CHAPTER ONE

TEACHING

Introduction

Teaching has been identified as a process that facilitates changes I learning and entails telling
and persuading, showing and demonstration, guiding and directing the learners’ efforts or a
combination of these actions. (Leframe…1991). Callahan and Clark (1979) concur with the
above definition, they argue that although it involves the above, it should also be seen as a means
of helping one to learn because of the impartation of knowledge skills, attitudes and values
involved. Shindu and Omulando (1992) defined teaching as a professional human activity in
which one creatively and imaginatively uses her/himself and his/her knowledge to promote
learning and welfare of others.

Teaching has also been identified as both an art and a science. As an art it calls for inspiration,
intuition, talent and creativity. Gage (1984) describes it as an instrumental or practical art which
requires improvisation, spontaneity, the handling of most of consideration of form, style, pace
rhythm and appropriateness. Yet as a science, it requires one to have knowledge and skills on
how to select and apply the correct formula for each classroom situation. Silberman (1966)
argues that a science, it involves repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills that can be
systematically studied and described and therefore transmitted and improved.

As an art, teaching calls for reflective thinking (i.e being thoughtful and inventive) about the
content, methodology, resources, e.t.c. It means being dynamic and ready to adopt to changes
taking place in the curriculum, in the methodology of teaching, in research and in the field of
science and technology. It involves knowing where to get new knowledge, how to get it and how
to help learners understand it. Therefore, planning, solving problems creating instructions and
making decisions become key elements in reflective teaching.

Modes of teaching

Teaching takes the form of training and at times of indoctrination, instructing conditioning.

1. Training as an activity of teaching because it focuses on shaping behavior so that an

individual is able to perform a certain skill. Teaching on the other hand is broader
because it is concerned with not only performance of a skill but also on transmission of
knowledge. According to Green (1971), the dependent variable between teaching and
training has to do with the degree of intelligence displayed in the behavior one is seeking
to shape. Bojana (1988) distinguishes the two terms when he argues “training assumes
the concepts of competency, performance, proficiency and efficiency, while teaching
implies rationality, understanding, learning and the like.

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 2. Conditioning: Training becomes conditioning when it is aimed less and less at the display
of intelligence e.g. a dog salivating at the sound of a bell. Conditioning is a scientific
theory of behavior modification and is more related to training than to teaching but
nonetheless, it has an element of teaching. Simple conditioning enters into the teaching
concept in so far as it can be shown to have a place in teaching sequence or pattern of
training which is itself not mere conditioning. But it is aimed at shaping behavior
expressive of intelligence (Green: 1971).
3. Instruction: Although teaching and instruction are in many contexts synonymous, they
are not the same thing. Instructing is essentially related to the search for truth and
understanding and it involves giving reasons, evidence, argument and justifications. As
an activity it is allied more closely with the acquisition of knowledge and belief than with
the promotion of skills.
4. Indoctrination; It is an activity in teaching which aims at establishing certain beliefs or
matters of doctrine. It aims at inculcating the “right answer” but not necessarily for the:
right reasons” or even for good reasons. It is not of primary importance whether the belief
or doctrine transmitted is adapted for good reason, is based on evidence or is a true belief.

Illustration 1: Relationship between teaching and its modes

Training
Conditioning Teaching Indoctrination
Instructing
It can further be represented in a continuum.

Illustration 2: Teaching modes

Teaching

Training Instructing

Shaping of behavior Acquisition of knowledge

& skills

Conditioning Indoctrination

Adopted from Green (1971)

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Components of Teaching

The main components of teaching are

1. Stating instructional objectives: This is identifying what to be achieved in a given

teaching situation
2. Identifying the content to be taught: it refers to specifying what to be taught, its structure
and role.
3. Selecting appropriate teaching methods and techniques. This relates to how to go about it;
in relation to the nature of the learners to be instructed;
4. Identifying suitable instructional resources. It points to what materials to be used for the
objectives to be realized.
5. Actual presentation of the content/lesson using appropriate methods and resources.
6. Giving tests and measurements to find out to what extent the objectives have been
attained
7. Evaluation of all that took place in the whole process of learning : and
8. Getting feedback on whether the objectives set had been achieved or not

Shiundu and Omulando (1992:214) divide the above into four phases of a teaching activity; a
curriculum planning phase an instructing phase, a measuring phase and an evaluating phase.

The above components aside, there are five step patterns that make up a model for good
teaching. It includes”

1. Diagnosing learners entry behavior: The teacher must diagnose the ……….., needs and
desires as a basis of determining what should be taught and where to begin. The teacher
has to relate the content to the child’s world so that it makes sense and should strive not
only to encourage creative abilities of each pupil but also help to develop them
emotionally and socially.
2. Preparing for teaching. This includes planning lessons motivating pupils, gathering
materials and arranging the selling for instruction;
3. Guiding the learners in the actual instruction. This means showing pupils how to perform,
how to present their information, e.t.c
4. Evaluating the learning outcome. This is where the teacher assesses the pupils; progress
and the success of the instruction and
5. Follow-up; helping pupils to fill in what they have missed and to build on what they have
learned.

Principles of teaching

These are beliefs or ideas which teachers should use as guides when planning their own teaching
(Taylor; 1970). They are as follows

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 1. Respect for each child. This is where the teacher’s procedure of teaching should
recognize the rights of children as human beings with respect and dignity. Each child
should therefore be respected and treated as an individual whose personal development
and fulfillment is an end in itself
2. Concern for learners’ experience and activity. Learners experience refers to one’s active
interaction with his/her world and the understanding that results from that interaction.
The activity refers to physical activity or handling and exploring things and the mental
activity of thinking that is of searching for connections between old experience and new
experience that will make sense to the child and that will satisfy his/her need to
understand and to control his/her world
3. Helping the learner to see purpose, value and point of what s/he is doing. For children
meaning emerges from purposeful action, so whatever content is taught or activities are
planned, they should be undertaken for real reasons that make sense to the child. The
teacher therefore has to arrange situations that have interest and meaning for the child and
that demand exploration and understanding because meaning is only constructed by the
learner through experience
4. Helping and encouraging children to explore to think and to learn in their own way. The
teacher has to recognize the differences in children and plan the teaching based on these
differences
5. Assisting and encouraging learners to share their experiences; thinking and learning. The
learners are seen as social in nature and can only develop when they have plenty of social
experiences. They should therefore be given opportunities to work with others in their
own way
6. Realizing that teaching should proceed in an educationally logical order. Learning makes
meaning when teaching is done in sequential steps starting from simple to complex, each
step building on the …before it. This leads to further development of skill or
understanding or attitude.
7. Evaluating learning from time to time in order to take stock of progress and of difficulties
and to look again and again at objectives and procedures used.

These principles are from constructive perspective of teaching where teaching is not viewed as
telling or transmitting fixed truths to students but rather as providing students with relevant
experiences and subsequent opportunities for dialogue so meaning can be evolved and be
constructed. (Arends 1994; 4)

Characteristics of effective teaching

Although effective teaching must be based on the academic ability of it teacher,the command of
the subject matter and the ability to assess the leaners ‘academic achievements and social
learning, there are other high attributes required .They include:

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 1. Being knowledgeable on theory and practice of teaching and learning and using this
information to practice.
2. Commanding a repertoire of best teaching models, strategies and procedures and using
them for classroom instruction and interacting with other adult members of the school.
3. Having disposition and skills to approach all aspects of your work in reflective, collegial
and problem –solving manner ;and
4. Viewing learning and teaching as a lifelong process and having disposition and skills for
working toward improving your own teaching well as improving schools

Instructional 15 Methods

Reflective teaching

Although teaching entails the foregoing, its account would be incomplete if the reader is not
made aware of the new emphasis in teaching. According to Bennaars (1998; 30), education
practice in Africa lacks reflection;

Presently most teachers in African

Schools operate as mere instructors,

Rigidly sure of their facts, unwilling

To tolerate critical questions, and

Highly authoritarian in their behavior

He continues to lament that these teachers have eschewed a liberating or enabling pedagogy for
the sake of high performance in the examination.

Reflective teaching as a notion stems from Dewey’s notion (1993) of reflective action as
opposed to routine action. The latter is guided by factors such as tradition, habit, and authority,
and by institutional definitions and expectations. The former involves a willingness to engage in
constant self-appraisal and development, implying flexibility, rigorous analysis and social
awareness. This notion when applied to teaching call for a new approach: reflective teaching.
This is a vision of teaching that is both liberating and empowering (Banners: 1998).Pollard
(1997) defines it as a process through which the capacity to make a professional judgements in
deciding how to act can be developed and maintained.Berens (1997)sees reflective teaching as
encompassing a situation where teachers encourage interactive learning so that they are able to
think reflectively and teaching. It operates at the technical, practical and critical levels of
reflectivity (Gore: 1993:149)

Pollard (1997) gives six characteristics of reflective teaching which, are essential to any
educational practice;

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Reflective teaching implies an active concern with the immediate aims and the consequences of
the classroom practice as well as means and technical efficiency. This refers to one being critical
of aims and objectives of education in one’s country. Are they professionally practicable or
impracticable, educationally sound or mentally questionable? The teacher’s professional
experience, knowledge and judgements should be brought to bear on policy-makers directly.
This would in turn contribute to political process of the teacher’s role as both a citizen and a
professional.

1. Reflective teaching is applied in a cyclical or spiraling process in which teachers monitor,

evaluate and revise their own practice continuously. Teaching is dynamic and it calls for
planning, marking, provision and acting. Data have to be monitored, observed and
collected on the learners regarding their intentions, actions and feelings. This may lead
the teacher to revise his or her classrooms policies, plans and provisions before starting to
teach again.
2. Reflective teaching requires competence in methods of classroom enquiry, to support the
development of teaching competence .This is required in gathering (empirical)analyzing
and evaluating information. Empirical competences relates to knowing what is going on
in a classroom or schools .collecting data ,describing situation ,processes ,causes and
effects with care and accuracy .Analytical competency is necessary when interpreting
descriptive data and placing data in a framework which enables a reflective teacher to
relate them one with the other and to begin to theorize them about them. Evaluative
competency is needed for making judgement about the educational consequences of the
practical enquiry and its application to future policy and practice.
3. Reflective teaching requires an attitude of open mindedness ,intellectual responsibility
and whole heartedness .one has to be open-minded about other people’s view especially
students ,accept responsibilities concerning any decision and action considered ,and be
dedicated ,single-minded, energetic and enthusiastic in all undertakings.
4. Reflective teaching is based on teaching judgement, which is influenced partly by self –
reflection and partly by insights from educational disciplines. The teachers have to use
their judgement all the time as they adapt their teaching to the ever changing learning
challenges which their circumstances and pupils present to them.
5. Reflective teaching or professional learning and personal fulfillment are enhanced
through collaboration and dialogues with colleague’s .Thus; it calls for interaction among
teachers both in the academic and social set-up.

This calls for certain roles of the teacher .This roles according to Woodfolk (1990) include
among others:

1. An instructional expert: The teacher has to know and identify teaching materials and
methods to use in classes, based on abilities, needs of the students and the overall
aims and objective of education and specific subjects.
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 2. Motivator: The teacher has to apply techniques of motivation to get leaners actively
involved in learning.
3. Manager: One has to know how to manage time and his or her activities accordingly
.The knowledge of classroom management where both the learners and physical
environment has to be controlled and maintained is important.
4. Leader: The teacher not only leads the class but also cultivates leadership qualities in
class members leading t promotion of individual growth.
5. Counselor: The teachers respond to student’s personal needs and offers counseling
services accordingly.
6. Model: The leaners like imitating the adults, so the teacher is always modeling, either
intentionally or unintentionally .Modeling consists of displaying of desirable values,
attitudes, as well as intellectual processes.
7. Reflective professional: This includes one understanding effects of actions in
classroom as they affect leaners and acting on these reflections. It also means seeking
out and offering collaborative support to individuals ,schools and the community .It
also calls for ones up-dating his/her knowledge and understanding through regular
reading .
8. Communicator: One has to be an effective communicator of content and exhibit
through mastery of content and speak fluently and at reasonable pace.
9. Humane: This calls for treating leaners as human beings with respect, rights and
dignity.
10. Curriculum developer and implementer: The teacher is responsible for most of the
curriculum activities right from planning up to evaluation, therefore playing the role
of a developer and implementer.

Arends (1994) conceptualizes the teachers work under three main functions;

1. Executive function: This refers to the leadership roles teachers are expected to
play in their classroom such as providing motivation, planning, and allocating
scarce resources.
2. Interactive function: It refers to methods and processes teachers employ as they
provide day-by-day instruction to students.
3. Organizational function: It points to the teachers work in the school, community
including work with colleagues, parents and school leadership personnel.

THE ROLE OF THE LEANER IN REFLECTIVE TEACHING INCLUDES;

1. Creativity; the leaner has to be transformed and made an active person who
constructively acts upon problematic situations and who thereby creates a new

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 world and a new hope. The leaner is transformed into a problem solving agent
,a creator rather than a creature (Nyerere:1997)in Bennaars(1998);and
2. Dialogical; It encourages dialogue among leaners and with the teachers and
the wider community. Teaching thus provides guidance and a sense of
direction, encouraging openness and realistic dialogue, which will lead to
leaners evaluating themselves critically and discovering their strength and
weaknesses.

Learning

Tarrant (1980) defines learning as the process by which we acquire and retain
attitudes, knowledge, understanding, skills and capabilities that cannot be be
attributed to the inherited behavior patterns or physical growth. It is further defined as
a relatively permanent change in behavior potentially that occurs as a result of
reinforced practice .Wood folks (1990) consult with this definitions by describing it
as a process that occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in an
individual’s knowledge or behavior .All this definitions focus on the permanence of
what is learnt and change of behavior in one who is learning. Learning can be
classified under the following:

(i) Cognitive: This is learning by mental process such as reasoning,

remembering and recalling .It leads to the development of intellectual skills.
(ii) Psychomotor: This is learning by development of skills which requires
efficient coordination between the brain and the muscles.
(iii) Affective ; It refers to learning which takes place in an individual and leads
to changes in interest ,attitudes ,values and appreciation.
(iv) Social relating and perceptual: This is learning which come through the
ability to observe social etiquette, discuss or interact with others in a social
setting.
(v) There are two ways of learning :Deductive and inductive …Deductive
learning is a process whereby the teacher presents the leaner with hypothesis
or general principals and applies number of tests to it to discover whether it
is true or not. Inductive learning on the other hand, involves formulation of
general principles based on knowledge of specific example and details.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Learning is affected by the following factors;

1. Intelligence of the learner
2. The subject matter that is the nature of what is learned

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 3. The significance played by the learner on what is being learned
4. The method used for learning
5. The environment around which the learning is taking place

Apart from the above, to have efficient learning there must be;

(i) Clear objectives as to what is to be learned stated in behavioral

terms.
(ii) Readiness for learning in terms of intellectual physical emotions or
social maturation
(iii) Use of communication methods appropriate to the age and ability of
the learner
(iv) Careful guidance throughout the learning experience.
(v) Preliminary recall of all previously acquired knowledge relevant to
the new materials to be learned
(vi) Learner praying full attention on what is being learnt and the
maintenance of concentration throughout the learning process
(vii) Strong motivation to learn
(viii) Active involvement by the learner in the learning process ; and
(ix) Feedback to the learner which indicates the progress being made.

Learning can take place in an individual through trial and error, insight, conditioning, training,
imitation, and memorisaton.AS a process, it involves a motive or drive, an attractive goal and
block to the attainment of the goal. It also involves solving problems by manipulating ideas, by
trial and error method or by intuition.

TRAINING

Farrant (1980) defines training as a process used in developing attitudes ,habits skills and
standard procedures and is independent on a system of punishments and rewards ,and repeated
practice .It is further defined as to teach someone so that the person is fit ,qualified or
proficient(Barnhart;1970), to give or to be given a course of instruction or practice especially in a
professional or skill (longman;1897) .It implies involvement in teaching someone how to
perform a particular skill or task. According to Green (1971), it focuses on forming of habits or
shaping behavior that manifest intelligence.

There are three features of training which includes;

1. Consistency of practice; the trainee practices the skill from time to time, over and over
again.

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 2. Repetition; The activities involved are greatly strengthened by their repeated use; and
3. Transfer value; The skills learnt must be transferred from one situation to another

DESIGNING THE TRAINIGN PROGRAMME

This is important because it is what influences the motivation of the trainees. They must see the
purpose of the training and its relevance to their needs. To achieve this, the program must be
carefully planned and supervised following a logical systematic approach so that the training
given is sufficient in terms of time spent and resources utilized.

In designing a training program, the focus should be on attitudes, knowledge and skills to be
imparted to the trainee. Training begins with acquiring a basic information or knowledge on the
skills to be imparted and developing appropriate attitude about the training of the job one is
being trained for. The greater part of the focus however, is on teaching how to perform a
particular skill or task.

TRAINING IN SKILLS

Graham and Bennet (1992), have been given a brief definition of the skills as “a practiced expert
way of perceiving a relevant stimulus and then responding to it “.There is however , a more
encompassing definition of a skill in the same book which defines it as :

An organized and coordinated pattern of mental/ physical activity in relation to an object

or other display of information, usually involving both receptor and effector processes. It is built
up gradually in the course of repeated training or other experiences .It is serial, each part from
second to second is dependent on the last and influences the next. Skills maybe described as
perceptual , motor , manual , intellectual social etc. according to the content of most important
aspect of the skill pattern (in Graham and Bennerr:1992)

This definitions points to the fact that in training, the trainee and trainer must work together
through practice, drills, and repetition until the skill is acquired i.e. The level of proficiency is
established .Skill training therefore comprises:

 Recognition of stimuli
 Appropriate response ; and
 Establishing serial performance, each response providing new stimuli which interns
evokes a new response and so on.

METHOD OF SKILL TRAINING

In skill training a systematic approach to training is used .The following steps could be applied.

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 (i)A trainer (supervisor) dividing the content of the training program in self-contained
stages, where each can be taught as a unit .Each stage is examined to identify and
describe key points.
(ii) The trainer makes sure that the materials and equipment required for training is
properly arranged
(iii) The supervisor talks to the trainee to find out what is already known about the job
one is being trained for in order to arouse the trainee’s interest in learning
(iv) The skill to be acquired is then demonstrated to the trainee in stages explaining
slowly and carefully with particular emphasis on the key points.
(vi) Trainee is allowed to perform the skill with the trainer observing to see that
no mistakes are made and asking questions to ensure that the trainee has
understood it.It may not be necessary for the trainer to repeat some of the
instructions given earlier. The trainee repeats the skill until the trainer is
satisfied that performance is adequate.
(vii) The trainer puts the trainee to work or in the field, watching fairly closely at
first but gradually relaxing supervision as the trainee gains confidence and
skills.

EDUCATION

Education is a complex concept that has developed overtime and cannot be restricted to one
single characteristics, idea or meaning. A number of educators have viewed it as rationale
concept that cannot be fully understood without relating it to the actual situation in which it is
used. For instance Paulo Freire (1970) defines it as an inter-subjective process of becoming
critically aware of one’s reality in a manner that leads to effective action upon it. Njoroge and
bennars (1980) define it as the inter subjective process of learning to be self-reliant person in a
society. Langeveld (1997:35) describes it as “a form of social inter-course or association between
adults and children, aiming at influencing the child to come of age”. Bennaars (1998) concurs
with this definition and argues that it has universal validity because of its concern with condition
of educating which he identifies as:

(i) Pedagogical understanding; where education is seen as a social concern where the
adults care for the children until they are of age.
(ii) Pedagogical intention ;education must aim at the leaner coming of age ;becoming an
adult ,a fully grown ,full developed person society who is independent ,self-
determined ,self-reliant within given social context.
(iii) Pedagogical atmosphere : the educator must keep in mind the nature of the leaner
which is defined in terms of adulthood autonomy and self-reliance .The education
transmitted must be guided to norms and values which point to the future ;and
(iv) Pedagogical relation; although the leaner is educated under the constant guidance and
care (or influence) of the adult, the relation between learners and adults must remain
evident.
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Langevelds (1979) definition is more relevant in reflective teaching and educating because of its
concern and maturity and self-reliance of the leaner and social interactions with the adults.

In every society, education has the following functions;

1. Bringing up individual development; this includes catering for the fullest development of the
personality, training in independent, logical and imaginative thinking, self-discipline,
establishment and literacy and manipulative skills and lastly, provision of social experience
that enables the children to live and work easily with others.
2. Preserving culture and values of the society; It has to pass on accumulated knowledge and
wisdom from one generation to another .The information passed on is what is valued and
desired by the society.
3. Bringing about change: It translates ideas into reality by transmitting information on needed
change in social, political and economic fields .A society can be revolutionized through
education.
4. Catering for specific needs of people: It has to address what individual needs in the society
and go ahead to meet the need.

These functions point to education contributing to the development of an individual and the
society in which one operates.

According to Julius nyerere (1985) ,a self-reliant person in a society must presently be the
overall goal of education .

FORMS OF EDUCATON

In analyzing both the definitions and functions of education one finds that juma (1988) identified
two common forms of non-formal.

(i) Education provided to youth and adults outside the formal system which provides
them with functional knowledge and skills for productive work but no paper
qualifications are given.
(ii) Alternative education provided to the youth and adults leading to paper qualifications.

The third form ,which she says is not common ,refers to a deliberate provision of education for
both the youth and adults within the formal system to enhance their educational attainment
.Activities the leaners engage in under this education include; Agriculture extension , skill
training , health and family planning , education work among the youth and women and
functional literacy.

In Kenya, there are number of bodies concerned with non-formal education. `They include;
youths clubs and center for re-settlement and training of youth run by local government and
voluntary bodies ,youths polytechnics run by Christian council of Kenya ,adult education run by

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the government organized by government or non-government organizations , correspondence
courses organized by external and local institutions .

Youth polytechnics are low cost training centers in rural areas with an objective of giving
primary school leaners skills understanding and values. Youth centers were established to
provide practical training and recreational activities to those who have either dropped out of
school or have never attended school.

It is important to note that non-formal education can take place within the established school
system .In schools this will include ;games ,choirs ,debating ,scouting ,Christian union ,wildlife
etc.

SUMMARY

From the foregone there is a clear relationship between the three concepts; teaching, training,
and education. Whereas teaching focuses more on transmission of knowledge and less on skills
and attitudes , training concentrates more on skills acquisition and less on knowledge ,skills and
values. Learning on the other hand recurs in each of the three. Hughes and Hunges (1959)
illustrated this relationship when they said ;

Teaching means causing to learn,

Nothing has been given until it has been taken;

Nothing has been taught until it has been learnt

The same could be about training and education .One cannot be trained nor educated until
learning has taken place.

The relationship between teaching, and education and their role in acquisition of knowledge,
skills and attitudes is displayed in the diagrams below:

Illustration3: Teaching, Training and Education

Teaching training educaction

25% - Attitudes 25%- knowledge 33%- skills

25%- Skills 25% - attitude 33% -attitudes

50%- Knowledge 50% - skills 34% - knowledge

(drawn as a pie chart for each)

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Ayot et al (1992) have come up with a diagram showing teaching as a subset of training which in
turn is a subset of education .This is only applicable when teaching is seen as a prerequisite for
,training ,and education is seen as the end product of both teaching and training.

Illustration 4 Relationship between teaching, training, and education

Draw three circles

1. The inner circle is teaching

2. The middle circle is training
3. The outer circle is education

Suggested Tutorial Activities

1. (a) explain the relationship between training, teaching and education?

(b) Describe the conditions necessary for each of the conditions to take place
(c) Discuss the models showing their relationships.

2. “Not all learning leads to education “Discuss. Or distinguish between a learned and
uneducated person.

3. (a) what is a relationship between teaching and learning?

