs of the students and the overall aims
and objective of education and specific subjects.
2. Motivator: The teacher has to apply techniques of motivation to get leaners actively
involved in learning.
3. Manager: One has to know how to manage time and his or her activities accordingly.
The knowledge of classroom management where both the learners and physical
environment has to be controlled and maintained is important.
4. Leader: The teacher not only leads the class but also cultivates leadership qualities in
class members leading t promotion of individual growth.
5. Counsellor: The teachers respond to student’s personal needs and offers counselling
services accordingly.
6. Model: The leaners like imitating the adults, so the teacher is always modeling, either
intentionally or unintentionally. Modelling consists of displaying of desirable values,
attitudes, as well as intellectual processes.
7. Reflective professional: This includes one understanding effects of actions in
classroom as they affect leaners and acting on these reflections. It also means seeking
out and offering collaborative support to individuals, schools and the community. It
also calls for ones up-dating his/her knowledge and understanding through regular
reading.
8. Communicator: One has to be an effective communicator of content and exhibit
through mastery of content and speak fluently and at reasonable pace.
9. Humane: This calls for treating leaners as human beings with respect, rights and
dignity.
 10. Curriculum developer and implementer: The teacher is responsible for most of the
curriculum activities right from planning up to evaluation, therefore playing the role of
a developer and implementer.

Arends (1994) conceptualizes the teacher’s work under three main functions;

1. Executive Function: This refers to the leadership roles teachers are expected to
play in their classroom such as providing motivation, planning, and allocating
scarce resources.
2. Interactive Function: It refers to methods and processes teachers employ as they
provide day-by-day instruction to students.
3. Organizational Function: It points to the teachers work in the school, community
including work with colleagues, parents and school leadership personnel.