(b) Describe the balance which must occur between the teacher and the learner in the face to face
communication in order for learning to take place

1. Discuss the statement “teaching is more of an art than a science “.

2.”What is more important in teaching is being able to use a number of techniques and methods
well ,than being able to solve teaching problems , evaluate solutions and learn from ones
mistakes “Discuss

3. How important is it for a teacher to keep up with current trends in teaching?

4. Discuss the many roles of a teacher in dynamic world.

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 CHAPTER TWO

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

A system has been identified by Groenewegen (1993) as a complex of factors interacting

according to an overall plan for a common purpose. Hall and Fagan (1975) define it as a set of
objects together with relationships between their attributes. Roisszowski (1981) gives the
traditional definition as a “set of components or element, interacting together towards a common
goal.”

A system can be social entity like an education system, a family unit, a political party, a trade
union movement, an industry, a factory, mass media etc. Apolitical party for instance is a system
because it has many parts which work together .It could be mechanical such as refrigerator
(cooling system, heating system, (heater) , computer system ,motor vehicle ,/engines ,generator
system, bicycle etc. A system could further be viewed as natural phenomenon e. g a human body
and its sub-systems like digestive, circulatory, nervous, endocrinal hormonal systems or physical
entities such as forests, rain, rivers etc. Human body as a system consists of many parts which
are connected and they relate to one another.

Any system has a goal or mission, for instance, the goal of natural system like digestive system
is to digest food so that the food is broken down and distributed to various parts of the body. This
contributes to maintenance and support of human life.

A system can either be open or closed. An open system is one which can interact with its
environment. It demonstrates a phenomenon called principle of equifinality which states that an
open system can reach its final state , or final goals ,in a number of different ways , because it
can interact with its surroundings by receiving ideas and inputs from environment ( Bentalanffy :
1975) . An example of an open system is a school which takes from the environment and gives
back to the same environment. A closed system is one which operates in isolation from its

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environment. It does not get any input from its surroundings. Its final state is dependent or is
initial state.

THE ENVIRONMENT OF A SYSTEM

A system has an environment in which it operates. Hall and Feger (1975) describe the
environment as the set of all objects, a change in whose attributes affect the systems and also
those objects whose attributes are changed by the behavior of the system.

According to Miller (1978) in Richey (1986), a system is complete whole and functions as a part
of a lager system or environment referred to as supra system. He continues to argue that the
supra system and the immediate environment of a system make up the entire environment
.Within the target system; there are sub-systems with organized and identifiable structures. Their
purposes and functions are limited than the target system itself. A sub-system is characterized
with a structure, process or role associated with the structure. The ultimate function of a system
is necessarily determined by the component processes operating with target system.

He further states that there is a flow both inward and outward from the system into its
environment, the other parts of the supra system.

Richey argues that there is relationship between the system and its environment is such that:

1. The environment provides the inputs be it money, people, resources, etc. Which enter the
system and which will to a great extent determine the quality of the operation of the
system?
2. The environment and the supra system establish the constraints such as inadequate
material upon the system.
3. The supra system receives the products of an open system which become a functioning
part of the environment, thus influencing the operation of the supra system.
4. The environment consists of resources and constraints that affect the system either
positively or negatively realized through its products.
5. Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) with the environment and exhibits
various levels of balance among its elements based on common expectations and goals.

COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM

Every system has the following main components.

1. Input; this refers to what is put in the system to be operational .Incase of education, the
input are students, teachers, materials etc.

16
 2. Output; what comes from the system. This refers to the end product of a system where
incase of education they will be people possessing certain knowledge, values, attitudes,
skills, etc.
3. Process; what procedures the input goes through before it comes out as a finished
product. In case of education, it refers to the learning /teaching processes the individual
student goes though before becoming the final product.

MAIN FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF A SYSTEM.

1. A goal; every system has a goal which is the target of attainment towards which it works
and it gives direction to a system. All members’ works towards the achievement of goals.
2. Elements; it has more than one element which are interrelated and interacting subjects of
a system.
3. Harmony; the elements work harmoniously but each with its own function. Thus a system
has boundaries that distinguish one part from the other parts thus ensuring that a specific
task is performed at part A and the other at part B , yet both part depend on each other
and working harmoniously for efficiency and achievement of the set goal.
4. Feedback; the provision of feedback to enhance knowledge for performance, for
assessing the suitability of and the success level of the system. A system stabilizes itself
through the use of feedback. Feedback is information about the products of a system
which has been collected from the environment of the system.

APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF SYSTEM TO EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

According to Hooper (1971) ,education is a system because it has a set of inputs ( money
,children , etc.) which are subject to process ,in order to attain certain objectives which appear as
outputs (educated children ,etc.) Its further argued that education can be viewed as a system
because of a self-adjusting combination of interacting people and things designed by humans to
accomplish some predetermined purposes ( Rowntree: 1974)

The education system has three components of a simple system.

1. Inputs; this is what is put in the system for society. It includes teachers, pupils, facilities,
resources etc.
2. Process; These inputs are processed through teaching learning process to produce
finished products
3. Outputs; these are the end results of the educational processes. Educated individuals who
are well adjusted and ready to satisfy the needs of the society.

The educational process has also these characteristics of a system.

17
 1. A goal; this refers to the objectives of the system. In Kenya, the goals of education are
specified among others as to foster; national unity, cultural heritage, national
development etc. Whatever is done in the system must address these goals. In other
words, the end products of the system must have qualities which will lead to the
promotion of national unity, cultural heritage, International Corporation among others
.The process of education must also be guided by these goals.
2. Elements; these are goods which must be processed in the system for the goals to be
realized. They include the teachers, students, teaching learning resources, money inform
of salaries, physical facilities etc. Apart from these, there are the administrators, the
subordinate staff , the catering staff etc. All these elements are part of the educational
system.
3. Harmony; for the goal to be realized , the elements or those involved in the educational
process , must work harmoniously otherwise the goals are not going to be realized if one
element is out of control . For instance, for learning and teaching to be affected, the
learners must work harmoniously with their teachers. it calls for discipline because lack
of order will disturb learning and therefore the attainment of the goals .
4. Feedback; Both the teacher and the learners need to get feedback from the learning
process to test whether the products are being processed in the desired way. The feedback
can be negative or positive .Negative allows a system to function in a homeostatic
fashion so that the system is kept on course, and attempts to maintain the same quality of
the system is kept on course and attempts to maintain a constant product. It also attempts
to maintain the same quality of response of the system to its environment as was
originally planned .In terms of educational system ,negative information on the students
on their lack of motivation , indiscipline , failures in examinations will lead to the
teachers adjusting their teaching methods , resources and class management skills so as
to have students who ae both motivated to learn and disciplined . This will ultimately lead
to success in management.

The components of an educational system are illustrated in the next page.

Illustration 5. The major components of an educational system

EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
1. Aims and processes
To guide the system activities
2. Students ;whose learning is the main aim of the system
3. Management ; to coordinate , direct ,evaluate a system
4. Structure and time schedule
To deploy time and students flows among different purposes
5. Content ;
The essence of what students are intended to acquire

18
 6. Teachers ;
To help provide the essence and orchestrate in learning process
7. Learning aids;
Books, chalkboards, maps, films, laboratories etc.
8. Facilities;
To house the process
9. Technology;
All the techniques used in doing the system work
10. Quality control;
Admission rules , marks , examinations , standards
11. Research ;
To improve knowledge and systems performance.
12. Cost;
Indicators of efficiency of the system.

Hooper (1971)

Educational system and its environment

An educational system operates in a society from which it gets its inputs and in turn provides
outputs. The efficiency of the system depends on the society to equip the system with all the
inputs needed. Deficiency in one element will affect the entire system and thus affect its
products. For instance, if there is limited finance, or there are no adequate trained personnel
(teachers or administrators) then the end product of the system will be of poor quality and might
not meet the market demand. The society establishes constraints upon the system. For instance,
when there is lack of or inadequate resources, facilities, personnel and as a result the smooth
running system is affected, then the system will be facing constraints. The society emphasis on
examinations or indiscipline’s among students leading to strikes and closing of schools will also
be termed as constraints

Illustration 6; interaction between an educational system environments

19
 EDUCA-
output Existing TIONAL BETTER
Knowledge SYSTEMS EQUIPED TO
Values SERVE
goals THEMSELVES
AND
Population & SOCIETY AS:
qualified Individual &
manpower family
stock members
-workers in the
economy
Economic output -leaders &
and income Innovators
-local & world
citizens
A school as a system -contributors to
cultures
BECAUSE
The school is seen as a system because it has EDUC. all the
components and features of a system. It IMPROVED receives
THEIR
leaners and makes an effort to -basic transform them
through the process of education. After knowledge school, the
-intellectual and
products should be mature and useful to the society. Thus, manual skills schools have
-powers of
goals which they ought to achieve. These goals are achieved reason and
from the
society through the ministry of education where they are stated criticism in the syllabi
-values,
and other official documents and given to all schools in the attitudes,
republic of
Kenya. The difference in emphasis comes in when the school motivations is of either
-powers of
primary or secondary level. creativity &
innovation
The school operates with various elements. These include the -cultural head teacher,
appreciation
teachers, leaners, and the non- teaching staff. There are also the component and
-sense of social
objectives to be realized as spelt out in each subject syllabus, responsibilitythey are
-understanding
physical facilities like classroom, administration block, the of the modern dining hall, the
kitchen, the library, the laboratories, the workshops, home world science rooms
the toilets etc. There are teaching media (material resources) which will be
needed for teaching /learning process to be effective. Still the government will be expected to
provide salaries for the teachers and board of governor to pay the subordinate staff.

All these elements or school operators must work in harmony e.g the head teacher has to
administer the school , the teachers has to facilitate learning , the leaners must attend classes , do
their classwork ,homework tests and examination , and non-teaching staff has to clean the
compound and the facilities available ,cook ,cut the glass , pass messages from one group to the
other etc. They have also to type , duplicate materials , respond to phones etc. All these people
have to interact harmoniously for the achievement of the goals of the school.

The school has also provision fir feedback which consists of continues assessment and testing
and examination programs and form elements of feedback. Feedback can take place every day in
20
every lesson through oral questions as the lessons are going to take place inform of tests either
weekly, fortnightly or monthly.

Systems approach

Mukwa (1979) defines system approach from various perspectives. He describes it as:

(i) A process for effective and efficiently achieving a required outcome based on
documented needs.
(ii) A form of logical problem –solving a kin to the scientific method.
(iii) A process by which needs are identified , or problems are requirements for the
problems solution are selected from alternatives , methods , and means are obtained
and implemented , results are evaluated , and required revisions to all or part of the
system are made so that the needs are met.

Ryan (1975) defines system approach as an operational concept, referring to a scientific ,

systematic and rationale procedure for optimizing outcome of an organization or structure , by
implementing a set of related operations to study an existing system ,solve problems and develop
new or modify existing system.

Kaufman (1970) summarized system approach in two words; analysis and synthesis; where
analysis relates to identifying components parts and determining relationships among these parts
and between the parts and the whole system. Synthesis on the other hand involves the design of a
new system so that the identified problem can be solved.

Gagne (1987) defines it as an empirical approach to the design and improvement of instruction.
Most of these definitions points to the fact that this approach is scientific in nature, is orderly, is
a process or procedure , has elements which are interrelated and has a purpose to fulfill.

The educational technology approach is sometimes called the system approach (Rowntree; 1974)
. The concept is based on a cybernetic principle theory which is the scientific study of the way in
which information is moved about and controlled in machines, the brain and the nervous system.
Some of the cybernetic principles according to Ayot and Patel (1978) are;

1. A system generates movement towards a target or in defined path.

2. A system has a movement …it is dynamic.
3. A system has an output and the set output is expected in quantity and in quality.
4. It has provision of in-built feedback to study any deviation (error signal). In fact
cybernetic principle is feedback principles.
5. The feedback is analyzed in relation to magnitude and direction of error ; and
6. Knowledge from the analysis of feedback is utilized in rectifying the error; …putting the
system back to its expected task.
21
Romiszowski (1981), argues that the system approach was born in the field of system
engineering and was first applied rigorously to the design of electronic, mechanical, military and
space system. It begun to be used in training and then in education from the late 1950s and early
1960s

The history of systems approach in education based on Ganges (1987) analysis.

Systems approach relies very much on empirical data and evidence. This reliance can be traced
to 1600s and to Comenius who proposed that inductive methods which employ scientific method
should be used to analyses and improve the instructional process. In mid-1800 Johan Herbart
proposed that scientific research should be used to guide instructional practice. Empirical method
was boosted following the activities of Joseph Meyer Rice a follower of Herbart who conducted
several studies of school systems in the 1890s. The research done by Edward Thorndike on
learning theory, mental testing and individual differences was another development .He
established empirical investigation as the best for science of instruction.

The 1920s saw an increased interest in the use of empirical methods help to solve educational
problems .The primary advocates of this approach were W.W. Chatters and Franklin Bobbitt
who were pioneers in such areas as activities analysis (job-task analysis) and objectives
specifications.

The 1930s was characterized by lack of progress in empirical approaches because of the great
depression and the growth of the progressive movement in education. There was a renewed
interest in the use of the empirical methods during the 2nd World War II, and more specifically
when USA entered into the war. During the war, there was a need for psychologists and
educators to conduct research and develop training materials for the military services .The
principles still serve as the basis for many of the concepts associated with the systems approach.
The mid 1950s saw the birth of programmed instruction which was a major factor in the
development of the systems approaches concept. Skinner (1958) , Lumsdaine and Glaser (1960)
came up with a process for developing programmed instruction which exemplified an empirical
approach to solving educational problems . In this process, data regarding the effectiveness of the
programmed materials were collected, instructional weakness was identified and materials were
revised accordingly. Apart from this, the process for developing programed materials involved
many of the steps found in many current systems approach models. These steps included
analyzing and breaking down content into specific behavioral objectives, setting up procedures
to try out and revise the steps and validating the program against attainment of the objectives.

22
In 1950s also saw another major factor in the development of the systems approach concept .
This was the refinement of task analysis procedures. Task analysis is the process of identifying
the tasks and sub-tasks that must be successfully performed in order to execute properly some
function or job. The early proponents of this work were Frank ad Lilian Gilbert, Bobbitt and
charters. Robert miller refined the process in the 1950s by developing a detailed task analysis
methodology while working on projects for the military services.

In the early 1960s, Gagne expanded on the notion of task analysis by indicating that task and
sub- tasks identified through the task analysis process often will have a hierarchical relationship
to each other. This implies that in order to learn readily to perform a super ordinate task, one
would first have to master the task subordinate to it. This leads to the important notion that
instruction should be designed so as to ensure that leaners acquire subordinate skills before they
attempt to acquire super ordinate ones .

Task analysis methodologies placed an emphasis on the identification and specification of

observable behaviors to be performed by the leaners. Although objectives have been in use since
1900s, it is in the 1930s, that Tyler demonstrated that they could serve as the basis for evaluating
the effectiveness of instruction. In 1950s following the activities Benjamin Bloom and his
colleagues, the objectives were given another boost. They published the,” Taxonomy of
educational objectives. “(1956) which emphasized that there were various types of learning
outcomes in hierarchical relationships in the cognitive domain and the objective could be
classified according to the type of learner behavior describe there in;

The early 1960s saw the flourishing of the behavioral objectives, movement which was spurred
on by the work in the areas of task analysis and programmed instruction. The biggest spur was
the publication of Robert Magnes book “Preparing objectives for program instruction “(1962) the
book was meant to teach trainers and educators how to write objectives. This was followed by
Robert Gagne (1959, 1962, 1965,) who helped to identify the instructional implications of
defining and classifying objectives. He indicated that objectives could be classified according to
the type of learner behavior they described. These notions had important implications for design
of instruction.

The early 1960s further gave rise to the development of system approach concept with the
emergency of criterion referenced testing. Glase and Clause (1962) , were the first to use the
term “criterion –reference testing” which could be utilized for two purposes : to asses students
enter level behavior and to determine the extent to which learners had acquired the behavior in a
given instructional program . This testing and its function are central features of system
approaches procedures .The concept developed in all areas identified above( task analysis
objective specification , criterion referenced testing ) were brought together and discussed by
various educators like Gagne (1962) , and Glaser (1962,1965) and Silvern ( 1964) who became

23
the first individuals to use term such as “system development “ , “ systematic instruction “ and
“instructional system” to describe systems approach procedures similar to those employed today.

During this time , the terms “systems approach” and “system development “ began to be used in
describing the instructional development process used during some instructional projects . The
first attempts to apply this approach to the design of training were undertaken by the rand
corporation and Human resources organizations (HUMRRO). The system approach model used
by the later has served as the prototype for most of the models that have followed it, education
inclusive.

SYSTEM APPTROACHES MODELS USED IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

The proponents of the systems approach present their methodologies generally in flow chart
form or in a model. The use of flow charts has number of limitations
1. They give an impression of a more or less linear, step by step process where one step is
completed before the next one is commenced. In reality it does not happen that way.
2. The impression given is the most of analysis happens at the beginning, the synthesis or
design stages about the middle, and mainly at the end of the process. I n practice, the
above active place throughout the process.
3. The procedure appears to be mechanistic with precise rules carrying of each stage.
Although rules do exist at times, they cover all eventualities.
There are different types of models e.g. linear, cyclic etc.
(i) Linear.
A linear model is representation of a simple system consisting the basic element;
input, process and output in line. In case of editing learners are the inputs that are put
in the educational system and assessed at different levels of education. Coming out as
educated i.e. doctors, lawyers, teachers, and scientists (output of the system)

Illustration 7: a simple technological model of a systems approach.

input process output

(ii) Cyclic

A cyclic system has a property of equifinality which offers alternative approaches and starting
point’s .It is an improvement of a linear model.

Illustration 8; a cyclic technological model

24
 output
input process

Garlachs came up with a model with ten elements which should be considered in a systematic
approach to teaching. These elements are;

1. Specifications of objectives
2. Selection of content
3. Assessment of entering behavior
4. Teaching strategy performance
5. Organization of people into groups
6. Allocation of time
7. Learning space
8. Selection of resources
9. Evaluation of leaners
10. Analysis of feedback.

Illustration 9; Garlach’s model of systems approach

This model operates as follows; the teacher has to specify the objective which should be realized
by teaching a given topic. Based on objective content will be selected or vice versa. In order to
know where the learning has to start, the knowledge level of the learner in relation to the content
to be determined. For instance, one has to find out what the learner knows about the content to be
taught, or the experiences he/she has about the content. This will be the starting point of learning
as the teacher from the known to the unknown. The entry behavior will influence and will in turn
be affected by the teaching strategies to be used, the type of group organization and the time
allocated for the content to be taught. The learning space available is important in determining
the effectiveness of the teaching method adopted.

At every stage of the learning /teaching process; evaluation is done .This is meant to check
whether or not the content is being learnt and the objectives are being achieved. If there is any
dissatisfaction , then the process has to start all over ,that is , after analyzing feedback ,the
product has to go back to the process , or objectives has to be re-started again ,content selected a
25
fresh ,the entry behavior determined , teaching strategies arranged etc. before assessment is done
again.

Double arrows between content and objectives show that content can influence objective and
vice versa. The same applies to entry behavior and assessment of performance and related
elements. In this model, objectives and evaluation share the same box; this is what makes it
different from the other models.

Illustration 10; Ayot and Patel 1987 model

1. Desired output: one should be concerned with what s/he wants to achieve by the given
learning situation , that is what is the outcome of the learning process ?This will call the
setting of instructional objectives which will tell the teacher after the learning / teaching
process that the leaners have acquired the desired abilities .
2. Procedure: This consists of the teacher’s actual participation in shaping his or her pupils
to meet the expected standard of change. This will include the use of relevant teaching
approaches, resources, learning activities, relevant to the task in hand.
3. Feedback: This is meant to make it possible for systems to maintain their expected
outcome. It has to be accurate and decisive. Any diversion from the path (objective) is
accurately measured and the information passed immediately to the elements responsible
for movement where it is used rectifying the error.

Illustration 11: A model showing the application of systems approach in education

The above model implies that teaching and learning is done systematically using the syllabus
which specify the objectives of each content taught and which must be related to goals of
education .The quality of elements (input) put in the learning system will determine the
effectiveness of the system and the final quality of the products. For the efficiency of the
process , there must be harmony in the operations of all the elements involved in the process
.The use schemes of work in every subject which indicates what is to be covered by given
teacher throughout the term ensures that the interaction of the elements is smooth and healthy
. At the same time, the use of a lesson plan which is operational is one teaches a particular
subject and shows in an orderly fashion that will be done at every stage will be paramount.
The feedback obtained during the instruction and even after ensures that the set objectives are
realized. The continuous assessment test and examination are set systematically in relation to
the specified content and objectives.

Summary

26
This chapter has looked at the definitions of ‘systems’ system approaches and their relationships
to education. A system has been seen as an entity with different elements or parts interacting to
achieve a specified goal. It has further been viewed as a complete whole, ordered with many
components which have relationships and operating in an environment. A systems approach on
the other hand refers to a scientific method by which parts of a system are interrelated and
arranged in such a way as to fulfill various identifiable principle or goal. The various activities
undertaken in education, point to the fact that education is a system and approaches employed in
its attainment are systematic, thus adopting systematic approach.

This chapter has attempted to differentiate between aims, objectives and goals of education. It
has been emphasized that, in Kenya the three are related, with goals of education being the same
as general objectives of education. Aims are seen as interpretation of the goals and general
objectives so as to give the direction education should follow. There are both long and short-term
objectives aims of objectives. Their definitions, characteristics, and construction are represented.
The need for teachers to come up with the good instructional objectives has been over-
emphasized. It is stressed that in writing instructional objectives the instructor has to cater for
different levels of learning in the cognitive domain.

27
CHAPTER THREE

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION

Specific objectives

Specifically, I expect that by the end of this chapter, the leaner should be able to :

1. Define the terms aims , objectives and goals of education

2. Differentiate between long-term and short-term aims and objectives in the education.
3. Relate behavioral objectives and domains of learning
4. Discuss the importance of instructional objectives
5. Discuss the characteristics of instructional objectives
6. Construct good instructional objectives
7. Relate objectives to levels of achievement in the cognitive domain.

Introduction

The aim and objectives of education have been defined differently by educators. Shiundu and
Omulando (1992:7) define education aims universally or generally, as ideals enshrined in a body
of values held dear by both the society and the individuals in that society . These universal aims
according to D.O Conner (1957) include:

1. To provide humanity with minimum of the skills necessary for them to take their place in
society and, seek further knowledge.
2. To provide humanity with a vocational training that will enable them to be self –reliant
3. To awaken an interest in and taste for knowledge
4. To make people critical : and
5. To put people in touch with and train them to appreciate the cultural and morale
achievement of humankind.

Cohen and Manion (1977) define an aim as general expression of intent, and the degree of
generality contained in the statement, which may vary from the very general in the case of
long term aims to the much less general.

28
 Farrant (1980; 21) looks at aims of education as reasons for, purpose or intention for
education in a given country and indicate the precise direction that educators must follow in
all part of educational system .According to R.S. Peters (1970) aims of education specify in
more details desirable state of mind in people characterized by some depth and breadth of
understanding. A country formulates its aims of education from the general ones in relation
to its environment in social, economic and political context. Tylor (1970) argues that aims of
educational systems in any country are to be found in the values and purpose of those who
control the state. The aims address the needs and aspirants of that nation. Their formulation
are meant to specify precisely, what qualities or values are thought most desirable to develop
among the citizens of that country ( Shiundu and Omulando)

Objectives

Objectives are intended outcomes of the process of education. They specify what learners
are expected to achieve at the end of learning or training Cohen and Manion (1997) argue
that objectives are characterized by greater decision and specificity. Just like aims every
country has its own objectives of education which can either be general or specific or
reflect the needs and aspiration of that country. Related to objectives and aims are goals.
The goals of education are ends that that the society sets for the educational system it
operates (farrant; 1980; 21) .In Kenya for instance, there are 6 goals of education
stipulated in various commission reports since 1964 when the countrys independence was
realized. These reports are Ominde, Ndegwa, Gachathi, and Mackay. In the Ominde
report (1964) education education in Kenya is supposed to foster:
1. National unity
2. National development (economic and social)
3. Individual development and self-fulfillment
4. Social equality
5. Respect and development of cultural heritage ; and
6. International consciousness

This should be the end product of Kenyans education where individuals will be patriotic;
contribute positively to national development through the active participation; improve the
quality of their lives through social mobility; have value for their culture and develop it, while at
the same time interacting with other people of the world and appreciating them.

It is important to note that general aims and objectives; and goals of education in some countries
are the same. According to Cohen and Manion (1977) the British educators have been more
interested in defining aid than in stating objectives .American teachers on the other hand have
tended to think in term of more concrete objectives. Kenya uses both aims and objectives in
educational planning. In this country the goal of education are similar to the general objectives of
education. For instance, the aims Kenya’s education systems are:

29
 1. To respond to the challenges of national development and the participation of national
youth in development ;
2. To provide a more relevant curriculum or a practical oriented curriculum
3. To provide education for self-reliance; and
4. To ensure equitable distribution of resources

The aim of this education is self-reliance which can also be seen as ultimate goal of education.
General aims therefore being broad and often abstract in their expression will simply offer
guidance as to the general direction of educational intention and will in no way indicate
particular achievement within specified time limits(Cohen and Manion 1977) when aims express
less generally and suggest tangible achievements and simply rather more specified time limits
,for example what should be achieved at a given stage or level over the formal educational period
, then they are les general aims .In Kenya ,the aims of primary ,secondary and university
education fall under this type of aims. At the same time, we have aims of teaching specific
subjects at each level. The aims of teaching science at primary level for instance are;

1. To enable children to acquire and preserve certain useful attitudes about themselves and
their relationship with the environment.
2. To enable children to acquire certain manual and thinking skills which are useful in
solving practical problems ;to enable children to acquire a basic scientific knowledge
3. To enable children to acquire ways of seeking further knowledge and using this
knowledge to solve problems they meet in life.

At secondary school level, a subject like chemistry has some of the following general aims of the
course. This course is intended to;

(i) Help the leaner discover and understand the order of physical environment
(ii) Enable the leaner to attain knowledge and to acquire problems solving skills; and
(iii) Enable the learner to appreciate the responsibility of the scientists to the society

These aims is analyzed critically are stating the end products of the processes of learning
chemistry. The general aims and less general aims can be referred to as long term aims. Related
to long-term aims and short-term aims. These too are specified in some subjects and not in
others. They state what the teacher aims at achieving while handling a given topic or series of
topics.

Objectives can either be long-term, intermediate or short-term. Long-term objectives are those
related to education in general and even in different levels of educational system and specific
subjects in the curriculum. Objectives at this level of education focus on what should be achieved
at primary, secondary and university education. For instance, secondary objectives are;

1. Lead all around mental, social, moral and spiritual development of a leaner;
2. Prepare the learner to make positive contribution to the development of the society

30
 3. Build a foundation for further education

Some of the primary school objectives are that education should be;

1. Lead to the acquisition of literacy, numeracy, and manipulative skills

2. To develop the leaners self-expression, self-discipline, self-reliance and utilization of his
or her senses
3. To develop ability for clear logical thought and critical judgment
4. Expose one to meaningful experiences which will lead to enjoyable and successful
learning and the desire to continue learning

Each subject has its own long-term objectives stated at the beginning of large part of the course.
In history and government, some of the long-term objectives are. At the end of the course the
leaner should be able to;

(i) Show appreciation for history and government

(ii) Develop capacity for critical analysis for historical data

In chemistry, some of the long-term objectives are; At the end of the course the learner should be
able to:

1. Handle apparatus ,make accurate observation and draw simple conclusion during
experimental work and
2. Select and use appropriate apparatus for experimental investigations

From the long-term objectives, there are intermediate objectives which are specific and cover
either a topic, a small unit of 3 or 5 lessons or even a whole terms work. Such an objective is “by
the end of the topic the leaner should be able to describe main political, economic and social
development in Kenyan society “A short-term objectives is stated at the beginning of a 40 or 80
minutes lessons and is usually called an instructional objective.

Illustration 12: Relationship between goals, aims and objectives in Kenyan educational system

SETTING THE OBJECTIVES

1. General objectives

Formulating of precise and definite teaching is important if teaching has to be effective and
efficient. Objectives are stated in behavior terms. A behavioral objective is a statement that
describes what a pupil will do or will be able to do after the completion of a given instruction.
The instruction could either be in a lesson, a topic, a unit or a course or in the entire curriculum.

31
The objectives are also stated as either covert behavioral or overt behavioral objectives. Covert
behavioral objectives are those objectives which describe behavior which cannot be observed
directly such as understanding, knowing, grasping, feeling, and appreciating. Overt behavioral
objectives are those which call for covert terminal behaviors which are observable and
measurable. Solving problems, converting from one scale to another etc. Overt behaviors are
used for long-term objectives while covert behaviors are used for short-term objectives.

Whether an objective is overt or covert, it specifies some dispositions; one or more domains of
learning (cognitive, affective, psychomotor and social relating). When the objective deals with
cognitive domain, it calls for leaners ability to know and understand. The focus is mainly on
explanation of concepts, ideas, factual knowledge. The affective objective call for the learner’s
ability to display feelings, interests and awareness. The stress is on appreciation, ideas, attitudes,
morals. The psychomotor objectives call for ability to type, play piano, weaving and swimming
that involves the intelligence use of motor functions. It requires a high degree of dexterity and
coordination of senses and bodily movements. In all these domains, objectives may range from
calling from the simplest of activities to those requiring the most complex ideas, skills and
reactions.

Below are examples of general objectives with dispositions in domains of learning;

(i) By the end of the course, the leaner should be able to show appreciation for biology
(affective domain).
(ii) By the end of the course, the learner should be able to write chemical symbols of
elements and formulae of compounds and equations for simple reactions ( cognitive)
(iii) By the end of the course the leaner should be able to type at a speed of 100 words
second (psychomotor).

2. Specific objectives

Objectives may range from the very general to the very specific. Most teaching objectives fall
somewhere between these extremes, for they fall in a continuum from the very general to the
very specific.

Illustration 13; teaching objectives continuum

Very General General Specific Very Specific

Educational Course Unit/Topic Lesson
Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives

Specific objectives are derived from course objectives and can either be unit, topic or even in
certain cases lesson objectives. They are stated in overt behavioral terms showing what the pupil
will be able to do after the instruction.

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 3. Instructional objectives

These are specific objectives which forecast on what the teacher intends the students to do at the
end of 40 or 80 minutes. They describe what one can do as a result of having learnt and what an
observer can see the learner doing in order he can judge whether the learning has been successful
or not.

They are important in any instruction because they;

1. Provide a guide for choosing subjective matter to be taught

2. Guide in selection of resources ,material to be used
3. Guide in designing appropriate teaching methods
4. Provides standards for measuring students achievement
5. Helps to provide feedback to the teacher and the learner about the observed behavior.

Though an instructional objective can be simply stated, a good lesson objective should be
criterion referenced, stating not only the terminal behavior expected but also what standards of
performance pupil should attain.

Such objectives has three main characteristics

1. A terminal behavior which is observable and measurable. The objective should describe
the learning outcome that the teacher intends to produce as a result of the instruction.
2. A test condition which refers to the conditions under which the pupil is expected to meet
the required standard. The objective should show limitations of restriction so that one can
determine whether learning has taken place and state the condition under which the
learning experiences should occur for one has there was learning.
3. The standard or level at which a pupil is expected to perform. It refers to indication of a
standard of performance. The objectives should indicate the degree or standard expected
in learning and must specify the appropriate level of performance indicated in the
behavior.

Although the above are the main ones, there are other minor characteristics which should not
be overlooked. These includes the objective indicating the activity of the leaner; being
specific in content; being realistic, challenging and worth spending 40 or 80 mins.

Constructional of instructional objectives

Writing of instructional objectives involving using an action verb which describe what the
student will be doing as a result of the learning experience. The behavior specified must be
visibly and measurable. This type of behavior is called overt terminal behavior are called
overt behavior objectives.

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 The behavior should be explicit (definite) not implied. Some of the action verbs which go
with the framing of the instructional objectives include;

label compute different

ate
match compile predict
infer demonstrate operate
To arrive at the above action verbs one needs to ask these questions:

. What activities do I expect the learner to be able to do as a result of learning?

.what behavior should the learner exhibit to show that s/he has learnt

. What level of performance will be acceptable as evidence that one has learnt

Below are examples of well -constructed instructional objectives:

(i) By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to …state at least four
characteristics ……..describe the formation of relief rain.
(ii) By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to state at least three (3) examples
of acids and two examples of bases
(iii) By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to type 20 words per minute with
less than 10 errors per words
(iv) By the end of the two lessons the learner should be able to …..a small mammal
according to the laid down procedures

Objectives and levels of learning can be derived in the cognitive domain. These levels of
learning are hierachichally organized from the lowest to the highest. Educators arrange levels of
learning according to the Bloom’s taxonomy as follows;

1.Knowledge level. Here learners are required to perform recall. Verbs like outline, define,
select, state, reproduce etc are used.

2. Comprehension level: this represents the lowest level of understanding. The understanding is
such that the individual is able to know what is communicated without necessarily relating it to
other material or seeing its fullest implications. Action verbs used are: convert, defend,
distinguish, estimate, explain, extend, give examples, infer, defend, distinguish, estimate, etc.

3. Application: this refers to one developing the ability to use abstraction in particular and
concreate situations. The abstractions may be in the form of general ideas, rules of procedures or
generalized methods. For one to apply something more efficiently it requires comprehension of
the method, theory, principles and abstraction applied.

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4. Analysis: It entails the learner breaking down communication into its constituent element or
parts such that the relative’s hierarchy of ideas is made clear or the relations between the ideas
expressed are made explicit. The verbs used in stating objectives at this level are; point out,
differentiate, relate, discriminate, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer, outline, select etc.

5. Synthesis: it entails putting elements and parts together so as to form a whole in learning. It
involves the process of the learner developing the of working with pieces element etc. and also
arranging and combining them in such a way so as to constitute a pattern or a structure not
clearly there before. For instance students have to draw elements from many sources and put
these together in a new form. Action verbs used include: categorize, combine, explain, generate,
plan, rearrange, reconstruct rewrite, modify, etc.

6. Evaluation; It involves developing the ability to make judgments about values and use of
criteria’s as well as standards for appraising the extent to which particulars are accurate,
effective, economic or satisfying. The judgments may be either quantities or qualitative, and
criteria may be either that which is determined by the learner or that which is given to him/her.
The behavioral verbs for this matter include: appraise, compare, conclude, contrast, support,
relate, describe, criticize, discriminate, explain, justify.

In effective domain, there are five levels of learning according to Krathwohl taxonomy.

Illustration 14: Krathwohls taxonomy for effective domain

1. Receiving listening accept be aware

Attend receive favour
Prefer perceive select
2. Responding state select record
Answer list develop
Complete write derive
3. Valuing accept increase indicate
Recognize develop decide
Participate attain influence
4. Organization organize find associate
Judge determine form
Rate correlate select
5. Characterization revise accept demonstrate
Change judge identify
Face develop decide

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CHAPTER FOUR

TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

A teaching strategy is a way and means of organizing and facilitating learning experiences.
There are two teaching strategies namely; expository (transmission) and heuristic (discovery).
Expository is an approach to teaching which a teacher uses to impart or expose knowledge to the
students. The teacher tells students both the generalization and specifics which are expected to be
learnt (Webster; 1996). They are further defined as strategies that are particularly effective for
presenting declarative information in a step-step way through lecture, explanation, and the
provision of guided practice through oral drills (Lang et al: 1993). Examples of methods which
fall under this are lecture, storytelling, narratives, teacher demonstration, text reading, recitation,
note-dictating, presentations etc.

Heuristic approach refers to an approach in teaching and learning where the learners are left to
explore; find out information for them. Teacher’s non-directive role (Webster: 1966). Examples
of methods which fall under heuristic are: experimental, project work, small group work, role
play, discussion, inquiry or discovery etc.

It has been argued that pure heuristic and expository strategies are merely poles on a continuum
of teaching strategies because there are intermediate approaches between the two extremes.

Illustration 15: teaching strategies continuum

Extreme in-between extreme

Expository strategies heuristics
Strategies strategies

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Fenton (1967) for instance, notes that poles of the continuum offer two extremes of methodology
with many points in between and the teacher must decide which approach best fulfills his/her
objectives. It is recommended that a teacher uses both strategies for different purposes at
different points in one or on different lessons.

Illustration 16: a teaching continuum

Exposition directed discussion discovery

(all clues) (questions as clues) (no clues)

The selection of teaching strategies will depend on whatever approach will be most effective and
more efficient in enhancing the learning process. One can be guided by the following
consideration in choosing a strategy.

1. The nature of the topic

2. Objectives of the lesson
3. The type of learners, their experiences, ability, skills and interest.
4. Teacher’s personality, interest, ability and creativity and the approach to teaching and to
the subject at hand.
5. Theories of learning eg. Traditional views versus progressive
6. Facilities and resources available.
7. Size of class; the number of students in a given class. A congested class will favor more
teacher – centered approaches
8. Environment: it refers to physical and cultural environment e.g. the weather, ventilation,
lighting etc.

Although there are many teaching methods under each strategy, the following will be discussed
in details under expository: lecture, teacher, demonstration, narration, audio-visual presentation,
text reading and note writing. Under heuristic the focus will be on discussions, group work,
projects, field trip and discovery.

Characteristics of teaching strategies

Expository heuristic
1. Teacher dominance in content 1. Learner centered with the learner as the
impartation focus of the learning/teaching process
2. The teacher provides students with 2. Students involvement in seeking and
information, examples, applications, finding information, discovering
definitions, explanations, meanings, attempting translations and
generalizations, summaries, notes and definitions and thinking of examples
even evaluations. This is done through applications, meanings making notes
explanations or demonstrations summary and compositions and judging
3. Students passiveness in learning where critically
they play the role of receivers of 3. Students active involvement in learning

37
 information by searching for knowledge

ADVANTAGES OF EXPOSITORY AND HEURISTIC STEATEGIES

Expository Heuristic
1. The teacher is able to cover a lot of content 1. Stimulates learner’s mental activity because
within a limited time thus saving time and of high motivational level among the learners.
personnel 2. Develops fluency in expression among the
2. It is easy to maintain discipline since there is learners.
only one focus for attention. 3. Encourages learners to discover information
3. There is uniformity and authenticity of the for them.
information delivered since it is prepared after 4. Trains the presentation of ideas and facts.
careful research and extensive reading. 5. Develops critical thinking among learners.
6. Facilitates retention of materials learnt.
7. Trains in democratic principles, and in
leadership responsibilities both in school and
the wider community.
8. Caters for individuals differences especially
when groupings are done according to the
interests and talents of the learners.
9. It focus on the child as the center of the
learning process

SITUATIONS WHICH CALL FOR USE OF EITHER OF THE STRATEGIES.

Expository strategies Heuristic strategies

1. Used when a lot of information is to be 1. There are plenty of resources at the disposal
passed to the learners of the learners.
2. The information to be passed is theoretical 2 . The learners are small in number.
by nature. 3. There is plenty of time at the disposal of the
3. Learners do not have access to textbooks teachers
4. The teacher has limited time to cover the 4. One wants to integrate the community and
topics the school.
5 .The learners are too many in class

The two approaches have specific roles for the teacher and the learners. The explanatory has this
function for the teachers.

1. Exposing the information to the learner through explanations, definitions, narratives and
demonstration.
2. Being in charge of the learning situation.
3. Asking learners questions for understanding and clarification.
4. Testing for reception recall and understanding

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 5. Presenting opportunities for pupils to apply new information to other situations and to
real situation and problem.

The learner’s function on the other hand includes:

1. Receiving information from the teacher passively.

2. Listening keenly to teacher’s explanations or audio-visual materials.
3. Making notes
4. Observing teachers demonstration, pictures, and teachers graphic presentations like
charts.
5. Drawing maps, charts etc.

In discovery strategies the role of the teacher and learner is indicated below:

Teacher Learner
1. Guiding, indicating, facilitating, 1.extensive reading on the work,
directing, and supervising the learning. project
2. Assessing responsibilities; 2. creating ideas
- Encouraging participation 3. participating in the lessons by
- Providing explanations where looking for information
necessary 4. respecting the views of the
- Clarifying doubts colleagues
- Encouraging team work 5. reaching to the problem under study,
- Maintaining class control suggesting solutions and drawing
3. Providing opportunities for pupils to conclusions.
do something and observing their
actions
4. Testing understanding of cause, effect
relationship, by questioning or
observing pupils in action
5. Providing opportunities for pupils to
apply new information’s to real
situations and problems.

Deductive and inductive teaching

These two types of teaching are related to expository and heuristic strategies of teaching.
Deductive is defined as an approach to teaching where generalization is stated first and then
applied to a number of examples (Perrot; 1982). Lang et al (1995) defines it as a process which
begins with a learner identifying a concept or generalization, defining it, and then flying
particular related examples and non-examples on the basis of the information framed. It includes

39
framing a concept or generalization and identifying a number of examples and non-examples to
verify and support. It takes less time and it is teacher controlled, therefore expository oriented.

Inductive on the other hand according to Perrot (1982) is where one states with examples. And
makes an inference or generalization upon the basis of these examples. Lang et al (1995) define
it as an approach to te aching where one starts with identification of a number of a particular
example and non-examples, analyzing and classifying them, and then framing a concept or
generalization based on the steps used. It is more associated with heuristic strategy.

The steps taken by both deductive and inductive teaching is summarized below:

Illustration 17: deductive and inductive teaching

Deductive Inductive

Generalization/rule Generalization/rule

Identification of examples Classification of examples e.g. example1,2,3,etc

Classification of examples perception of examples e.g. example 1, example2,

example 3

Lang et al (1995)

An example of deductive teaching in a biology lesson

1. Establish a set of definition or characteristic determining what constitutes an amphibia

2. Have students identify a list of examples of animals that live in land and in water, write
these on the chalkboard
3. Let them sub-divide their list into groups by identifying critical and non- critical
attributes of animals identified
4. Ask for other examples of each group
5. Ask for non-examples of each group
6. Have students name groups identified
7. Helps students to define the term amphibian including the and relating to the attributes
8. Provide a list of examples and non-examples of amphibian to the students to distinguish,
have them explain their choice
9. Check for understanding by asking questions

An example of inductive teaching

1. Identify the concept to be taught

2. Ask for one example of a reptile and give the correct response on the chalkboard

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 3. Ask for attributes of reptile selected, and list all correct responses below the reptile’s
name. Repeat the last twosteps several times to provide a number of examples.
4. Ask for names of creatures that are not reptiles and list correct responses
5. Using the material recorded on the chalk board, have students compare and relate
attributes to distinguish the critical attributes from the non-critical (incidental) attributes
6. Ask students to define the term reptile
7. Provide a list of creatures for several small groups and ask groups to use research sources
to determine which creatures are reptiles by applying the definition framed by the class.
8. Review the research by confirming or reframing their definition, drawing attention to
examples and their relation to one another.

When generalization has been made further discussion is usually necessary in order to express it
in a convenient and concise form of words. In mathematics this process is then carried a step
further and the generalization is finally expressed in a formula.

Guidelines on how to use examples

1. The teachers should always start with the simplest examples that will achieve their
objectives to more complex examples
2. The examples to start with should be those relevant to the learners experience and
knowledge
3. The teachers have to use the principle of relating their examples to the point which they
are trying to teach i.e. relating the examples to the generalization they exemplify
4. The teachers have to check to see whether they have accomplished the objectives by
asking the learners to give examples which illustrate the point they are trying to make.

Transmission methods

Lecture method

It is a technique of teaching by means of the spoken word where information is given orally
generating and relating understanding in the learners Callahan and Clark (1990) define it as a
method where the teacher tries verbally to give to the learner knowledge s/he possesses but the
learner does not. Groenewegen (1993) concurs by defining it as oral presentation of a pre-
planned set of data, meanings, examples, summaries and evaluations, with or without visual
support. There are two forms of lecturing formal and informal. A formal lecture is purely verbal
and communication is basically one way, from the speaker to the audience. An informal lecture
is a modified mode of the conventional formal lecture. Communication is two-way from the
speaker to the listener and from the listener to the speaker. Informal lecture is normally
interrupted by questions, comments, suggestions, viewing, observations, and demonstrations e.t.c
. students of given room to participate in various ways as the lecture progresses.

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Effective use of lecture calls for the teachers sensitivity on the needs potentiality, levels and
learning styles of the students. Generally the method is useful when (nasibi and kiio: 1995)

1. Introducing new topic concept. This is done by;

(i) Stating what will be achieved the given topic i.e. the objectives
(ii) Identifying the main points of the topic
(iii)Giving background information on the topic
2. Interpreting or clarifying situations encountered during the lesson. This is when
students have problem difficulties on content just taught
3. Synthesizing many sources; when the learners have limited textbooks, reference
books, the teacher can read information and present it to them.
4. The subject is factual and provides little opportunity for forming opinion or solving
problems
5. The teacher needs to arouse students interests or provide background information on a
given topic
6. The class is large, there is limited time for teaching yet the information has to be
given
7. Reviewing a discussion after group discussions. It is important for the teacher to
summarize the main points of the discussion: tieing together loose facts and ideas of
the discussion
8. Conclusion of a lesson: this is done by the teacher reviewing, synthesizing and
summarizing the lesson by highlighting salient features of the lesson

ADVANTAGES OF LECTURE METHOD

The importance of lecturing in teaching cannot be underestimated. Lang et al (1995)

noted that a good lecture is like a good speech; it can be stimulating and challenging and can
maintain high interest level in students. Apart from this, lecture as a method of transmission
has these advantages;

1. It leads to development of listening skills

2. It avoids confusion in note making among learners because the content was presented
uniformly
3. It is economical in terms of staff and time because it can use limited personnel to address
many students
4. When skillfully used, it arouses pupils interests, and sets them thinking and wondering
about the issues or content they are being exposed to. This motivates them to read further
on the subject.

LIMITATIONS OF LECTURE METHOD

1. Poor retention of learnt material.

2. Leads to note learning encouraging cramming instead of understanding

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 3. Does not lead to the development of inquisitive minds among learners
4. Boring uninspiring and monotonous
5. Does not follow for individual differences
6. Tends to make learners passive
7. Result to superficial learning because because most of them provide little
reinforcement by which to drive home understanding.
8. Does not lead to the attainment of higher cognitive learning goals

How does one overcome the above limitations?

The teacher can make the lecture method informal and liberating by planning for the lecture
carefully while bearing the following points in mind either in the preparation of presentation or
presentation stage ( niasibi and kiio: 1995)

1. Identifying the main theme of the lecture

2. Dividing the lectures into three parts: introduction, main body and conclusion.
3. Introducing the lesson with some interest catching device to capture the learners interest
and attention, for instance, making use of a story, a poem, a song as set induction

In the main body one should:

1. Partation the talk in a few briefly worded idea in a logical order.

2. Show enthusiasm for the topic being taught, this will arouse the learners interest as well.
3. Punctuate the lecture with pauses
4. Ask thought- provoking questions in strategic places to involve the learners.
5. Check on the students understanding by asking a few questions and encourage them to
ask questions
6. Reinforce the points of the lecture and provide for transfer by relating key points to the
students experiences.
7. Try to be humorous to make the lesson interesting
8. Make use of examples and illustration to illustrate points
9. Supplement or add life to a lecture by making use of audio-visual aids such as maps,
charts, pictures, films strips,realistic and objects.
10. Repeat important points for emphasis
11. Avoid irrelevancy by keeping to the point or give the learners chances to catch up
summarizing information for themselves.
12. Be aware of warning signs of the learners, such as restlessness, boredom, confusion,
indiscipline, dissatisfaction.
13. Use a familiar language and to the level of the learners and:
14. Make the lecture as short as you can. Do not present too much information at once.

43
 4. In the conclusion be forceful by either summing up or reviewing, asking related
questions or giving assignment
5. Follow the lecture with related activities to bind the learning by,
- Ensuring the learners make note using your outline
- Checking their notes and knowledge acquired
- Carrying a discussion with them on the points they did not follow
- Giving a project related to the content in the lecture
- Asking oral questions on the content covered
- Asking them oral questions to the content covered
- Asking them written questions to test their understanding
- Allowing a students to summarizing the main points of the lecture in a new lesson

Lang et al (1995: 270) summerised an effective lecture in these words the speaker must catch
students’ interest at the beginning, hold it during the session by delivering pertinent information
logically arranged involve learners overtly or covertly and stop before they reach saturation point

Demonstration

It is a teacher based technique of exposing the information to the learners. It shows the learners
how for example experiments are conducted or a skill is performed. It can be defined as a
method whereby a teacher (instructor) uses a diagram a model or an experiment to guide the
learners. According to Fenton (1967) it is used to show how somethings works through accurate
procedures and operations; and is always accompanied by explanations. It is very common
method in science and all the practical subjects. (Groenewegen: 1993)

Demonstration starts with;

(i) An introduction describing the procedure, its purposes, its merits, and warnings against
any potential risks or problems and
(ii) Demonstration. This can be by a teacher, an aide, or by film, videotape, or a sequence of
still pictures. The presentation should be accompanied by a verbal explanation of what is
happening.

As a method of teaching, demonstration should be applied;

1. When there are limited resources, materials or apparatus e.g. chemical, instruments,
maps, models e.t.c
2. When the resources e.g. apparatus to be used are perhaps too sophisticated or too
expensive for the learners to operate.
3. When the resource are likely to pose some danger to the learners e.g. poisons, radiation,
explosives etc and
4. When the level of learner is such that they cannot follow instructions properly ( or they
cannot do the practical on their own e.g a form 1 class)

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A teacher who uses demonstrations in his/her lesson should do the following

1. Ensure s/he has all the materials and apparatus needed.

2. Stand in a strategic place where everyone can see him/her and all will see it in a better
perspective without confusing right and left.
3. Go through the demonstration slowly so that the learners can follow how the procedure
goes.
4. In case of a complex demonstration show the complete procedure and then break down
into steps, demonstrating each step separately.
5. If necessary repeat the whole process or parts until it is understood by all students
6. Repeat it after they have started practicing
7. Use a variety of activities to ensure students active participation e.g. questioning,
recording, observing, reading data, drawing e.t.c
8. In cases where learners are to demonstrate after the teacher, the instructor should
supervise the students demonstrations

A part from lecture and demonstration methods, there are other methods which are transmission
in nature. They include narration, text-reading, audio-visual presentation and note-taking

NARRATION

Narration is an oral presentation of a string of events often with explanations of the events in
terms of their causes, and effects (Groenewegen: 1993). These could be local, national or
international events. It’s a method used in humanities and languages. To use it effectively, the
teacher must master the peculiar story- telling techniques which include:

1. Ensuring farmiliarity with the events being narrated

2. Ensuring the relevancy of the narration to the content being taught
3. Making use of simple and easy language
4. Using gestures, facial expressions, movements, modulated voice while narrating
5. Showing interests in the story or event being told by telling it in a natural, vivid way and
with a sense of humour
6. Making use of visual aid and bringing it in the lesson at the right time.

Text –reading

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It is the use of selected or specially composed texts for the transmission of the content or to
facilitate the acquisition of disposition other than knowledge (groenewegen: 1993). It can be
used in any subject across the curriculum. However, the teacher should not abuse this technique
by blind reading of the text. Before any reading is done, the teacher has to identify questions
which the learners will focus on as they read the text so that the exercise becomes purposeful.
The questions identified must be relevant cutting across the six levels of learning.

Audio-visual Presentation

This is a method where the teacher uses either a video tape, film etc.to pass content to the
learners. It could include feature films, set of slides with audio cassette and animations in the
film. To be beneficial, the teacher has to incorporate critical discussion in the presentation. S/he
should draw out a set of questions to guide a discussion in the theme of the film. It should be
useful for these questions to be given to the learners before viewings so that they will have
something to focus on during presentation.

Note- writing

Writing notes from dictation is a method which has been abused by many teachers. Some of
them spent a whole lesson either dictating notes to the learners or copying notes on the board for
the learners to copy. The best way for involving in note-writing is as follows;

(i) Tell the learners regularly during the lesson to take notes either through a brief
dictation like definitions of terms or copying the key points of the lesson from the
board which form the lessons structure.
(ii) Write questions on the board, whose answers will form adequate notes on the content
taught
(iii) Give a set of questions, the answers which could be found by reading a section of the
textbook, and thus form a lose structure of the content covered.

SUMMARY

The chapter has dealt with two strategies of teaching; expository and heuristic. Their definations,
characteristics, importance, the factors which favour their implications, the role of the teacher
and learners are discussed. It comes out clearly that although both strategies are important and
can be applied by the teacher at different stages of the lesson, heuristic, is preffered owing to its
emphasis on child-centered approach to learning. The chapter has looked at different expository
methods, their shortcomings and how the teacher could overcome these limitations so that
learning can be more meaningful. It is suggested that expository approach could be liberated and
made more eclectic by involving the learners through various activities during the lesson.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

FACILITATION METHODS

This approach to teaching has already been introduced in the previous chapter. It consists of two
main branches: guided inquiry and unguided inquiry. Lang et al (1995) distinguishes the terms
by noting that guided is where the teacher moves students gradually from direct and indirect
teaching towards a discovery; while unguided is an open-ended teaching strategy that targets
raising both students interests in learning and in the degree of personal responsibility they take
the learning process. A method like questioning fall under guided. Other methods which are
interactive and experimental fall under unguided. Interactive methods encourage discussion and
sharing of ideas, responsibilities and other sources among learners. Experiential facilitates the
acquisition of knowledge through experience and reflection ( lang et al (1995)

Illustration 18: methods under heuristic (inquiry) strategy

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Guided Inquiry Unguided Inquiry

Questioning Interactive Methods

Guided discussions, open discussions, buzz
groups, small groups, debtes, brainstorming,
panels, forums, e.t.c

Experiential methods
Role playing, simulations, dramatizations, field
trips. Filed observations, experiments, case
studies, projects, pure inquiry.

Questioning

This is the core of teaching “the teacher who never asks questions never teaches” ( kochher:
1992). They are vital tools for teaching and learning (parrot: 1982). Groenewegen (1993: 96)
defines this method as a carefully designed string of questions which lead the learner to arrive at
answer. It is seen as a bridge between the expository and heuristic approaches.

Purpose of questioning

According to pollard (1997) asking questions provides immediate feedback on how participants
are thinking and on what they know and it accounts for a high proportion of teacher talk. Dewey
(1916) contends teacher’s questions should motivate learning, observation and experimentation.
Apart from these functions, questions have the following purposes.

1. Stimulation of interests, imaginations, initiative and creativity among learners

2. Assertion of control and establishing of a rapport with learners in order to keep them alert
and attentive during the lesson.
3. Reviewing the previous lesson on work covered to expose difficulties with learners may
be facing so that they are addressed. This can be done by using low level cognitive
questions to recall information encourage analysis
4. Preparing the learner for new content by assessing their knowledge level on a given topic.
This is done by diagnosing learners and finding out their entry behaviors and level of
attainment.
5. Developing the ability to think, encouraging self –expression, developing appreciation of
ideas among the learner. They are encouraged to verbalize their knowledge and thoughts
and to learn from each other. This can be done by open questions where learners will be
required to explore information and ideas, and to synthesize the information.
6. Evaluating the learners level of understanding by encouraging the transfers of ideas and
application of knowledge and an on-the spot solution to problems.

48
 7. Encouraging a problem solving approach to thinking and learning.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Lower order and higher order questions. Lower order questions involve either restraining
facts or information memorized earlier in there raw state or comprehending the
information and applying it to new situations. They can be cognitive memory questions
which are normally narrow and factual seeking recall or facts, definition of terms or
descriptive statements or recall of correction answers. The answer may consist of single
word or phrase on descriptive statements.
2. Higher order questions are broad, more complicated calling for inter-relationships and
value judgments. They are classified as divergent and evaluative questions. Divergent
questions are wider and open without correct answers.

The higher order questions therefore require abstract thinking. It teaches learners to generalize,
to relate facts in meaningful patterns, to compare and contrast concepts of principles to make
inferences to use ideas and conclude. Apart from belonging to lower and higher order categories.
Questions can also be classified as psycho-social and pedagogic. The former refers to those
questions which center on relationship between a teacher and learners while the latter relates to
more specific education concerns such as skills attitudes and concepts. Banners at el (1969) give
yet another classification:

(1) Factual questioning

(2) Reasoning questions
(3) Open none resources questions
(4) Social questions

Proper questioning techniques

For one to apply questioning techniques adequately, the following should be observed:

1. Clarity of expression; use simple language to the level of the learners which will produce
the right response
2. Question on what is within the experience, ability and background of the learners
3. Have an answer in mind
4. The questions should be directed to the whole class leading to the involvement of as
many students as possible
5. Sequence questions so that they chart a logical sequence reflecting the development of
the lesson
6. Distribute question even among students
7. Use prompting questioning when there is no response or the response is weak

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 8. Pick on individuals to respond to the question, use their names
9. Use probing technique to get better response through support questions, clarification,
rephrasing, use of examples etc.
10. Pause after asking question for digestion, organization and response from learners
11. Give credit for effort made by using reinforcements techniques
12. Accept correct answers and comment on the wrong ones so that the learners have no
doubt as to the correct response
13. Avoid chorus answers and rhetoric questions

Qualities of good questions

1. Meaningful and relevant

2. Definite and direct
3. Clear and coherent
4. Simple but challenging enough and thought provoking
5. Suitable at the age
6. Understandable and answerable
7. Concise and to the point
8. Interesting and within the experience of the learner

Discussion and group techniques

Discussion is a learning activity where a teacher and a learner talk together in order to share the
opinions, views or information about a topic or problem. It makes an absolutely fundamental
contribution to learning. A genuine class discussion must start with some attempt to elicit
opinions and knowledge from the pupils to treat them seriously and to explore their
consequences (pollard: 1997)

There two approaches to discussion “expository-oriented” and “inquiry-oriented” discussion. In

expository the teacher defines the objectives of the lesson, explains learning activities, and
allows for the discussion. invite questions before concluding the activity.

In inquiry discussions the teacher may not state the objectives, instead s/he arranges for the
discussion to take place and the whole activity is open –ended. The teacher serves as a leader and
students carry out the discussion and arrive at a conclusion. Learning is seen as the product of
creative inquiry and active student participation. Inquiry-oriented discussion, class session is
characterized by:

1. The probing exploration of ideas, concepts and issues

2. Building upon students responses in a developmental flow;
3. Interaction among all participants
4. Questioning, sharing, differing, conjecturing on the part of all
5. Student participation in decision making

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 6. Hypothesizing and problem solving
7. Shifting leadership among participants.

Examples of participatory activities which fall under discussion are whole class discussion
panel’s debates etc.

In these activities, there are techniques which provide opportunities for students to present their
ideas. Opinions and information and for the expression of differing viewpoints. They include the
following

1. Round table: this is a quite informal group, usually five or fewer participants who sit
around a table and converse among themselves and the audience. Normally, there is
active learning and responding. It is also characterized by effective exchange of ideas,
opinions and viewpoints
2. Panel: it is fairly informal setting in which four to six participants with a chairman
discuss a topic among themselves, and there is a give and take with the class. It allows for
free flow and exposition of ideas; it is wide open and spontaneous in exchange of views.
Each participant makes an opening statement, but there are no speeches. The class is
given room to make comments freely, giving their views.
3. Forum; a type panel approach in which a panel gives and talks with the audience.
4. Symposium: this is a more formal setting in which participants present speeches
representing different positions and open up for questions from the floor. It requires
thoughtful preparation and is in useful in a science class where research findings can be
discussed or topics of controversy.
5. Debate: a very formal approach consisting of set speeches by participants of two
opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant. Ii calls for careful planning for it to be
productive.

In these presentations, students are needed to be taught how to: gather information; take major
points; organize materials; present a position succinctly, engage in dialogue; and debate with one
another

Suggestions on how to organize presentation type except for debate

1. To guide the pupils in selecting appropriate topic

2. Select the participants
3. Guide them on how to prepare for presentation by: selecting a chairman for them,
supervising the group members in the gathering and organizing material, briefing them
on the procedure and roles

The role of the chairman for instance includes:

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  Introduction of the topic, preparation of the audience and explanations of the
procedures:
 Introduction of the members
 Ascertaining that the members do not take too long
 Soliciting questions from the audience
 Accepting question and soliciting for more
 Summing up when necessary
 Redirecting the flow of discussion when necessary
 Closing the discussion
4. Conduct the presentation: in order to involve the class in activities during the
presentation ensure the class is taking notes, the learners summarize the major points of
argument and evaluate the arguments and logic of the presentation.
5. Follow up the presentation with a class discussion
6. Follow up and tie up loose ends

How to organize a debate

1. Select a question or a topic to be discussed

2. Allow students to form two teams, one for the topic and another arguing against it
3. Select a chairman and a time keeper
4. Choose first speaker one for and another against
5. Chose second speakers one for and another against
6. The speaker should be given 5-7 minutes each
7. Allow the first rebuttal for and second rebuttal against
8. Give chance for second rebuttal and second rebuttal against
9. Allow time for a general discussion, this is when the floor is open for the rest of the class
10. Give concluding remarks

Small groups (syndicate, buzz and pair groups)

This involves forming groups from the whole class. The groups should consist of between 3-5
members for syndicate groups and learners for quick reference as pair groups. These groups
could be generated in one of the following ways:

1. Random grouping: this is where the students are grouped without any order. The teacher
picks them to form a group. The aim of such is to get students acquainted and to
encourage cooperation with other class members
2. Friendship grouping: the teacher deals with a clique as a group. Students from the same
neighborhood or social class are put together forming a homogeneous group.

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 3. Interest grouping: students volunteer for various groups on the basis of interests in the
activity going on in that group or on topics under discussion, e.g. in a project some might
volunteer to paint, draw or write up the whole project
4. Achievement level grouping: students are grouped by their teacher according to their
ability. For instance, one group consists of bright another average and the other weak
students.
5. Differential ability grouping: the teacher intentionally places students with different
leadership and academic abilities in one group so that they can form a more functional
group.
6. Gender inclined: students are grouped according to their gender. The idea is to promote
competition between boys and girls.

Normally these groups meet to share opinions, viewpoints, reactions, etc. they are important
because:

1. They provide an opportunity for all the participants to interact in a way that is not
possible in a class situation. This makes learning more meaningful.
2. They promote self –discipline and reduce classroom management problems
3. Learners learn the skills of listening as well as talking as they listen and exchange ideas
4. They also get opportunities to practice other manipulative skills through resources, and
observation.
5. It can be used to let off steam when students seem restless and bored
6. The learners grow in confidence as they discuss, argue, and exchange ideas with each
other
7. There is emergence of leadership qualities through sharing of responsibilities
8. They develop student’s higher level cognitive, interactive, and communication skills and
increase their accountability and independence.

Organization of group work

It is important for group work to be organized properly. This organizational process can be
considered at three levels: before, during and after the group work.

Before group work, the teacher should,

1. They are required resources for discussion

2. The work to be discussed is written on the chalkboard or on pieces of paper. It must be
clear to the learners if the discussion had to be productive.
3. Groups are formed using one of the techniques of grouping already discussed.
4. Learners moves in group and identify a chairperson/secretary
5. S/he gives specific time for discussion 7-10 minutes.

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During group work, it should be ensured that: learners discuss with chairperson leading the
discussion and secretary noting down the points. The teacher goes around checking and assisting
where possible.

After the group work, the teacher should open up a discussion, pooling all points from the
secretaries, restricting, rephrasing and using correct terminologies and writing the points on the
chalkboard. In additional to this, the teacher also allows time for questions, clarifications,
comments and additions and ask learners to copy the points down; gives including remarks and
in class follow-up activities if necessary.

These groups could also be utilized in a wider project both in the social sciences and the
sciences. In groups of 3-5, students could work on a project in some of these areas in science:

1. fish raising
2. studying and caring for flowers
3. studying plants like maize, beans

Under each of the above, they could study various aspects of growth and development, observe
and make regular progress report to the entire class. Different groups could be engaged in
different projects

Topics on project

(i) Mode and means of communication and transport. They could study the development
of each means from ancient time to- date
(ii) Reporting on important historical events taking place in the world from the
newspapers and their impact in the society.

When small group activities take longer period they fall under project work.

Project method

This method aims at developing the child into decent worthwhile citizens by actively involving
one into the learning process and freeing the individual from the traditional school environment
that that is usually marked with passivity method has been defined as :

(i) any unit of activity, individual or group, involving the investigations and solution of
problems, that is planned and carried to conclusions by a student or students under
the guidance of teacher
(ii) an educational assignments necessitating personal initiative on the part of the learner
(iii) a piece of work that needs skills, effort and careful planning especially over a period
of time

Types of projects

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1. producer type: the learners are expected to construct real thing, models,
2. Consumer type: the learners are expected to make use of already proceed materials e.g.
watching a film, reading or listening to a stage about great personality, studying speeches
of great personality. Studying speeches of great personality and writing on the
achievement and characteristics of the persons like Kwame Nkrumah, Nelson Mandela,
and Jomo Kenyatta.
3. After consuming the produced materials, the learners can be engaged in a project like
writing and acting out a story.
4. Problem-solving project: the learners are exposed to a problem solve in sciences,
humanities or languages. The solution to the problem could be book- based or field,i.e
5. . the learner could solve the problem by reading books within the school or going out in
the field to gather information towards the solution of the problem.

Criteria for a good project

1. Relevancy: it should be relevant to the instructional objective and the topic under the
study
2. Usefulness: it should result in a worthwhile end product fulfilling a long standing need.
3. Economical: it should be reasonable in so far as time, effort, cost an availability of
sources are concerned
4. Suitable and challenging: should be challenging enough and suitable to the mental age
and ability of the learners, not too difficult nor too simple. If difficult, the learners will be
discouraged; if too easy, they will lose interest or not see the seriousness of the activity.
5. Interesting in appealing: this is possible if the projects are chosen depending on the
interests of the learners
6. Richness: it should promote interdisciplinary approach to learning where knowledge is
viewed as a whole
7. Reality: they should be based on the real life situation. The learning experiences in a
project must be capable of being applied in life.

Preparation for a project

1. The teacher students should identify a project to work on.

2. The teacher should discuss the project with the students, so that they understand what it is
3. The learners should decide democratically and plan on what they should work on within
the project
4. The learners should cooperate to execute the plan with the teacher’s guidance. Some of
the activities should include; observing, drawing, painting, modelling, interviewing,
reading and writing.
5. The teacher and the learners should evaluate the project. Constructive criticism should be
made on the completed project so that an improvement is made on it.

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 6. The teacher should record the project in a book for future reference. This record will
include: how the problem was identified, duties assigned, problems experienced and
experience gained by the learners.

Teacher’s role in a project

I a project work the teacher

1. Helps the learners to identify suitable projects

2. Guides, supervises, advices the learners as they work on the project
3. Monitors the progress of the learners
4. Makes an evaluation guide for evaluating the project
5. Evaluates the project and
6. Records and keeps safely the record for future use by other groups

Evaluation guide for a project

In evaluating or assessing the completed project, the teacher should look for the following

1. Relevancy of the completed work to the topic under study

2. Precision of the finished work. How accurate is the information contained in the project
3. Worthiness of the project in relation to the time taken
4. Richness of the project. Does it promote the interdisciplinary approach to learning, i.e
how many subjects are integrated in the subject area
5. Appropriateness of the product to the level of the learners. Is it within or below their
ability level|?
6. Clarity of the message portrayed in the project
7. Personal initiative and creativity in the project
8. Appropriateness of colours used.
9. Suitability and durability of the material used in the project
10. Neatness of the finished work

Advantage of project method

This method has the following benefits

1. Preparing the child for life outside school by acquainting one with real problems of
life
2. Promoting a sense of responsibility and cooperation among the learners as they work
together to achieve a common goal
3. Treating knowledge as a whole and correlating it avoiding compartmentalizing it into
subjects

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 4. Imparting training to students to inculcate in them independence, tolerance, patience,
open mindedness and resourcefulness. These virtues are essential for god citizenship
5. Training for democratic way of life which is exercised through choice of areas of
interest in the project
6. Upholding the dignity of labour because students learn to work with their own hands
7. Developing important skills in learners, such as observation, interviewing critical
thinking and decision making
8. Utilizing the students potential to the full because they are encouraged to use and
develop their own talents
9. Providing flexibility in learning as the learners learn at their own initiative and pace

Disadvantages of project method

1. It upsets the routine work of the school. This is especially the case with fieldwork
2. It is not possible to apply all the subjects in a single project
3. Sometimes teachers end up emphasizing trivial points when they are trying to show inter
relatedness of topics or subjects
4. Learners do not always make the best choices. As such the choices they make do not
reflect their interest and ability
5. Learners get difficulties in getting relevant books for book based projects
6. Sometimes learners may not comprehend what they are doing. This is especially the case
with book projects where students may just copy notes without understanding
7. The method is very demanding on the part of the teacher for it needs efficiency and
resourcefulness. This scat-res off many teachers from trying it out
8. Grades given to learners do not always reflect the actual ability or performance of each
individual student
9. Project method is expensive and time- consuming especially the field based one
10. If not well planned, learners may lose sight or vision of the project and utilize that time to
enjoy themselves or engage in other unproductive activities.

Field trip and surveys

These are visits or trips the learners make to the venues of learning.

They are important because;

1. They make instruction real and vivid because students go out in the field to see and do it
by themselves. They are able to link instructions in real life
2. They arouse curiosity among learners, thus increasing their motivation to learn
3. They break class monotony where they have to sit in class day after day
4. Learners develop the skills of analyzing and interpreting data and

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 5. They extend the classroom into the countryside by participating in activities or problems
of the community

Possible areas for field trips

The following are some areas where students can be taken for study

1. A factory (tea, coffee, e.t.c)

2. A theatre to see production of a specific play. Eg. The burdens
3. A swamp or a river near the school to gather specimen and study the river course
4. Museum to see historical artifacts works of great art
5. Historical sites e.g. fort Jesus, Gedi ruins, Portuguese pillar,
6. Post office to see the activities conducted there e.g. sending of money orders, telegrams

Preparation for a field trip

Preparation will differ depending on the distance between the school and the place. But in cases
where the place is far, the following should be followed to the letter (Nasibi and Kiio: 1995):

1. The teacher identify relevant place to be visited

2. Discussing the intended trip with the head of the school for approval
3. Planning objectives of the trip: what is to be achieved by the trip
4. Informing the students about the intended trip
5. Preparing and sending questionnaires in advance to the people who will be in charge on
the students during the trip
6. Contacting relevant people agents to seek permission
7. Agreeing on date, time number of students, teachers and activities the learners will be
involved
8. Informing the parents about the visit through a written note
9. Enlisting support and assistance of other members of staff and parents
10. Making arrangements with school authorities for students left behind or duties left
attended.
11. Making route plan
12. Reviewing field trip guide for students
13. Providing students with necessary materials
14. Arranging for safety devices by the students
15. Establishing rules of contact, behavior standards and form of dress
16. Giving procedure to be followed when one gets lost or is left behind.
17. Taking roll call before the start of the trip

Just like the teacher, the learners must prepare the visit. Their preparation should including the
following.

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 (i) Understanding the objectives of the visits in advance
(ii) Being clear on what to look for during the trip
(iii) Preparing questions in advance with the help of the teacher
(iv) Dividing themselves into groups under a group leader depending on their area of the
interest with the guidance of the teacher
(v) Collection of the apparatus and other materials needed
(vi) Taking responsibilities e.g.
 Writing down details of the visit
 Listing areas of interest
 Taking photographs
 Tape recording
 Interviewing resource people
 Being in charge of food, drinks, and:
 Taking care of first aid box and cases

During the visit or trip both the teacher and the learners have these responsibilities:

1. The teacher should ensure that there is proper conduct in the bus during the trip, e.g.
remaining on the seat, not sticking arms and heads out of the window.
2. In cases of stop on the way, the teacher has to take roll call to ensure that nobody is left
behind
3. On arrival, the teacher should reinstruct the learners on what should be done.
4. The teacher has to ensure that students work together in groups
5. The students should carry out specific tasks assigned to them
6. The teacher should supervise the learners in various activities they are involved in.
7. The teacher should observe time and ensure that the students go back to class on time.
8. If the trip calls for spending the night out away from the school the teacher should ensure
that the students are safe and comfortable.

Follow-up after the visit

For the teacher to assess the success and benefits of the trip, one should,

1. Take about one or two lessons after the visit to consolidate the findings.
2. Give time to group leaders to present their results
3. Write major points on the chalkboard for the benefits of the whole classes
4. Mark and file written reports in a class file for future reference.
5. Give students an assignments based on the visit, e.g. project
6. Correct any errors made by the guides or agents during the visit
7. Write a brief evaluation of the trip for the future reference.

Pure inquiry/ discovery method

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This is a method which has an element of the problem solving or discovery learning and is on the
extreme of teaching continuum. It stresses on the experiences of the learner either inside or
outside the classroom. It is applied to all subjects in the curriculum not only sciences. It might
involve carrying out an experiment in the laboratory, solving a mathematics problem, thinking
through a historical or geographical problem. This method is useful because:

1. It draws conclusions: form concepts and generalization from some form of induction,
deduction, observation or application of principals. The learners also learn to apply this to
new situations.
2. It offers good motivating activity.
3. Learners get an opportunity to learn and introduce the intellectual skills and learn to think
rationally.
4. Learners are able to see relationship and the disciplinary structure.
5. Learners understand the intellectual processes
6. Students learn that learning becomes meaningful, through and more useful when students
seek out and discover knowledge.

The method has the following short comes:

1. Costly in time and effort.

2. When pupils reach erroneous conclusion, re-teaching may be more difficult
3. Contradiction in what has been discovered and what the teacher has in mind

Procedure for conducting discovery is scientific in nature. It involves:

1. Selecting the generalization; this is where thinking originates and the generalization is
made in a state of doubt, hesitation and mental difficulty
2. Setting up a problem situation: the problem is stated and expanded in order to clarify it.
The learners discuss the problem amongst them and clarify it.
3. Setting up experiences that will bring out essential elements such as problems solving,
questions, demonstration, etc. this leads to a statement of a hypothesis and implies
reflection of the problem situation.
4. Putting up experiences that will bring out constructing elements. This is when the results
of the inquiry come out which may be tentative, subject of new and different results in
the light of new knowledge.

Illustration 19: basic steps in using the inquiry model.

1. Set up the problem situation

2. Provide experiences to bring out essential elements

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 3. Set up experiences to bring out contrasting elements

4. Learners forms concept or generalization

5. Learners applies concept or generalization

Learner’s role in inquiry teaching

According to Callahan and clerk (1990), the student’s duties in inquiry method include the
following:

1. Guiding learning by raising problems, issues, questions, designed to cat the pupil’s
interest.
2. Starting the learners thinking
3. Encouraging them to investigate by.
4. Helping them to map out their procedure
5. Ordering their thinking
6. Leading some to logical conclusions
7. Testing and applying their conclusions

During this time teacher should:

1. Supporting and accepting the learners with their views

2. Accentuating the positive by distinguishing good reasons from bad ones
3. Encouraging the exchange of ideas
4. Warning and rescuing pupils when they seem to lose their way
5. Encouraging pupils to make informed guessed
6. Fostering free debates and open discussion and urging pupils to try and think things out
without threats of failure

In addition to stimulating independent resourceful thinking one should:

1. Check the learners data gathering technique

2. Ask-thought provoking questions
3. Ask for interpretation
4. Ask students implication of their data and information
5. As students to check their thinking and logic
6. Identify situations which will call for the learner’s reassessment of thinking and positons.

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 SUMMARY

This chapter has dealt with heuristic strategy of teaching where both interactive and experimental
methods were discussed. It has made it clear that the learners should be encouraged to take more
control of learning situations because it is through this that interactive learning would be
achieved and the social skills of the corporative, sharing. Respect and love will be fully realized.

Suggested tutorial activities

1. Explain how a teacher can make questioning method learner oriented

2. Explain four factors you will consider to make the discovery method more effective
3. Distinguish between inductive approach and deductive approach of teaching
4. Using examples show how deductive approach is related to heuristic strategy
5. In groups of 4-5 discuss the statement “ Hearing about something is not as effective as
doing it”
6. Give suggestions on how the limitations mentioned in might be overcome
7. Mention the salient factors relating to group work in terms of pupils opportunity to
participate
Peer learning
Time available for syllabus coverage

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 CHAPTER SIX

PLANNING FOR TEACHING

INTRODUCTION

Effective teaching is influenced by how well the teacher has prepared for the lesson before the
teaching starts. It originates with ones interaction with the syllabus and its interpretation, the
ability to make good schemes of the work and lesson plans.

1. A syllabus

This can be prescribed course of study in a given subject or level. Burstein and green ( 1972)
define it as: a statement of the content of study- the amount of knowledge and selection of
knowledge which is proposed that a pupil should acquire.

Every subject in the curriculum, forum pre-primary to university has a syllabus. In Kenya,
secondary and primary school syllabus are prepared by a panel of subjects specialists at Kenya
institute of education, a body whose function is to develop the curriculum if designing a syllabus
there are a number of considerations.

(i) National goal of education: what are the goals of education in the country where the
syllabus will be used? The goals will reflect the needs of the nation.

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 (ii) Aims of education: this refers to the general aims of the educational system and aims of
either primary or secondary, or university level at which the syllabus will be operational.
(iii)Aims of teaching the subject: of what importance is a given subject in the curriculum?
How does it fulfill or contribute towards achieving the goals of education.
(iv) Adequate of content in relation to time available: how much content can be covered
within the time specified at different levels of education.
(v) The levels at which the syllabus will be operational.
(vi) Intellectual level or development of the learners: at what level are the learners?
(vii) Resources available: this refers to both physical and human resources which will
make the syllabus operational
(viii) The needs of the learners: these includes the physical, psychological and
emotional needs of the students who will be exposed to the syllabus.

A syllabus should state the general objectives of teaching that subject, the resources to be used in
teaching it, the methods to be applied to the teacher in effective teaching, and lastly the
evaluation technique to be used to determine at what level the objective have been realized. Of
key importance is the content to be taught and specific objectives to be realized by the teaching
of each topic. The teacher has to ensure that all the content and objectives specified in the
syllabus are taught and realized.

2. Schemes of work

The scheme of work is detailed, logical and sequential plan that interprets the syllabus into units
that can be used in a teaching situation. It can also be defined as a breakdown of the syllabus into
manageable units which could be covered in a specific period of time lasting for either weeks,
months or years ( Nasibi, Kiio: 1995). It can also be defined as a projection of what a tescher
intends to cover ( with a class) within a specified period.

3. Importance of scheming

According to Nasibi and kiio (1995) scheming is essential because of the following:

(i) 1. It makes teaching both systematic and orderly since it ensures that topics in the
syllabus are taught in an orderly manner starting with the simplest to the most
complex.
(ii) It ensures that every topic in the syllabus is covered.
(iii) It enables the teacher to budget for time wisely giving room for events and activities
which might interfere with the school calendar e.g. public holidays, price giving days
, sports day etc.
(iv) It gives the teacher an insight in teaching by enabling the teacher to identify the
content, methods and relevant instructional materials which they are going to use in
the lesson thus giving him/her enough time to sort out the requirements.
(v) It guides the teacher in making a lesson plan

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 (vi) It checks the teachers pace of teaching.
(vii) It is useful during transition, when the teacher is transferred, the incoming teacher
will easily take over from where s/he had reached avoiding repetition or omission.
This ensures continuity in the learning process.

d. factors to consider while scheming.

(i) The availability of the syllabus: this will specify the content to be achieved and taught
respectively. One has to be aware of the learning opportunities which will be
provided for the selected objectives to be developed.
(ii) The level, experience, ability and background of the learners: what are the present
capabilities and knowledge of the learners?
(iii) The teaching/ learning environment: this is physically coordination either in and
outside the school under which learning takes place.
(iv) Resources available in the school and community: this will determine organizational
strategy to be adopted.
(v) The teaching style and competency of the teacher: this will go with the educational
and professional background and the experience in teaching.
(vi) Constraints with the schools environment e.g. special days. The question to be asked
is “ are there any constraints imposed by simultaneous demands from other teachers
or events.
(vii) The relation between the subject being schemed and other subjects taught in the
school. Are there topics in the syllabus which have been covered partly in other
subjects.
(viii) The number of lessons assigned for the subject in school timetable. There are some
subjects which have three lessons in a week, others have five and others as many as
seven.
(ix) Assessment of learning: how will the progress of the children be monitored, assessed
and recorded.

(e) the process of scheming

For effective scheming, it is suggested that the following processes be followed.

1. Read the syllabus to know the content from which the scheme of work will be planned
2. Calculate the approximate number of teaching periods in the term taking into
consideration holidays, school activities, revision, tests, and examinations.
3. Allocate time to the topic according to the complexity of the concept.
4. Arrange the topics to be taught so that there is sequence of instruction.
5. Find out the previous background of knowledge and skills people requires to be ready for
the new content.

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6. Indicate at what time to term continues assessment tests will be given. This will depend
on the policy of the school. In some schools, tests are given after every two weeks, a
month or after covering each topic. The teacher needs to find out about the policy
requirement and scheme accordingly. At the same time, the instructor should allocate
time for revision towards the end of the term if it is a requirement by the school.

According to Cohen and Manion (1977) schemes may either be sequential or non-sequential
depending on the subject being being schemed. A sequential scheme is one in which the
components are logically related to one another and which the achievement of the later
components will depend in large measure on having mastered the earlier ones. In months
sequential arrangement is a must.

(f) features of a scheme work.

1. Every scheme of work must have administrative information indicating: the subject,
class, stream, term and year when the schemes will be operational. It also gives a little; “
a scheme of work in geography, form 11B, 1st term, 2002.
2. Week: it refers to the week of the term when a given topic in the scheme will be taught
e.g. 2nd week: introduction to geography. The teacher has to plan for all the weeks of the
term.
3. Period or lesson: this refers to the specific lesson in a week when a given topic or sub-
topic will be taught. The number of lessons per week for subjects varies. There are some
subjects which have three lessons per week per subject vary. There are some subjects
who have three lessons a week, others four, five, six, or even seven. Since there are
activities and cater for them in planning process. To estimate the number of periods to be
taught in a term and multiply by the number of subjects periods per week, less 10% for
lost periods that may occur due to interpretation and other factors.
4. Objectives: they specify what the learners are expected to achieve at the end of the
lesson. They are specific, stated in behavioral terms of what the teacher expects learners
to do at the end of the lesson.
5. Content (topic, sub-topic): it shows what topic or sub-topic will be expected to carry the
period. It is a given lesson/period. It also indicates some of the main points of the lesson.
6. Learning activities: these are activities which the students will be expected to carry out in
order to learn the content presented to them by the teacher.
7. Resources: these are teaching materials which the teacher is supposed to use to facilitate
learning and therefore achieve the objectives stated e.g. pictures, charts, maps, objects,
models, audiovisual etc.
8. References: these are the textbooks and other printed material teacher uses or consults
while scheming or planning to teach reference books, newspapers, magazines journals
etc.
9. Remarks: these are comments a teacher makes after teaching a given lesson. They are
concerned with whether the lesson went schemed and if not why and what step will be
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 taken. The steps to be considered be repeating the lesson, carrying out remedial teaching
or clarifying certain issues.
10. Means of evaluation: this refers to how the learners achievement will be assessed against
the planned lesson objectives.

Illustration 20: A sample of a geography schemes of work form

1st term 2001

Week Period Content Objectives

Learning Resources Reference remarks
activities
1 1 Topic By the end e.g group A chart on Author, Taught in
2 Sub-topic of the discussions/ a map title planning
3 Main lesson the anwering publisher
points learner questions place, year
should be pages
able to… Reading the
text on…
2 1 Topic By the end e.g. in groups Chart on a Author … Lessons
Sub-topic of the of 3-4 discuss map of Title …. covered
Maintopics lesson the answering chalkboard Publisher… and
learner questions on …. for… planned
should be Reading the Place because
able to text on Year of …
experinmenting pages
on…

Observing…
2
3
3 1

Note: some subjects have term objectives covering what the teacher intend to cover for the whole
term. They are written after the administration details before coming to the schemes format.

(g) Lesson planning

A lesson is a work plan showing clearly all activities that are going to take place during the lesson and
the order in which they are going to follow.

(h) Importance of lesson plan

1. They are used as basis of lessons presentation. They give the teacher an agenda or outline to
follow as the teaching taking place.

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 2. They enable the teacher to be familiar with the teaching content and to visualize the best way of
covering out.
3. They serve as guide map to the teacher on the content to be taught in order to avoid vagueness
and irrelevancies.
4. They serve as memory bank, reminding the teacher of the main to focus on during the lesson.
This becomes important in case of a memory lapse, interruption or discussion.
5. They give the teacher security and confidence, especially to a beginning teacher who can walk
into a classroom with the confidence gained from having a well-developed and organized
framework for the day’s instruction.
6. They act as an orderly sequencing of content and learning activities in a lesson.
7. They improve the teacher’s performance by acting as a basis for future planning.
(i) Elements of lessons plan
1. Administrative details: this shows the name and registration number of the student- teacher,
school, subject, form stream of the class.
2. Topic/sub-topic: this is the name of the subject matter to be taught that day.
3. Objectives: there are some objectives stated in the schemes but now transfer to the lesson plan,
stating what to be achieved in one lesson of 40 minutes or double lesson of 80 minutes.
4. Time: the time in the plan format shows the exact time the teacher will spend at every stage of
the lesson.
5. Content: the exact information to be passed to the learner under the topic being taught, it is to
be presented at three levels: introduction, lesson development and conclusion. It identifies the
main points to be delivered in the body of the lesson.
6. Learning activities: refers to what the learners will be doing at each level of the lesson to show
that learning is taking place or the objective is being realized.each activity should be planned
around the pattern of transition namely; introduction activities, lesson development activities
etc. they should be specific and challenging enough depending on the learners level and ability.
They should also be related to and helpful in achieving topic objectives and varied. Examples of
related activities: answering questions, discussing, chalkboard writing, drawing, reading, role
playing, debating, and doing homework and note taking among others.

On characteristics and construction of instructional objectives, the learner should refer on earlier
information given in chapter 3: objectives of education under the sub-topic ‘instructional objectives’

Illustration 21: a sample of lesson plans format.

Name of the Student –teacher………………………..reg. no……………………..

School Form
Subject no. in class
Date
Topic time
Sub-topic
Objectives

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Time Content Learning activities Resources/ materials
5 Introduction Observing a picture on……. A picture on…..
30 Lesson development Answering questions on….. Author, title,
Copying definition of….. publisher, place, year
Drawing a chart on…. of publication, page
5 Conclusion Answering questions on the lesson
Self-evaluation

Note: self-evaluation is when the teacher evaluates his/her teaching after the lesson to find out whether
the objectives were realized or not. If not what went wrong? Should the lesson be repeated? Methods
and resources reviewed?

Illustration 22: a lesson plan

Name of the student teacher :Nehemia Wangai

School: Gracia Secondary School Form 3B
Subject: Literature No in class 30
Date: 15/3/2003
Topic: Oral Literature Time 9.00-9.40
Sub-Topic: Riddle
Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to
i. Define the term riddle
ii. Give at least three examples of riddles from his/her community
iii. Explain four characteristics of riddles in a given society
Time Content Learning activities Resource materials
5 Introduction: definition of a riddle; an Attempting to define Eric partridge(1987)
enigma or dark saying I intend for the the two term riddle usage and abusage
audience to discover the hidden London: guild publishing
meaning p.50
30 Lesson development step 1 Giving examples of Jane Nandwa and Austin
Examples of riddles e.g a house riddles from the Bukenya (1983) Oral
without a door communities, writing Literature for schools
Three daughters who cannot function examples or riddles on Nairobi;Longman p.50
without one the chalkboard in
vernacular and
translating them to
English
Step 2 characteristics of riddles Identify characteristucs Jane Nandwa and Austin
(i) Statement form of riddles by analyzing Bukenya (1983) p. 51
(ii) Question form the examples of riddles
(iii) Puzzling sounds given
(iv) Long/short form
Step 3 functions of riddle In groups of 4-5 discuss
(i) Entertainment the functions of riddles
(ii) Sharpening ones intelligence in their communities
(iii) Educating
(iv) Reinforcing behavior

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 (v) Solving day to day life tussles
5 Conclusion : review the topic taught Answering questions on
the topic
Self-evaluation

Illustration 23: a lesson plan.

Name of the student : Nehema Wangai Reg. E35/099989/2002

Shool: Gracia Secondary School
Subject: Geography Form 2w
Date: 16/3/2002 No. in class 40
Topic : Rainfall Time: 8.00-8.40
Sub-topic: Types of rainfall
Objectives :By end of the lesson, the learner should be able to
i. Define the term rainfall
ii. Identify types of rainfall
iii. Explain at least four characteristics of conventional rain
iv. Describe with an illustration how conventional rain is caused

Time Content Objectives Resource/material

5 Introduction Answer the question
Definition of rainfall What is raindfall?
-drops of water received
from the atmosphere

30 Lesson development Identifying types of rainfall KIE

Step 1: types of rainfall Defining conventional, relief and Geography for
(i) Conventional frontal rain Form 2
(ii) Relief Writing down characteristics of Nairobi
(iii)Frontal conventional rain KLB, 1998
Step 2: conventional Observing on a chart and how the pp. 105-115
rainfall: characteristics rain is formed, drawing the chart and A chart on
(i) Heavy rainfall illustrating formation of formation of
(ii) Rains in the conventional rain conventional
afternoon\ Asking questions on areas not clear rainfall
(iii)Brief and large
drops
(iv) Occurs in humid
tropical areas
Step 3: formation of
conventional rainfall
(i) Heating of the land
(ii) ………..
(iii)………
5 Conclusion Answering questions related to the
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 Review the lesson through lesson
question –answer method,
giving an assignment Read on relief rain from KIE
Geography
For Form 2P. 116-120

SUMMARY

This chapter has been focusing on planning for teaching and learning in a secondary school class. It has
emphasized that teachers need to plan carefully and put into action their plans sensitively and skillfully.
This is done effectively through scheming and lesson planning. Scheming is important because it ensures
that all the content and objectives which go with it, are covered systematically and realized respectively
within a specified time. Lesson planning is a must for teachers more so for beginners, because they give
both security and confidence to one by outlining in an orderly sequence what should be covered at
every stage of the lesson.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Motivation is the key to any teaching/ learning process because it leads to discipline it leads to
discipline in class and effective learning. It has been defined as “general process by which
behavior is initiated and directed towards a goal” (wood folks: 1990: 581). Other psychologist
such as Graham and Bennet (1992; 12) view it as “the reason why peoples behaves as they do” .
Ayot and Patel (1992) describe it as the degree as the desire to learn new things, to study, to be
inquisitive about content taught and to corporate with the teacher in the learning process.

Although the above definitions point to the fact that motivation is functional and depends on
personal factors such as needs, interests, curiosity, enjoyment it is essential to note that in certain
circumstances, it is dependent on external factors such as rewards, social pressure, punishment
etc. it is for this reason that other terms have been frequently associated with it such as purpose,
reason, incentives, drive, needs, motives among others.

Motives for instance are closely related to motivation as the following definitions will show:
McClelland et al (1967; 7) define it as “tensional states which energizes organism until relief is
obtained or equilibrium reached”. Marx and Torn bough ( 1967) looks it as,” internal activating
and directive forces involving two components (i) habit or associate factors and (ii) a drive or
activating (energizing factor). Atkinson and Feather (1996) describe it as a disposition to strive
for a certain kind of satisfaction and as a capacity for the satisfaction for the attainment of certain
classes of incentives. The most popular definition in use today is that by Kagan and Lang (1978)
who describes a motive as a state of mind created by the tension between the unsatisfactory
reality of the present and the presumably more satisfying state later.

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Needs on other hand is “ any type of deficiency in the human organism or the absence of
anything the person requires, or thinks he requires for his overall well-being” ( Kolennik
1978;149)

Maslow hierarchy of needs

He has argued that human beings function in a hierarchy of needs which must been satisfied for
their well-being. The first four levels of needs are called deficiency needs because when these
needs are not met, motivation increases to find ways of satisfying them. When they are satisfied,
the motivations for fulfilling them decrease. They include physiological or basic needs for
survival (food, air, water) they are followed by security or safety needs (shelter, warmth and self-
defense). When one is physiological comfortable and secure, s/he aspires to fulfill social needs
for self-esteem or go-needs. This includes the needs to become independent, to receive esteem of
others, to dominate and acquire possessions.

Above the deficiency needs, are “being” needs which are higher level needs for intellectual
achievement, aesthetic appreciation and finally self- actualization (self-fulfillment, the
realization, of personal potential? They are called being because when they have been met, a
person’s motivation does not cease, instead it increases to seek further fulfillment. The
motivation to achieve them is endlessly renewed. Very few people reach the highest level of self-
actualization because of moral implications attached to it. In history, we have few personalities
indeed who have experienced self-actualization. They include; Leopold senghor, desmond tutu,
nelson Mandela from Africa; W. Churchill, Charles De Gaul and willy Brandit from Europe;
Margret maede and Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt from Africa.

The model below illustrate this hierarchy of needs according to Maslows theory has been
criticized and more comprehensive theoris like Aldefer ( ERG theory) adopted, it has been
widely accepted because it is easy to understand and can be used to explain much but not all,
behavior a work.

Illustration 25: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

SelfActualization

Aesthetic appreciation,
order, structure , beauty
Intellectual achievement,
Understanding and exploring
Self-esteem: approvals, recognition

Belonging: love and acceptance

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 Safety: physical and physiological security
Survival: food, water, shelter

When Maslow’s theory is applied to education, it means that for children to learn, they must
fulfill the deficiency needs. They cannot seek intellectual activities when the basic needs for
survival, safety belongings and self-esteem has not been met. In other words, one cannot be
motivated to learn when hungry, sick, hurt, fearful, insecure (no shelter, parents etc.)

According to graham and Bennet (1992), there are three basic assumptions underlying the study
of motivation.

1. All human behavior has a cause which its-self is the consequence of the combined
hierarchy and environment.
2. At the root of human behavior are needs, or wants or motives
3. Human behavior Is goal seeking i.e. people try to achieve objectives or goals which
when reached will satisfy their needs

Types of motives

There are different types of motivation according to human behavior.

1. Intrinsic motivation; it is motivation that stems from reinforces that are inherent in the
activity being performed. The learner (actor) enjoys the activity being performed because
the activity itself is rewarding and it brings a sense of satisfaction. It is based on a child’s
personal interest in the nature of the content or disposition to be acquired. This type of
motivation is desirable in learning because it creates a permanent base for an individual
advancement in further learning. An individual comes to love learning for its own sake
2. Extrinsic motivation; it is motivation that results or depends on other rewards that are
external to the action itself. In other words, when a learner or performer does something
in order to earn a reward, please someone ( teachers, parents) or to avoid punishment (
coerced compliance), then she is extrinsically motivated. The person is not interested in
activity for its own sake, but cares for only what is being gained. Thus, the learner
responds to a desired reinforced. There are two types of social reinforcement or praise.
Task relevant or and non-task relevant. While, the, former is given for appropriate
classroom behavior the latter can be implied out of class when a student performs well
in out of class activity like in sports, drama, poetry, music. Etc.
3. Adult- figure motivation (teacher- student relationship): research shows that students
imitate satisfied and enthusiastic adults, that is,; the learners would want to imitate
teachers who seem to enjoy themselves and satisfy with their career. The teachers
therefore set role-models for learners and act as motivators in learning. The learners crave
to be close to their teachers. To know and identify with them and long for their approval
and acceptance unconditionally,

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 4. Peer motivation (student-student motivation): student’s wants to belong to a peer group
and long for approval of the group and positive peer interaction. This calls for teacher’s
use of cooperative group methods and group work in learning and teaching.

These last two types of motivation could still be categorized under extrinsic motivation or
separated as the case above. In teaching situations all categories of motivation are necessary.
Though many activities in the classroom could be interesting and stimulating students, incentives
and external support are necessary for learning to take place. The teacher must know ways of
motivating one to learn. According to Brophy (1988: 205-206), students motivation to learn is “a
student tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to derive the
intended academic benefits from them”. Motivation to learn therefore means working towards
learning goals and it involves more than wanting or intending to learn. Kagan and Lang (1978)
came up with six major factors which affect student’s motivation in the classroom.

1. Desire for teacher and peer approval: the students need the approval of those who matter
to them, parents inclusive. This approval gives them measure of personal worthiness and
this increases their level of motivation. They strive to succeed in school in order to win
the confidence and approval of both the adults and the peer.
2. Desire to be like the teacher: children at whatever age like identifying with significant
adults in their lives and thus imitate them. This desire motivates them to learn more so,
when the teacher is in control of learning environment.
3. Desire for mastery: the student has the desire to increase his/her knowledge, skills, or
talent to a level set. This desire motivates them to learn new things.
4. Desire to solve uncertainty: the youths are uncertain about adults, peers and events
happening in their lives. Will they for instance be accepted by these adults? Will they
adjust to this changes taking place in the society?
5. Desire for control, power and status: this is a recurring theme at adolescence, where the
youth want other people to act at their dictates. This leads to them striving to control the
learning process.
6. Desire to vent hostility: at adolescence, hostility and revenge become strong motives for
children. They satisfy this motive by overt and aggressive acts of rebellion against
authority (teachers and parents). This obviously affects their motivation to learn. They
become unmotivated.

Importance of motivation

1. Inculcates interests and enjoyment in the learning process

2. Arouses the learners curiosity
3. Creates in the learners the desire to learn more
4. Makes the learners anxious to learn more

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 5. Sustains the learner’s attention throughout the learning sessions.

How does the teacher motive or/and sustain the learners attention in a learning situation.

1. The teacher paying attention to the classroom physical appearance, eg. Making it neat,
pleasant, comfortable, bright, decorative with displays and pictures which are clean,
relevant, attractive, interesting and up-to date.
2. One checking on physical comfort of the learners: attention should be drawn on how
comfortable their seats are, the amount of light and heat in the room, the ventilation e.t.c
3. Paying attention to teacher’s characteristics: the teacher can motivate the learners
personally by creating a favorable atmosphere in the classroom in the following ways.
a. Making use of a set induction at the beginning of a lesson, in the middle if the
learner’s attention is flagging or even towards the end of the lesson.
b. Supporting the learners efforts by using reinforced techniques, i.e. focusing on
success, rewards. E.t.c
c. Making content taught attractive by making use of fun, humour e.t.c. varying the
atmosphere from serious to light hearted, formal to informal, strict to
kind(Groenewegen 1993)
d. Approaching teaching with pleasure, confidence, empathy, warmth and
genuineness
e. Demonstrating mastery of content
f. Building learners trust in him/her
g. Keeping up the pace of teaching
h. Providing the learners with good prestigious models that they will imitate. This
can be done by one showing satisfaction and enthusiasm in the teaching.
i. Varying learning activities e.g. listening to speaking to writing, to drawing, and
varying the intensity of the mental activity of the learners
4. catering for the learners individual differences by paying attention to their entry behavior
and understanding each child as an individual with unique interests, talents, needs,
aspirations which must be pealed to in the teaching/learning process, e.g allowing them to
participate in the learning activities of their interest, while at the same time understanding
that they belong to a group (a class) and must work to a common cause with shared
responsibilities. The teacher should make use of sociometrics to show peer involvement
because learners will like to belong to a peer group. This will help the teacher determine
which student s may need help in their peer relationships.
1. Maintaining success expectations: this can be done by one seeing it that students have
large measure of success in class which raises their aspirations and makes them strive on.
The fore ongoing can be achieved by the teacher giving clear, challenging but reasonable
assignments. If the work is too easy or too difficult, the students will have little
motivation to learn. In setting a test or an assignment, it must be too easy or too difficult
so that students are sure of passing some questions and fail others. Even in grading, the

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 teacher should ensure that everyone in class has a chance to make at least grade C if
she/he works hard. Thus, the learners should be involved in activities which will give
them a sense of achievement or progress towards a sense of success.
2. Using interesting teaching strategies and methods: This means paying more attention on
heuristic as opposed to expository strategies of learning. The teacher has to incorporate in
the teaching, game like activities use of simulations, role playing, debates, real life
situations, mock trials e.g court proceedings, problem solving such as those involving the
community, use of audio and visual aids among others. Cooperative group work methods
and group work should be used frequently because of students need to cooperate with
each other and to belong to a peer group.
3. Introducing variety, novelty and familiarity in the lessons; This can be done by using
vivid illustrations, activities, different procedures or approaches, varying social structures
of tasks (cooperative, competitive individualistic), connecting unfamiliar and abstract
content to something within their experience i.e what they already know and understand.
4. Providing learners with opportunity for active response: Each learner must be actively
involved in the lesson through activity/activities which is/are worthwhile and interesting
to him/her. This calls for special activities for individuals and groups.
5. Utilizing pupil’s present motives: This means making learning relevant to the learners
present needs by appealing to their expectation in life, interests, ideals, goals, attitudes,
curiosity, pride, desire for fun, need for achievement and social interests. Learning tasks
can be made worthwhile by connecting them to the learner’s lives, avoiding repetitions
and irrelevancies. The task given must have some value to the student i.e attainment,
intrinsic and utility value.
6. The teacher should minimize performance anxiety by putting less emphasis on grades and
competition.
7. The learners should be given immediate feedback: they must be told the progress they are
making, where they have weaknesses and how they can improve.

SUMMARY

Motivation is a key process in teaching and learning because it inculcates interest, enjoyment,
variety, novelty, and curiosity in learning. As a concept, it is dependent on internal and external
state of the learner. Students motivation in classroom is affected by such factors as satisfaction of
deficiency needs, approval of teachers, parents and peers; motivation is further affected by the
need to master learning skills, and the desire of controlling the educational process, e.t.c The
teacher can increase motivation in class by being concerned about both physical appearances of
eth class room, the comfort of the learners, paying attention to teachers characteristics, catering
for individual differences using interesting methods among others.

Suggested tutorial activities

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 1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motives in a teaching/ learning situation(use
examples)
2. “a child who suffers from deficiency needs cannot learn”. Discuss
3. How can teachers modify the teacher student relationship to promote motivation?
4. In groups of 3-4 devise a strategy for teaching your subject to an uninterested student at
any level in secondary school
5. What roles does the teacher’s expectation (prediction) play in motivating students?

CHAPTER EIGHT

COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

INTRODUCTION

The term communication comes from a latin word ‘communis” meaning “common”. In a tempt
to define this term two schools of thought have emerged; process and semiotic schools. The first
school of thought is derived from the field of social science while the latter is drawn from
linguistics and the humanities. The schools see communication as a process by which
information is exchanged and understanding facilitated between individuals through a common
system of symbols, signs or behavior. Proponents of process schools approach to communication
define it as transmission of information, ideas, attitudes or emotion from one person to another or
from group to group through symbols. Burton and Dimbleby (1990), for instance, conceptualize
communication as something continuous with no beginning or end, thus a process.

The semiotic school of thought visualizes communication as the production and exchange of
meaning (kwaramba: 2000). Such views are advocated by the following scholars: Burton and
Dimbleby (1990) who contend that communication is all about the construction and use of signs
and meaning from ones’ point of view, Groenewagen (1993) whose concept of communication
entails and exchange between people; and Fiske (1990) who seem as a social interaction through
messages.

For a definite definition of communication, both views have to be in grated, because both
transmission (process) and meaning are important to any communication. For being an effective
communicator means be clear on what one is communicating and being understood by others and
consequence. It involves, listening, speaking, writing, reading, presenting graphic and pictorial
illustrations and this cannot be done in an environment devoid of meaning. The chief purpose of
communication is to make receiver of a communication understand what is in the mind of the
sender.

Meaning is an important element in communication because individual create their own

meanings and interpretations in order to understand themselves and the societies in which they

78
live. The interpretation of the message received whether verbal or non-verbal is culturally
conditioned and influenced by ones experiences in the social, cultural economic and political
fields. Different symbols or signs mean differently for people from vast environments and
cultures. People use various culturally based signs and codes to express themselves and to share
meanings with other peoples.

Communication is affected by:

(i) A purpose: this could be social or functional purpose in which one is either trying to
develop or modify relationship with others or is trying to give or obtain information. This
explains why s/he is communicating.
(ii) Context: This is the medium through which communication takes place. It shows how
communication is transmitted. They could be channels, languages or codes.
(iii)Content: This is what is communicated and its interpretation by the receiver. What
meaning does s/he attach to the message conveyed?
(iv) Sources and receivers: The personal qualities of the sender which refers to qualities like
empathy, compassion, sympathy, considerate, in relation to others. It is important because
the communication will be affected by who is communicating and to whom.
(v) Communication skills of both the sender and receiver of the information are key to
understanding and interpreting the message.

Models of communication

A model is defined as a simplified description of a certain process, phenomenon or reality using

diagrams and graphics, done consciously and in a planned manner (Kwaramba: 200; 14). There
are many models used in communication. According to the above scholar, they are important
because:

1. They enable the readers to imagine, understand, appreciate and visualize the abstract
2. They simplify complex processes, making it easier for the researcher to understand
3. They make it easier for researchers to identify and perceive the relationships that exist
between and among the systems and components of the communication process.
4. They help the researchers to make predictions about the outcomes of certain processes

Although they have the above strengths, they also have limitations. These are;

1. Impossibility of designing a single model which is holistic, complete and adequate to

explain everything in the field of communication
2. Over simplicity of most models overlooking other processes that are equally important in
the process of communication

There are two main categories of communication models

1. Transmission model

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 2. Exchange model

Transmission model/Linear models

These models are linear in shape and are based on a stimulus response principle. The message
from the sender is a stimulus and the reactions to the message send is a response. It has the
following characteristics

1. Fixation of communication process which assumes that communication starts from a

certain point and ends at another.
2. Clarity of separation of the sender, channel and receiver.
3. Equality of power between the sender, and the receiver in the communication process
4. Emphatic on effects of eth message at the expense of the elements.

ILLUSTARTION 25: Examples of transmission models

(i) A simplified linear model

Sender message Receiver
(ii) Lasswell’s model (1948)

Communicator Message medium Receiver

Effect
(iii)Shammon and Weaver (1949)

Information source Transmitter centre Receiver Destination

Noise source

Noise is anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception of the
message

Exchange model

Under exchange model communication is seen as occurring within a social relationship or within
a society. Such models are new Comb model (1953), Schramm and Osgood model (1954) and
Jakobson’s model (1960) e.t.c

Illustration 26; new comb’s model (1953)

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A B

It is generally referred to as ABX Schema

Key

A – Sender B- Receiver X – Social environment or subject of communication

Characteristics of this model

1. It is triangular in shape
2. Communication being affected by social relationships
3. Message conveyed is being affected by the receiver’s attitude towards the subject of the
communication. In educational practice, the way a teacher teaches a given content is
affected by what the learner thinks about the content/subject being discussed.

Illustration 27” Schramm and Osgood’s model (1954)

The model is circular in shape because both the sender and receiver in communication process
fulfill the same functions at different levels become both sender and receiver at different times
during the communication process.

Characteristics of the above model;

(i) Communication is seen as an exchange of views not transmission ideas/views

(ii) Both sender and receiver perform the same functions of encoding and decoding
information at various levels of communication process
(iii) Communication as a process is circular; it completes a circle by coming back where it
started.

Communication in the classroom.

Classroom communication is important because it is a means of expressing what we know, what

we have learned and a way of causing learning take place (Mukabete and Maodzwa- Taruvinga:
2001:9). Teacher communication takes the following approaches.

(i) Demonstrating, showing or telling students how to do certain tasks.

(ii) Leaving learners to discover and examine experiences for themselves.

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 (iii) Discussing the task clarity and approach to be used and justification for the approach.

In the classroom, the most important media of communication are talking, listening,writing and
reading. For this to be achieved, the language and social skills become important. Oral language
contributes to the effectiveness of how we communicate. The language is is accompanied by the
tone of the voice, pace, pitch, and how we project our voice. Other aspects which affect what we
have conveyed are meaning of what have been received, etc. The gestures we use can either
enrich or distort what we have conveyed.

There are four common types of classroom communication.

(i) Exposition: this is where the speaker describes, informs,instructs or explain

(ii) Question and answer exchanges: these are used to test understanding, recall and are
mainly closed with the learners giving one right answer.
(iii) Discussion: this is where the participants explore ideas or issues together as a class or
as a small group. It is mainly open ended.
(iv) Listening; this is a situation where the receiver hears and responds to the speech of
other people in a learning situation.

The above type of communication has led to the formation of three models of classroom
communication.

Models of classroom communication

1. Unilateral communication (action model)

This is the simplest form of communication and it involves a discrete vent indicated by a speaker
and terminates at a listener or student. Typical of this is a lecture given to anonymous group of
student. It is one way process assuming an active speaker talks to the receiver than with the
receiver. It is authoritarian in nature and source- oriented (teacher centered) , it is mechanistic,
linear, passive and has a cause and effect relationship.

2. Directive communication(interaction model)

This form of communication like the above treats communication in the classroom as a static
event. Although it occurs face to face and the exchange is completed when the receiver indicates
to the sender that the message has been understood there is no provision for active response or
mutual influence and exchange. An example is when a teacher gives an assignment and students
indicates that they have understood, or the teacher expounds some information and the learners
agree that they have understood. When the teacher stops there instead of interacting further with
them, then it means directive communication has occurred.

1. Transactional communication (transactional model). This type of communication is

receiver-oriented, the speaker speaks, the message is conveyed to the audience which

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 listens and reacts accordingly. The communicator further reacts to the audiences
responses. There is a lot of interaction among participants. Unlike the first two where
information is one way, information travels in all directions and it is inter-deterministic.

In the classroom, communication is interpersonal between the teacher and students and between
students themselves. The diagram below illustrates this process

Illustration 28: teacher-student interaction

Teacher

Student Student

Student

Communication consists of the following steps;

1) The source of the transmitter who has a message (ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions, etc.)
which h/she wants to communicate.
2) The coding of the message where the transmitter must code the message which h/she
wants to transmit by putting his/her thoughts or feelings into sounds words or written
characters, verbal comments or into gestures (non-verbal communication) which are
under stable to the receiver.
3) The transmitter must now send the message in such a way that it can be received by her
communicator partner.
4) The receiver receives the message over one or more of his or her perception.
5) The receiver must decode and interpret, classify, and adopt the message in order to
understand it correctly.

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 6) The receiver must now acknowledge receipt of the message i.e. s/he must let the
transmitter know that s/he has received, duplicated, and understood the message.

The information on communication can be represented in a model below

Illustrations 29: Classroom communication

Sender Message Verbal channel Receiver

Decodes

Encodes Non- Verbal

Receives and Receiver interprets

Decodes

Feedback Encodes and sends

Note the following: To encode is to formulate an idea in your mind as you process it before you
can transmit it. To decode on the other hand is to find out the meaning of the message; the
process of understanding the information heard. This is done by the receipt. Unless one is able to
encode and decode the signs, one lives a meaningless world, unable to build bridges with others.
(Burton and Dimbleby: 1990)

Illustration 30: Groenewegen model (1993)

Source of the Transmission MESSAGE Reception Receiver of the Message

message
Channel

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Receiver of the reception REACTION Transmit Source of reaction
reaction

Communication is seen as a two-way traffic. The teacher sends messages to the learner using
different channels, the learner does more receiving. s/he reacts by sending a reaction or counter
the messages which is inturn received by the sender of the original message. The teacher
function is both of senders and recievers of the message because teaching and learning is a
dialogical process ( Njoroge & Benaa Groenewegen 1993: 82)

Levels of communication

Communications has been analyzed from five (5) levels based on the number of people involved
in the process and the structures and organizations each of the levels (Kwaramba 2001). These
levels are:

1) Interpersonal is the lowest level and it refers to the communication process that happens
within an individual. It is affected by ones background, social, educational, religious
knowledge, attitude towards subject or issue.
2) Interpersonal communication: this is the 2nd lowest level and is usually involves two or
more individuals in a face to face situation. Note that telephone and cellular conversation
though not face to face fall under this conversation. It makes use of both verbal and non-
verbal aspects of communication such as facial expression, gesture, posture, tone, voice
modulation etc.
3) Intra-group communication: at this level, communication takes place within a group
which has defined principals, common values, norms and concerns e.g. class
4) Inter-group communication: communication takes place between groups and among
groups. In a school situation communication takes place between a group of students
representatives (perfects) and the administration.

Downward glances; modesty or shyness

A fixed stare: coldness, anger

Eyes rolling upwards: disbelief or ridicule

Avoiding eye contact: ignorance

Looking at a speaker: interest

Barriers to effective classroom communication

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In the communication process, a disturbance can arise at every step of the process which can
lead to misunderstanding or no understanding at all. This becomes a barrier to the entire
process. Among the things which hamper effective communication are

1) Physical barriers: these refer to the effect of the environment on the message and the
receiver of the message. In the classroom the message might be affected by poor
acoustics, a noisy environment like if a class is near a bar which plays loud music, a
bus stop, mechanical a kitchen, a road etc. these activities will either distort the
message or distract the attention of the receivers.
2) Psychological barriers: these refer to the state of the mind of the learner at the time
the message is transmitted. The state will depend on the listener attitude towards the
subject being taught.
3) Physiological state: this refers to the state of the receptor of the message. If the
listener is uncomfortable e.g. sick, tired, hungry, frustrated s/he will not give the
attention required to interpret a message clearly.
4) Language barrier: language is a powerful tool of learning. Although the teachers
language is characterized by sophistication and abstraction following his/her needs to
use a language and vocabulary within the learners level and experiences, otherwise
there will be a communication breakdown.

None of the words, phrases, terms the teacher might use could be having different
meanings to him/her or the learners depending on their experience, background patterns
or thought etc.

5) Contradicting verbal and non-verbal messages: the relationship between the

messages conveyed, the gestures or bodily movements must be in harmony if the
message has to be interpreted properly. Since many of the gestures and movements
are culturally determined, the teacher should use only those which are relevant to the
cultures of the learners. Otherwise there will be communication breakdown.
6) Inadequate communication skills either by the user or the learner: the latter for
instance, might have a problem in speaking, writing, listening or the use of other
several modes of communication. This will hinder the understanding of the message.
7) The presence of preferred stimuli: this happens when the learning environment is
interpreted by something either within the classroom or outside which attracts or
captures the learner’s attention. The learner finds the outside stimuli more interesting
than the message being delivered. Thus, there will be competition for attention
between the message of the teacher and the stimuli.
8) Disabilities in the receivers of the message: if the listener has a disability such as
partial deafness, blindness the reception of the message will be poor especially if the
listener is stationed far from the source of the message.

How can a teacher improve verbal communication?

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 (i) Improve the speaking skills: the speech is effective if it has an aim, clarity and force.
Brown (1978), for instance, noted a god speech must be “ clear, precise, brief,
exhaustive in content, humorous, illustrative and ending with a forceful sentence
.when a teacher is addressing the learners, s/he must have these qualities in mind. The
instructor should also consider the tone of voice which through speed of delivery,
pitch, loudness and voice quality expresses ones emotions and attitude in a given
situation. The tone must be varied, pronunciation distinctly done and the rate of the
speech controlled.
(ii) Use appropriate language: to bridge the gap between the teachers and the learners
language the following should be done:
1. The teacher language should be related to
common experience of the learner.
2. Provision should be made for new, first-
hand experiences, the learners encounter in
class.
3. Students should be given ample opportunity
to talk and write.
(iv) Mass communication: all the levels discussed are indispensable elements and
components of mass communication. This communication involves a whole nation
communicating with other countries across the world and the process is characterized
by a variety of media and communication technology e.g the press, television, on-line
etc.

In the classroom, communication takes place between:

1. Teacher and the whole class

2. Teacher and group of students
3. Teacher and individual student
4. Student and other student
5. Student and student in a group
6. Student and radio/t.v. this applies to a case where there are educational programs over the
radio and on t.v which are utilized in the classroom.

For communication to be effective at all the above levels there is need for the development of the
communication skills in the learner. These are activities cerebral or motor which one may
acquire with the general objective of improving communication with the others. There are four
general categories of communication skills; intellectual, functional, interpersonal, and group
skills.

Intellectual skills are those which are developed in the mind because they start in that in that very
mind and end there. They can be developed by encouraging the learners to engage in activities
such as developing and presenting information, which is common in discovery and heuristic

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approach to learning. Function skills is the ability to produce communication in written or
graphic format e.g. designing a poster, drawing a map, painting a scene etc. Groups skills is
developing the ability to become involved effectively in group activities by contributing to the
group activities evaluating the group contribution and cooperating with them. Interpersonal skills
are divided into four: social, perceptual, presentational and listening skills.

Social skills are life skills which enable one to get on with the others. It includes recognizing
others, feeling empathy with them and offering feedback to conversation. Perceptual skills are
skills within individuals which they notice verbal and non-verbal behavior in others, in order to
evaluate their attitudes, personality and emotional state. Presidential skills are skills which the
learners need to acquire orally in order to communicate effectively to others especially the
public. Listening skills are those which require a student to pay attention to the speaker and
respond giving a positive feedback.

Modes of communication

Although there are only two main channels of communication; verbal, non-verbal,
communication as a process can be divided into various categories;

1. Written (symbolic): It involves the written word in form of notes , summaries, letters,
abstract, books e.t.c
2. Oral (verbal) : It is that communication which involves using the spoken mode of
communication that is “using the mouth” (Berdo:) The spoken word is mainly in the
form of oral address, speech, telephone conversation, lecture in a class, seminar
presentation.
3. Visual (pictorial): This involves the non-verbal style of communication such as
diagrams, illustrations, charts, tables, graphs, models e.t.c
4. Gestural: It is used to complement verbal interaction in an inter hands, arms, head,
feet e.t.c. Gestures are accompanied by bodily movements. Some of these gestures
and movements play only a supportive role in the verbal interaction, for instance,
gestures of emphasis. Others express meanings independently of the actual spoken
words, though they usually occur alongside them e.g gestures to call someone from a
distance, to indicate height, to show anger, to ridicule e.t.c
5. Facial expressions and eye movement: Teachers and pupils communicate
continuously through the fleeting changes of their facial expressions which often
accompany verbal interaction. Although used to express emotions and attitudes, they
also control interactions. Examples of facial expressions are: raising or lowering of
the eye eyebrows frowning, blinking and sharing e.t.c
Eye movement is associated with a wide range of human expression of emotions and
attitudes. Like facial expression they enhance meanings of verbal utterances and
provide the speaker with feedback from the listener. They are important because they
help in gaining attention and maintaining interest.

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 Examples of eye movements and their meanings:
Eyes wider open; wonder, frankness, terror.

Summary

The chapter has looked at communication as the transmission and exchange of

common understanding through the use of symbols and signs. The two schools of
communication, process and semiotic were discussed. The Process School views
communication as transmission of messages from sender to receiver while semiotic
school looks at communication as the production and exchange of meaning. It was
noted that communication makes use of two major types of models: transmission an
exchange. These two are related to process and semiotic schools respectively.
Transmission models are basically linear in shape while exchange models take
various shapes.

Effective classroom communication was seen as being important for learning and
teaching to take place. This called for communication skills from both the learners
and the teachers. The four common types of classroom communication by the teacher
(exposition, question/answer, discussion and listening) were identified, together with
three models of classroom communication (action, interaction and transactional). The
transactional model was seen as the best because it allows for free interaction
between the teacher and the learners and among the learners.
The last part of the chapter looked at levels and models of communication, the
barriers to effective classroom communication and how a teacher can improve verbal
communication in the classroom.

Suggested tutorial activities

1. Discuss the role of communication in teaching/learning process
2. Divide students in groups according to their ethical affinities and
a. Let them identify at least six gestures commonly used by the community in
communication the meaning of each should be clear to the group.
b. Each group should demonstrate all the six gestures to the class, and if their
meanings are not understood must be explained to the class.
3. In groups of 4-5 discuss the factors that lead to
a. Poor oral communication
b. Successful oral communication

Explain why a teacher does not communicate mean

4. How can effective communication be affected by use of teaching difficult content?

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5. “There often exists a linguistic gulf between teachers” language students: language:.
Discuss how the gap could be bridged for effective communication between the
teacher and the students.

CHAPTER NINE
PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
The concept of individual differences in education stems from the fact that a
classroom is often composed of students of different abilities, interests, intellect,
backgrounds (socially, economically, religiously), temperaments, attitudes, needs,
gender and so on. Every individual is seen as unique and the teacher has the
responsibility of treating each child with a positive attitude and t plan teaching
strategies which can appeal to every child in the classroom for effective teaching and
learning. The more a teacher knows the differences and needs among his/her students,
the better s/he is placed to mould the teaching style to suit them. The teacher
confronts every child as an individual having a unique personal history, by virtue of
which his/her perception of the environment will be idiosyncratic 9Entwistle;1970)

In an attempt to cater for individual differences, the teacher has to marry the concern
for individuality with that of humanity. Every child has to be treated a as human
being with a right to:
Respect by virtue of his/her common humanity
Opportunity to achieve certain social goals and
Opportunity for self-development
This concern calls for individualized learning which emphasizes on:
The development of each different child to his/her fullest potential,
Variation of content and learning objectives is according to personal needs,
activities and aspirations; and adjustment of content according to the pace of the
learner; and Individuals learning in their own ways at their own pace.

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Consideration in catering for individual differences

The key for catering for differences is to:

1. Have knowledge of the students. Useful ways of the teachers understanding and knowing the
teacher will include;
2. Using cumulative record folders found in the school office or in guidance and counselling
department. This record contains the students’ academic background, family background, test
and examination score extra curriculum activities one is involved in.
3. Observation: the teacher can gather information about the student by observing him/her in
class, in the fields, in the class etc.
4. Conferences: one can use formal meetings or interviews with the students to talk to them and
gather information about their interests, ambitions, problems and hopes. The teacher can use
open-ended questions to encourage them to speak freely concerning their issues opinions and
accepting them as they are.
5. Parent’s conferences: teachers conversation with the parent will explain to one a few things
about the learner. Such would behavior mannerism speech defects etc. there are certain
characteristics which are passed on from parents to the children. E.g. stammering, pride,
arrogance, and certain mannerism.
6. Questionnaire: a teacher can prepare administrator and analyze a questionnaire , to find out
students areas of interest, their attitude their attitude in given subject and even their talent

Other sources of information can include other members of staff, siblings in the school, perfects friends
or peers etc.

Knowledge of the learner will also include understanding ones different style of learning. According to
Guild (1992), a learning style describes consistence and pervasive characteristic of an individual pattern
of learning. Style is further explained as indication of a distinctive specific behavior such as speech, dress
or learning. A learning style is concerned with:

1. Cognation: people perceive and gain knowledge

2. Conceptualization: people form ideas, process and think differently.
3. Affect: people feel differently
4. Behavior: people act differently

Thus learning style will vary with individuals. One’s style makes it easier to learn certain kinds of material
affecting what is learnt. The following are some of the learning styles;

1. A visual style: this is an individual whose style of learning involves mastery of content by easily
and rapidly reading through it.
2. A listening style: this relates to someone who’s the ability of learning something through
listening. One listens carefully and remembers what has been said without fatigue or boredom.
3. Physical active style: an individual learns actively through physical contact with what is being
learnt.

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 Apart from above, it is the responsibility of the teacher to be aware of students with
other learning characteristics and cater for them accordingly. These include those who
either;
 Learn by use of abstracts or by concrete
 Learn by working individually or in groups
 Have ability to sustain attention for long without a break or have short
attention span
 Study in a noisy environment or in quiet solitude; and have innate tendency to
approach learning through the left or right brain atmosphere

Categories of students in a learning environment

Students are categorized either according to their intellectual ability, social, economic, physical
or emotional state. Thus, we have the following groups; slow learners, average, talented, socially
disadvantaged, ethnically different, physically handicapped, emotionally disturbed, late
developers and derachivers.

Slow learners

Slow learners are those students with learning difficulties and an IQ between 70 and 90 and
comprise nearly ¼ of the children in a typical school. The diagram below identifies them in
comparison to other students in a given population.

Illustration 31: Intelligence quotients

Those with IQ of 70-80 though not retarded normally have difficulties in schools. They find it
difficult to compete with more capable students. Unless a teacher knows how to take care of
them, the individuals develop a crushing image of despair which distort their self-concept and
damage their ego. Owing to the low intellectual ability, the slow learners suffer because:

(i) they have never experienced the joy of success since they are always categorized as
failures
(ii) they are rarely involved in any a academic game or contest
(iii) they suffer rejection from both teachers and fellow students.

Characteristics of slow learners

Slow learners are marked with some of these characteristics:

1. They rarely participate in class

2. They scores far below the average
3. They rarely concentrate in class in fact their minds go woolgathering
4. They do not ask questions readily

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They become mischievous tormentors at the age of 8, bullies 11, loud mouthed in the 1st year of
secondary school and drop-outs or delmquents later on (Dobson: 1992). This becomes the case if
a solution to their problem is not found.

What makes a child a slow learner?

1. The hereditary factors: The intellectual ability of ones’ parents determines whether one
will be slow, average or bright
2. Biological factors such as the state, quality or integrity of the nervous system and
endocrine glands
3. The environment: The nature and type of family. The family generates the earliest
influences on the behavior of an individual.
4. Lack of intellectual stimulation in a child early life (3-4) years inhibits the brain from
developing properly leading to one being categorized as slow. This lack of stimulation
may be due to a deprived environment without adult guidance, no interesting books and
puzzles to occupy one’s sensory apparatus; no visits to exciting places like play grounds,
zoos, airports e.t.c. It becomes important that parents provide rich edifying experiences
for their young ones.

How can a teacher cater for slow learners?

1. Find out their difficulties and help them overcome them. For instance, if the problem
relates to reading, divide the class homogenously into poor, average and good readers.
Once the poor readers are together the teacher can have more time with them after class
or early in the morning before normal classes start. They must be taught to read even if it
calls for 1:1 teacher-teacher ratio or it involves going back to basics of a particular
subject.
2. Try to make school work seem important and relevant to their own lives by appealing to
their experiences and personal benefits of the work or subject in question
3. Try to use lively new approaches in teaching such as games, drama and use of resources
such as graphics, objects, audio and visual materials which are simple and clear.
4. Make use of concrete subject matter keeping abstractions at minimum, and letting the
learners to work with things rather than words.
5. Give plenty of individual attention, be patient, understanding and helpful
6. Shield the slow learners from the devastation of failure by:
 Requiring them to do things which are within their reach

This can be done by using different learning activities

 Use reward/ praise by appreciating them even when their work is not at par with
their peers
7. Show and bulid confidence and self-esteem in them by remembering that success breeds
success. Let tehm learn and experience the joy of success
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 8. Present new work slowly, moving forward in short steps making sure they have details
before moving on
9. Give plenty of practice in thinking: Teach them how to think logically by providing them
with basic data from which they start their discussion
10. Make learning process less threatening by letting them to learn from each other.
11. Give them plenty of opportunity to do their assignments in class.

The talented/gifted (G & T)

According to the diagram under intelligence quotients, 2% of all children and adults are
exceptionally bright. According to Lang et al (1995) they have these characteristics

1. They learn academic material easily and quickly

2. They score high on intelligence tests
3. They are above average percentile concentration
4. They are often more emotionally stable than their peers
5. They score far above average in class texts/examination
6. Their retention capacity is very high

Although most of the teaching methods were invented with academically talented pupils in mind,
it is important that the teacher considers a number of suggestions when dealing with the gifted
learners.

1. Use problem solving techniques, open ended assignments which encourage high level of
analysis and critical thinking. Through this, they will acquire high level thinking skill.
2. Allow them to move according to their pace while ensuring they maintain high academic
standards
3. Expose them to new, interesting and challenging knowledge while avoiding repetition of
what they have already learned
4. Help them to draw inferences from other areas and relate to the topic under study.
5. Provide them with additional learning opportunities
6. Help them to develop appropriate study skills
7. Give them a lot of responsibility for their work by encouraging use of the library and
other community resources in carrying out research
8. Encourage the child to have individual initiative by planning programmes that interest in
child
9. Encourage the child to use his/her talent or positive traits not only for his/her own good
but for the benefit of the whole class. This will be rewarding one for scholastic
achievement while at the same time retaining their identity with the class/group.
10. Use high level materials to teach them e.g. original sources, biographies, journals,
magazines, newspapers, reference books. Etc

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 11. Use similar discussion strategy where students present and discuss the topics in depth.
This will lead to high level thinking and criticism.

These students can be grouped and given attention before and/or after class, may be tutored
during regular classes, or may be assigned independent study (Lang: 1995)

The socially disadvantaged

These are children from poor families. Just like all families they consist of slow learners, average
and the talented. Although the approaches and suggestions given do apply to them, it is
important for the teacher to be aware of their home backgrounds and apply the following
suggestions.

1. Respect and appreciate them as people. This can be done by learning their culture, taboos
and mores
2. Motivate them while teaching by showing the worthiness and practical value of the
subject matter being taught.
3. Relate the course content to lives and interests of the students moving from concrete to
the abstract
4. Provide opportunities for success, and praise them when they do well
5. Control the class by being firm, strict and definite
6. Establish rules which are simple and reasonable
7. Use simple language. Pay little attention to their way of expressing but more to the ideas
expressed.
8. Use inductive approaches and unstructured discussions because students seem to respond
better to open ended questioning and real problems.
9. Use role playing and dramatization because learners work out mental problems better
when they are involved in activities
10. Use a variety of reading materials such as reference books, adult material of low reading
level. Make use of pictures, films, video recordings and tapes which cut across cultures
and social classes.

Ethnically different groups

In some schools there are children who come from different ethnic groups and nationalities. In
kenya, we have about 42 ethnic groups and people from various nations .e.g the British,
Americans, Chinese, Japanese, Asians, e.t.c. The teacher has to be aware of how to deal with
these varied groups so that s/he does not hurt their ethnic feelings. It is suggested that s/he does
the following:

1. Try to become as familiar as possible with their language and culture

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 2. Try to incorporate ethnic materials into the teaching e.g. pictures of people in traditional
attires, music in structures used by different ethnic groups, specific activities performed
or contributions made by various groups
3. Utilize their taboos/mores and values in teaching strategies’.
4. Help them to be proud of both their nationhood
5. Help them to learn the language of instruction by given them more work in that language,
giving them more story books to read etc.
6. Treat them and their culture with respect they deserve.
7. Ensure you do not glorify nor belittle any group.

Handicapped pupils

These includes those students who are hard at hearing the deaf, the speech impaired, the visually
and mentally handicapped. The orthopedically impaired and the emotionally disturbed.

Dealing with these students calls for more care, better diagnosis, great skills and more attention
to individual needs. The teacher has therefore to try and understand the pupil in question before
making any move some of the clues which might be used in dealing with them are:

(i) Identify the problem of the handicapped and either adopt or modify materials and
procedures to their special needs
(ii) Teach them known to unknown, breaking complex activities into simple components.
(iii) Plan assignments to an individual level if necessary.
(iv) Provide activities and experiences which ensures success and some mastery
(v) Teach slow learners using interesting and real experiences
(vi) Watch for signs of restiness, frustration, anxiety, unwillingness to work and move
immediately by either changing the task or offering direction.
(vii) Ignore unacceptable behavior but reward approved and acceptable behavior.
(viii) Maintain a consistent approach when dealing and reacting to them.

Dealing with emotionally and behavioral difficulties.

Lang et al (1995) describe them as learners with behavioral disorders who may suffer from social
maladjustment, psychoses, or emotional disturbances. They have one or more of the following
characteristics: inability to learn, poor relationship with peers and teacher, unusual response or
overreaction to normal events, and unusual physical symptoms or fears relating to school.

The following are general suggestions for dealing with maladjusted children.

1. Greet the students by name at the start of the lesson.

2. Offer a calm, consistent, and positive role model for them to learn from. Be their role
model.

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 3. Reward them for any positive behavior traits exhibited e.g. praise them whenever you
catch them doing good.
4. Ignore negative behavior displayed i.e. do not focus on it.
5. Avoid shouting at them because this will lead to confrontations.
6. Set easily achievable targets for work

Dealing with a student with deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and hyperactivity.

These are students with a problem of concentrating on a specific activity for a length of time.
Such a child starts well on activity but gets distracted after a few minutes. The distraction can be
inform of chatting to friends in class, wondering around the room, simply staring out of the
windows as if lost to the world. Related to ADHD is hyperactive child who cannot sit still.

How does a teacher deal with the two types of children?

1. Ignore minor incidences of misbehavior 0from such students. Focus only on their good
behavior and praise them for it.
2. Set small targets throughout the class time, so that these students can achieve relatively
easily. Heap praise on individual from every task completed.
3. Try to divert distracted students b offering an existing alternative within the classroom.

It is possible that a child may not have ADHD yet s/he is destructive. To deal with him/her, the
teacher should:

1. Pay personal attention to the student during the lesson e.g. by greeting him/her name.
2. Ensure s/he understands the activities you have given to the class groups or individuals.
Sit with the students to ensure s/he is on the right track.
3. Find out what the student enjoys outside class and plan classroom activity around that.
4. Elicit the support of the child parents by pointing out that they should support you by
praising him/her for good learning behavior.

Dealing with learning difficulties.

There are students with specific learning difficulties such as in reading, for instance, a child with
dyslexia may have a problem recording homework or reading from the board.

1. Find out the nature of learning difficulty because each child is likely to have unique
problem.
2. Determine whether the child is on medication, if so ask or inquire from the parents the
effects of medication.
3. Observe carefully each student preferred learning modality.
4. Start at each student readiness
5. Assign tasks that allow for immediate success.
6. Make assignment brief, and check often for understanding.

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 7. Make sure you don’t embarrass the student or draw attention to her/his particular
weakness. Talk to him or her in private about the problem if you have to.
8. Although one is to make allowances for the teachers standard or class has to be kept high.

Dealing with lack of motivation.

This refers to the students who show lack of interests in school work, and rarely complete their
assignments. These suggestions could be used.

1. The teacher should set achievable targets for the individual students during the lesson.
They should be rewarded for each effort or task they make.
2. The teacher should sit for them quietly if possible as they work. Talking to them
instructing them on what they need to do.
3. The teacher should reinforce them constantly as they make progress in the task.
4. One should find out what really interests and motivates them. The findings should be
incorporated in the lesson planning.
5. The individual teacher should find out from other teachers whether they have any
problem with the students. If so, then how they dealt with the problem?

Dealing with the trouble maker

This is a category of students who misbehave and even at times get other students to join them in
the misbehavior. The students could also display aggressive attributes toward the quitter
members of the class or towards the opposite sex if they are boys.

How does teacher deal with this.

1. Find out from the guidance and counselling department about their background and
whether they have had any problem with specific students.
2. Talk to the rest of the class in their absence what they could do to help you make the
students improve. Urge to ignore their behavior.
3. Catch them doing something good and praise them publically.
4. Talk to them privately about their contact and what you think is the problem.
5. Tell them you are serious about their misbehavior and you will fnd a solution no matter
how long it takes.
6. Solicit the assistance of a senior member of staff in solving the problem if the situation
worsens.
7. In case one student influencing other students in class, have him/her in a specific place in
the classroom where s/he will not interact with others.
8. Find out from other teachers what possible strategies to use on trouble makers
9. Talk to their parents about their misbehavior after finding out how s/he behaves at home.
10. At all times when dealing with them remain calm and relentlessly polite.

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Among the above categories of students, there may be others who can either be late developers
or underachievers. It is important for the teacher knows who they are and how to deal with them.

(i) Underachievers

This is a student who is unsuccessful in school despite his/her ability to do work. One could be
having an IQ of 120 and yet he performs poorly at school. This is a child with considerable
intellectual potential but rarely uses it because of lack of self- discipline which accompanies
learning. It is estimated that 75% of all students in USA experience an academic slump sometime
the age of 12 and 15 (Dobson 1992). An overachiever on the student who is untalented, yet s/he
struggles to achieve his or her expected level.

Solution to the problem

1) Parental environment: the school must work with the parents by communicating to
them assignments and progress of the individual child. The parent will be expected to
work with the child on the assignments given so as to have no choice but do it. As the
child works the parent should encourage them and praise them. This is important because
research shows that when parents offer regular encouragement, there is sustained
improvement in the school.( mona Behan: 1992 in Dobson : (1992)
2) Use of incentives at home: since most children thrive under the system of immediate
reinforcement. This is more when it is released that the child is not challenged by the
reward and motivators given by school. The parent has to provide positive reinforcement
based on definite reachable goals, the pay of being applied to small units of behavior. For
instance, one can be given a token on any completed task or correct response s/he makes.
The biggest prize could include being taken out of an amusement or animal park, be
bought a bicycle, be taken to a film show or funfair.
(ii) Late developers

This is a child who is neither physically nor mentally retarded yet he/she progresses on a slower
physiological timetable than most children of their age. While the peers have mastered a given
concept one is still struggling to understand the previous content. If the problem is not checked
early enough the child self-concept is ruined and h/she becomes a failure in school.

Solution to the problem

I. The child’s entrances to the school should be determined by the neurological, psylogical,
social and pediatric variables.
II. An examination for education reading of an immature child should be carried out by a
child psychologist or pediatrician. This procedure should be a must for slow-maturing
boys for whom birthdays occurs late in the academic year.
III. If it is determined a child is a late developer, s/he should repeat the first class at school or
can stay at home for another extra year.

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In dealing with problem of individual differences, the educators have tried to use various
methods at curriculum, and class levels. At curriculum level, a variety of curricula courses are
offered across the curriculum. Various subjects such as humanities, languages, and sciences are
offered in order to cater for individual needs. It also provides for elective in the programme
which allows the students to pursue special interests and to explore special traits. At the school
and class level some of the approaches which have been used include: homogeneous grouping,
streaming, mixed ability and of late, mainstreamed groupings.

Homogeneous grouping

This grouping develops when a whole class is divided into class sections, according to some
criterion or combination of criteria e.g. ability, sex, interest and needs. Needs refers to those
requiring remedial work or those with special needs who are grouped in special classrooms. The
grouping provides for differences in pupils and makes teaching easier e.g. selecting content and
method suitable for that group

The importance for grouping is that it reduces the heterogeneity of classes and makes certain
aspects of the individual differences a little more manageable. It has however, the following
shortcomings:

 The approach looks at one or two characteristics of the learners ignoring the fact
that the same students are still different physically mentally, emotionally and
socially.
 The less talented are discriminated against because teachers feel they incapable of
learning and should not waste time with them.
 Methods used are neither effective nor appropriate for abilities of the learners. For
instance, the talents of the gifted are rarely developed to the full because they are
rushed through the course. The slow learners courses are down having their
potential equally underutilized.
 Lack of motivation for both groups of bright and slow learners because there is
little fun, success, relevancy to their lives and experiences in the case of the latter
and no challenge and motivation for the former.
 The slow learners have no chance to learn from the help and example of their
more talented peers. They are thus denied the opportunity of associating with the
gifted and learning from them and vice-versa.

Streaming

This is where students are classified or streamed according to their ability e.g the bright, average,
weak. They are normally given labels like ABC or red, black, white or lion, zebra, giraffe, e.t.c

Streaming has the following advantages:

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 1. Providers individual child with speed of learning and development
2. Stimulates learning
3. It caters for learners with special needs
4. One is able to move faster in streams with gifted children

Limitations

1. it encourages negative labelling, which discourages the learning process

2. it encourages pride among the gifted children
3. it encourages despair among the less gifted
4. the less gifted learners are not able to learn from the gifted

Mainstreaming (integrating)

This is when learners with special needs are placed in regular classroom rather than in “special”
schools or special resources facilities. They therefore spend their school day will regular class
peers. Lang at el (1995) argue that every classroom has at least some special needs or
exceptional learners who may have learning problems or physical disabilities or who may be
gifted, bilingual, socio-economically advantaged or disadvantaged. Their definition of
mainstreaming refers to a situation of accommodating students of different abilities in regular
classroom. Integrated approach to teaching students makes the following demand to the teacher.

1. Continues assessment of students achievement

2. Varying instruction methods and materials
3. Using self-management as appropriate
4. Using students peer assistance

Hagarty et al ( 1981) point out that children with special needs benefit greatly from being placed
in integration programs. Their benefits are:

1) They gain self-confidence, independence and realistic acceptance of individual condation

2) It leads to development of friendly relationships between pupils with special needs and
their peers. This however is limited according to research.
3) It reduces recurrence of negative relationships among handicapped students such as
testing
4) It leads to development of social skills. These students learn to interact freely with their
peers thus preparing them for life.

Some of the limitations of this approach relate to the demands it makes on the teacher. It calls for
special training, use of human and professional development techniques ( lang et al : 1995)

Mixed ability grouping

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Reid et al ( 1981) note that the term mixed ability grouping is frequently used synonymously
with heterogeneous, instreamed , non-streamed, natural, or unselected groups. In ability
grouping, students are taught as a group regardless of their abilities and disabilities.
Nevertheless, the teachers try as much as possible to adjust to the needs of individual students.
For a teacher to be effective in dealing with mixed ability grouping, s/he should try to develop
the following skills.

1) Decide before hard how the group will be made up. Are the learners going to decide
which groups they will belong to: is the teacher going to select the group, and if yes
which criteria will he/she use?
2) Decide if the groups selected will be static or will be regrouped from time to time
because of different activities.
3) Prepare for the lessons carefully and by ensuring everything is read beforehand
4) Ensure that each group has appropriate resources and activities relevant to the task they
are supposed to perform. There should be special work for both groups.
5) Move from group to group ensuring that you are visible to the what class and watchful
for what they are doing.
6) Prepare separate activities for early finishers.
7) Be watchful for signs which show the pupil are unoccupied, unnecessary movement, too
much chat etc. should be discouraged.
8) Have appropriate ending for the lesson by integrating all activities of different groups.

Advantages

 It prevents rejection of the less able.

 It diminishes feelings of inferiority, superiority and aggression.
 It develops cooperative behavior enabling students to learn from each other.
 It improves motivation for both slow and bright students.
 It gives access to the same curriculum.
 It improves expectations teachers have of their students and which students have of
themselves.
 It encourages new styles of teaching e.g. group-work.
 It encourages assessment against students own potential.

Shortcomings

(i) It is hard to cater for the very bright and even slow learners. In a given task, bright
students work quickly because of the simplicity of the tasks while slow learners take a
long time to complete. This results in dead time
(ii) It is argued that teachers spend too much time with slow learners. This in turn leads to
bright students failing to cover enough subjects’ content for their needs.
(iii) Good pupils can get away with not working at appropriately fast pace

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 (iv) There is lack of motivation for both slow and bright pupils. It is not possible for the
teacher to satisfy both extremes. This results in them being unoccupied and bored,
thus losing interest in learning.
(v) The teacher failure to occupy the bright students meaningful for their being
descriptive. It is known that a creative mind continuously seeks for new diversions. If
not occupied, then leads to aggressiveness.

Summary

The chapter has looked at the question of individual differences in the learning and teaching
situation. It has been argued that children of the same age are likely to have characteristics and
needs which differentiate them from one another. These differences have to be taken into
account if schooling has to be effective because education is meant to serve the development of
each individual. The knowledge, skills and values which the school exists to disseminate must be
related to the mental structure of each child, each of which is unique. The teacher has to be
equipped with knowledge and techniques of handling various categories include differentiating
content, methods, resources, assignments, activities according to the ability, talent, interests,
needs etc. of each individual child. This is not an easy task it calls for dedication and reflective
thinking on the part of the teacher.

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 CHAPTER TEN

ASSESSMENT: MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION

Measurement and evaluation as used in education practice refer to the process used in the
appraisal or assessment of the learning teaching process. Assessment is the process of gathering
and providing information on the learner’s performance on a learning task through observing,
recording and evaluating performance. Shiundu and Omulando (1992), define it as that process
which will how whether there has been a change in students behavior. According to Sulton
(1991), it is a human process, conducted by and with human beings, and subject inevitably to the
frailties of human judgement. It covers activities like grading, examining and certifying.

Measurement is the systematic process of assigning numbers to present the amount or degree of
a property possessed by an object, system or event. According to Lang et al (1995) it is

The application of a standard scale to data so that particular aspect e.g.

frequency, magnitude, correctness) of performance acquired by more than
one person can be compared in a fair and orderly fashion.

It is quantitative in nature but description may refer for a qualitative classificatory or

comparative properly. It involves the constructional, administrative, and scoring tests in order to
come up with quantitative descriptions of student’s performance.

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to

determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives. It refers to the
process of attaching value to observed behavior (Groenewegen : 1993). It includes making value
judgements ( Callahan and clerk : 1993) based on a composite of different types of measurement
obtained from tests, projects, laboratory, work, reports, and examination ( ogunniyi: 1984).

According to shiundu and Omulando (1992,89) from a broad perspective, evaluation is general
judgement as to whether the change is manifested through the processes of assessment and
measurement, was a desirable one.

Measurement, evaluation and assessment are in that while evaluation involving making
judgements in relation to set goals, measurements is its base because judgement made is centered
on the data collected through measurement. Thus, measurement is dependent on evaluation on
evaluation. Assessment is the overall process comprising the activities of evaluation and
measurement.

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Kemp (1986), focusing on the necessity of assessment in education identified four main purposes
of assessment.

1) To assess students attainment at the end of the course or study program.

2) To evaluate diagnostically students’ academic progress and learning difficulties.
3) To estimate students aptitude, possibly for the purpose of assigning them to different
courses or teaching functions.
4) To evaluate the effectiveness of education program or curriculum.

Types of evaluation

There are two types of evaluation: formative and summative.

a. Formative evaluation: it refers to an assessment of learning used to monitor learning

progress during instruction and to provide continues feedback to both pupils and teachers
concerning learning success in failure ( Gronlund: 1985). Sulton ( 1991:3), defines it as:
an ongoing process, conducted both formally and informally, by which information and
evidence about a child’s learning is absorbed and used to plan the next step, or guide
through a given task.

This type of evaluation is very important because it plays a diagnostic role by giving
students a sense of adequacy of their progress in learning. The information and evidence it
provides is absorbed by those in charge of learning to plan the next step, or guide through a
given task. Its importance therefore lies in offering feedback in a learning situation which is
used to identify learning difficulties and select future learning experiences.

Basically formative evaluation has the following functions to the learners.

1. Motivating learners to learn more especially when they discover they are performing
well on a given task.
2. Encouraging students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study skills.
3. Encouraging healthy competition in learning.
4. Providing feedback regarding the learner’s progress in learning and in mastery of
knowledge, skills and attitude.

To the teachers, formative evaluation performs these functions.

1. Furnishing the instructor with necessary information regarding the entry behavior level of
the learners.
2. Enabling the teachers to determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and
learning materials and ways of improving them.
3. Identifying areas where learners have difficulties so that teachers can carry out remedial
teachings in this weak spots, thus improving learning in progress.

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 4. Helping the teachers to determine which different assignments should be given to
learners thus catering for their individual differences.
5. Providing the teachers with specific feedback regarding student’s success or failure in
mastery of skills, attitude and knowledge.

To the administrators it serves these roles

1) Providing an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to
another.
2) Providing information for assessing teacher effectiveness.
3) Securing data for students records and reports for administrative purposes e.g. in making
accumulative record records necessary in guidance and counselling of students.

For the parents, this type of assessment is important because it furnishes them with information
about their children performance. This is necessary because they are able to know at what level
their children are achieving and can if necessary take steps to improve their performance.

b. Summative evaluation: it is viewed typically as a process that comes at the end of a

course or unit of instruction. It is designed to determine the extent to which course
objective or unit has been achieved. It is used primarily for assigning courses grades and
certify pupils mastery of the intended learning outcomes ( osundwa 2000). Lang et al
(1995: 367) define it : “ as a procedure used to form a coherent judgement of a student
performance and progress over a student performance and progress over a period of
time”.

This type of evaluation has the following functions to the educators, curriculum developers and
the public community in general.

1. Identifying problems that might hinder the achievement of set goals of education.
2. Determining the effectiveness and worthiness of a program in order to make reliable
decision about educational planning in terms of time, human power and other resources.
3. Securing information for selection of students for further education.
4. Providing a basis for awarding certificates
5. Determining to what extent the desired objectives have been attained.
6. Furnishing the public (community) with the information concerning schools performance
7. Providing information which determines at what level of education, a certificate holder
should enter a career.

Approaches to assessment

Assessment based on judgements about learners may fall into three categories:

i. Norm- referenced assessment: this type of assessment is designed to compare pupils

with each other in class and to determine each individuals standing (Callahan and

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 Clark: 1990; 342). It enables comparative judgements, child against child, children
against the norm (Sutton: 1991; 4). the learner is compared with other learners or with
what could be called an average learner. In this assessment, we are judging against a
norm or norm-referencing. Establishing of norms leads to categorization of either pass or
fail depending on whether the learners performance is above or below the norm. the
results are normally spread in a neat ‘normal’ curve on either side of the norm
ii. Criterion –referenced assessment: This assessment measures the learners performance
against predetermined expectations, which are usually written down and built into the
assessment process (Sutton: 1991; 5). According to Lang et al (1995) it involves
“measuring student performance against an absolute criterion, or student-teachers use this
type of evaluation to help them decide whether or not the learners have the basic
objectives of a learning segment (Callahan & Clark: 1990; 34). It identifies the learner’s
strengths and needs by testing on what has been learned through established criteria for
success. If the teaching has been effective and has met the needs, all the learners will
pass.
iii. Ipsative-referenced assessment: This is when a child’s performance is measured against
tha same child’s previous performance in order to gauge the individual’s progress over
time (Sulton: 1991; 7). This is child –centered approach to assessment where each child’s
uniqueness is realized. It is ideal for children with special needs and avoids judging them
too simplistically in relation to others.

Principles of instructional evaluations

Shiundu and Omulando (1992:200), identify four main principles which should guide this type of
evaluation.

i. Evaluation has to be continuous at four levels. The first level is at the beginning of the
term or school year to determine the child’s entry behavior. It is referred to as pre-
assessment. The second level is continuous assessment during teaching with a purpose of
getting feedback on learning. This is done in form of tests weekly, monthly or half-
termly. These tests are also known as continuous assessment tests. Internal examinations
done termly fall under this. The third level is end of eight years at primary level and four
years at a secondary school level. The last phase is follow up evaluation carried out after
the implementation of the programme.
ii. Evaluation has to be comprehensive: this is where a variety of instruments are employed
in evaluation to test many variables in assessment. This calls for essay and objective tests
many variables in in assessment. This calls for essay and objective tests.
iii. Consistency with objectives : the evaluation content(items) should be related to the
instructional objective the teacher had set to achieve.

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 iv. Principals of validity and reliability: the tests items should measure what the evaluator
intends to measure (validity) and its results should be consistent when administered under
similar conditions at different times (reliability).

Evaluation techniques.

In order to carry out the above types of and approaches to assessment, there are techniques which
are employed by educators. Human behavior being complex, it has been argued that no single
technique of evaluation can yield all the data needed to assess in totality the leaners achievement
after a given learning/ teaching experience ( Ayot et al: 1989). There is need therefore, to
develop a variety of evaluation techniques which aid in judging the preparedness and
attainability of instructional objectives, the usefulness of the instructional materials and the
effectiveness of the instructional methods ( Osundwa: 2000). The procedure, chosen should
relate to the aims and objectives of the subject being assessed, and should produce reliable
indications of the abilities looked for in the pupils.

There are a variety of assessment techniques available to the classroom teacher. They include the
following:

i. Written tests/quizzes: although quizzes are usually shorter than tests, both instruments are
used to measure learning or attitudes of the students.
ii. Oral testing or questioning for immediate feedback.
iii. Oral reports on observations made or oral presentation by individuals or groups following
a group project or a discussion.
iv. Project or laboratory type tests.
v. Written assignments; this can be individually or in groups.
vi. Direct observation used to evaluate skills, attitudes and values.
vii. Questionnaire for evaluating skills, attitude and values.
viii. Rating scales: these are used to record assessment of the quality of performance or the
degree of achievement of an individual or groups learning objective ( Lang et al: 1995)
ix. Checklist for observing certain traits exhibits.
x. Examination.
xi. Performance/ or product: performance can be assessed as it occurs e.g. dissecting an
animal, operating a microscope, playing a guitar, piano etc.

It is important to note that evaluation in the cognitive domain is done through assignment,
exercises, quizzes, tests and examination. Observation and assessment of behavior are applied in
the effective, social-relating and psychomotor domains of learning. Although the above methods
are all important in assessing teaching/learning process, teachers focus more on written tests.

Test

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These are defined as predetermined collection of questions or task to which predetermined types
of response are sought. ( Zigmond et al : 1983). It has further been defined as a “ statistic device
or instrument used to reveal the individuals performance in comparison to those of others in the
same class and the same task under the same conditions ( Ayot et al: 1989). In these definitions,
tests are meant to measure the performance and capabilities of the students or a class.

Tests as form of assessment have these advantages:

i. They place all the students in the same measure under similar conditions.
ii. They give objective analysis of the students’ performance if properly marked.
iii. If they are varied and repeated, they give a fairly accurate estimate of what the leaner can
do.

Limitations

1. It cannot measure all aspects of education such as attitudes and some complex
psychomotor skills. Only testable areas are assessed.
2. It is difficult to tell to what extent a student has mastered knowledge. Instead, the test
compares ones performance in relation to the achievement of others.
3. Since it emphasizes on marks the teacher and the learners end up on focusing the learning
in the cognitive domain instead of learning mastery of social, effective, and psychomotor
skills which are essential in real life.

Types of tests

There are many types used in educational institutions. Callahan and Clark ( 1990), have
identified the following tests.

1. Achievement test: these are designed to measure the student’s level of accomplishment,
how much a student has learnt about a subject segment of the subject. They are
commercially prepared and are accompanied with charts and manuals.
2. Standardized test: these instruments are meant to measure student’s intellectual abilities,
academic achievements, attitudes interests and aptitude nationwide. They are
commercially designed by testing experts who ensure that the instruments represent
desirable test characteristics. The tests are accompanied by a test manual with
information on administration, scoring and interpreting the test results. According to
Sumner (1991) every aspect of the test presentation and completion is specified as are the
questions and expected answers.
3. Interests and aptitude tests. They are useful for diagnosis and counselling students. They
give teachers and counsellors insights into the abilities and interests of students and
probabilities of their potential success in various careers and vocations.

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 4. Personality test: these are basically used by psychologists, counselling and to a less extent
teachers. They include paper and pencil tests, drawing tests, rating scales, situational tests
and projective techniques for evaluating personality or emotional problems.
5. Diagnostic test: this is a readiness test meant to find out whether the students have the
understanding skills and sometimes motivation to go to the next level. It is specifically
designed to determine the students’ deficiencies with the intention that once discovered
suitable remedial learning can be arranged.
6. Speed tests: they are applied when the teacher wants to test the time involved in
performing a particular skill.
7. Power test: they are those tests which give sufficient time to student so that about 90% of
them are able to respond to test items by the end of the test.
8. Performance test: these are designed mainly to indicate the level at which students can
accomplish a specific skill usually psychomotor in emphasis.
9. Teacher- made tests: they fall under achievement test and they are prepared by the
teacher to measure students’ learning in a specific area. They are done at two levels; a
pretest given prior to teaching and a post-test given at the end of teaching to measure
precisely what has been taught. Students’ growth is measured by the difference the
between the pretest and post test scores.
10. Objectives tests: These are the most commonly used tools by classroom teachers in
schools. An objective test Is one that can be scored consistently, the answers are either
right or wrong
11. Essay tests: The responses cannot be considered right or wrong. They require learners to
give lengthy answers by narrating on a given topic.
12. Pencil and paper test: This is a situation where all test materials are printed and responses
are either written or marked on prepared answer sheets.

General guidelines on construction of a test

A teacher should consider the following guidelines in making a test according to Nasibi et al
(1995).

1. Specify the instructional or learning objectives to assess.

2. Define the learner’s task as completely and clearly as possible ensuring that it measures
the intended objectives specified in (1)
3. Ensure that the expected responses from the students relate to significant content and
behavior indicated in the table of specification and objectives (test on all that you have
taught with objective questions)
4. Write the items clearly and specifically in order for the learners to know what is
expected of them.
5. Test as many aspects of education as possible: memory, reason, imagination, application,
attitudes etc. Also test on facts, procedures, concepts, rules application and skills.
6. Set questions which test specific skills that the learner has been undergoing
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7. Restrict the subject matter to be covered to the question by listing down specifically the
responses which students should make and then formulate questions exactly asking for
only these responses.
8. Indicate the area of emphasis for each question by either underlining, writing in italics or
in bold.
9. Structure the question in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed, each question being easy to follow from the learner’s point of view. Avoid
trivial and tricky questions
10. Avoid vague terms that could illicit contradictory responses from the learning by making
sure the questions are not linguistically or conceptually ambiguous.
11. Check the adequacy of the questions by seeing whether you and other experts can agree
on the required answer.
12. Make good questions concisely stated, not ambiguous, not answerably by yes or no,
involving few ideas and requiring no copying of text books or class notes.
13. Estimate the time to be taken in answering each question.
14. Determine the marks for each response and hence for the full answer to show the marks
for each question.
15. Arrange the questions in order of difficulty. Easy ones first and difficult ones coming
first.
16. Allow no choice ( optional questions) so that each student can go as far as his/her ability
allows.
17. To avoid copying, make alternative rows in class whenever it is possible.
18. On the question paper, indicate space for name, number, form or class in cases of
objective tests.

Characteristics of a good task

1. Validity: this refers to the degree to which the test measures or the reliability of a test to
measure what is intended to measure. According to Bishop( 1985), it implies that there
should be an agreement between what the test measures and the function it is interested
to measure. The assessor should ensure that the assessment provides them with the
information which it was set to give because “what you test is what you get” ( Sulton
1991 : 10).
2. Reliability: it relates to the consistency with which at test repeatedly yields virtually the
same scores when given the same individuals under similar circumstances ( lang et al
1995) or according to Collahan and Clark (1990), the consistency of results. Does it give
the same result when administered at different times? ( bishop 1985). The test possesses
a high degree of consistency and reliability when it gives the same results on two
successful occasions. Reliability of a test depends on:
 The condition under which it is administered
 The nature of the attributes being measured

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  The characteristics of the group of students being assessed
 The way in which the test is scored
3. Objectivity: it refers to the assessment which is free as possible from objective
judgement and biasness. A measuring instrument has objectivity when two or more
components observers can independently agree whether a learner test performance meets
the standard criteria stated in the learning objective or not.
4. Usability: it refers to the practical aspects of the time and resources required for the state
for the test compared to the value of the information obtained.
5. Discrimination: it is concerned with the ability of a test to separate students on how well
they have performed. The questions sampled should be representative of the content area
covered. They should also be sufficiently difficult so that those who know the subject
can be separated from those who do not know it.
6. Authenticity: it relates to the degree to which the test is congruent with reality. An
authentic test involves real problems that are transferable to life situations.

Object test

These are tests where the learners responses are limited to either of the following: single words,
phrases or simple choices from several choices presented to them ( Ogunniyi: 1984:28)

They have these characteristics

 Answers are short: the learners are to select the correct response from a limited number
of alternatives or to recall a very short answer.
 Wide content coverage: they test on many items. Students are expected to respond to a
large number of items.
 Tasks are structured
 Most of the learners time is spent on reading and thinking
 Quality of the test depends on the skill of the constructor
 Easy grading of responses
 Difficulties in building the test items
 High scoring reliability.

Advantages of objective test

1. They allow for a wide content coverage

2. They can be used to stimulate either conversant or divergent thinking, to learn facts,
concepts and principles.
3. The questions call for specific information thus encouraging learners to pay close
attention to details of what they are studying.
4. Scoring is done quickly and more objectively
5. Time saving when responding and scoring
6. High scoring reliability because there is only one correct answer per question
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 7. Easy mark

Disadvantages

1) Setting is time-consuming
2) They are expensive in terms of paper and human power
3) They tend to measure partial and superficial knowledge rather than broad conceptual
understanding
4) They are not effective in testing students ability to organize their thoughts or to write
coherently
5) They tend to test recall or factual informational items rather than creativity
6) They give room for guessing

There are many times of objective tests. Among them are multiple choice types, supply item
category (completion test), a true/false and matching exercise.

Multiple choice types

This is a test that consists of questions or statements followed by a list of possible answers one of
which should be chosen as the correct response (answer). At times all the answers are true to a
certain extent but only one is the best. At other times the correct answer may involve a
combination of two or more of the five alternatives (Ogunniyi: 1984). Shiundu and Omulando
(1992) state in this type of test, a student is a given a set of possible answers to a problem from
which s/he selects one or more correct answers.

These tests are important in assessment because they cover a wide area, can measure a variety of
cognitive skills, and are easier to score than essay questions. However, multiple choice tests have
a number of limitations.

1. Time consuming in construction because many more items than are required in essay
tests
2. A tendency for teachers to write items and demand factual knowledge instead of high
level thought processes
3. The distractors (answers) are all true at times or the questions having no correct answers
especially if the constructor is not skillful.
4. Not suitable for measuring capability in organization or composition
5. Promoting guessing
6. Giving advantage to students with above average reading reliability.

Guidelines on how to construct multiple- choice type

An assessor can come up with good multiple- choice test if s/he considers the following ( Nasibi
et al : 1995) :

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1. Identify the content area ( topics) from which to develop items (questions)
2. Design statement from the content that imply situations that students have not
encountered
3. Write the stem ( the question) first, making it short and clear
4. The stem must be carefully worded to avoid vagueness and different interpretations
5. State the questions positively.
6. Look for the key
7. Make sure that there is only one correct answer
8. Look for distractor ( wrong options or incorrect choices)
9. Distractions should not be obviously wrong.
10. Make all the responses almost equal in length or make two responses short and the other
two long
11. Place correct answer in different positions in each question
12. Make sure all responses fit grammatically with the stem
13. Avoid phrases such as none of these or all of them
14. Ensure that test is not too long, otherwise it will become an endurance test rather than a
test of ability.

Examples of multiple- choice item

1) The purpose of a fuse in circuit is to

 Break the current when necessary
 Reduce the current
 Switch the current on and off
 Complete the circuit
2. One of the reasons why agricultural co-operatives were established in Kenya was to:
 Encourage farmers to share the profits
 Encourage farmers to increase their production
 Enable farmers to practice larger-scale farming
 Enable farmers to obtain labour cheaply
3. The thick layer of fat under the skin of a whale is for;
 Keeping the skin of a whale oily
 Making the whale heavier
 Keeping the body of the whale warm
 Making the whale float in the water
4. The system of government used by the French in Senegal was
 Direct rule
 Indirect rule
 Assimilation
 Association

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 Advantages of multiple-choice test

i. They cover a wide area

ii. They can measure a variety of cognitive skills
iii. They are easier to score than essay test
iv. They are less likely than true or false tests to provide some variation because of guessing

Disadvantages

i. They consume a lot of time during construction

ii. There is tendency for teacher to write multiple-choice questions that demand factual
knowledge
iii. Sometimes all the answers are true
iv. Sometimes it’s not correct answer

True/false items

In true/false items, the students are presented with a declarative statement and are required to
indicate whether the statement is correct or incorrect.

Some of these variations of true or false are yes no and right-wrong.

Suggestions for designing true or false items

The following are suggestions on how to design true or false items (Nasibi & Kiio: 1995):

I. Use statements that are completely true or completely false but not partially true or false
II. Do not copy statements word for word from the textbook; use terms that provide clue
about the right answer or a negative statement unless it cannot be avoided
III. Avoid using complicated terms’ rhetorical questions, long and ambiguous statements.

Examples of true false items

I. Kinyekitile Ngwale was the leader of the Giriama rebellion T/F

II. The most effective way of controlling soil erosion in the arid parts of kenya is by
practicing agroforestry T/F
III. Oliver Tambo was founder member of ANC. T/F
IV. Rotation of the earth on its axis causes day and night T/F.

Although the tests are easy to write, score and can test wide content within the shortest time
possible, they have a high rate of guessing.

Matching exercise

It consists or two columns. The first column consists of a list of items while the second one
consists of responses. Each time in the first (1st) column is to be paired with an alternative

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response in the second (2nd) column. In most cases, learning involves the association of two
things in the learner’s mind. Common examples where this association can be made are:

1) Terms and their definitions

2) Events and causes
3) Instruments and their purposes
4) Inventions and their inventors
5) Items and their characteristics
6) Diseases and their causes, and
7) Insects and their developmental stages

The student/candidate is required to make some association between what is contained in column
1 and column 2. In the simplest matching exercises, the student is presented with exactly the
same number of responses as the number of items are frequently used because they reduce the
examinee’s success by guessing

Suggestions for constructing matching items

The following suggestions could be useful to a teacher who could construct matching items.

1) Give clear and specific instructions explaining how matching is to be done in-order to
avoid confusion
2) Limit the number of items in each set (column) to between 5-12 because when they are
too many, they tend to confuse students and they are also time consuming
3) Each set of items should be homogenous
4) Arrange items in sequential order, either alphabetically or in time sequence
5) Put each set of items and responses in the same page so that the learner does not have to
turn over the page
6) Distribute the responses randomly and do not give clues
7) Keep the responses short to save students from spending a lot of time searching through
responses
8) Include two or three extra responses to decrease the possibility of guessing

Examples of matching type of items

1) Terms and definitions

Column 1 column II

1. Weathering planting of trees where none existed

2. Derrick an equipment used to mine petroleum from the
ground
3. Vent a layer of air surrounding the earth an opening in
the surface of the earth

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 4. Agroforestry a mass of rock surrounding the core of the earth
5. Afforestation an instrument used to mine gold
6. Crust the process by which rocks break down

growth of both crops and trees on the same piece of

land

removing of top soil

Advantages of matching items

The matching exercise is useful for these reasons

1. Examining the ability to see relationship between events and between categories of
statements
2. Identifying numbered places or parts on a map, charts , and diagrams
3. Testing in ‘who; ‘what’ ‘when’ and ‘where’ situation

Limitations of matching items

The exercise has among others the following limitations

1) If the matching item is too simple, there is a possibility of learners guessing the correct
answer
2) In a complex matching exercise the learner may spend substantial time searching for the
correct response
3) The matching item test cannot be applied in all subject topics since it is difficult to find a
sufficient number or related items in the subject
4) It is difficult to construct good items that are not so obvious and to design a matching
exercise that will measure genuine understanding of a high level or the ability to
interpret complex relationships
5) If not constructed, by a skillful constructor, the matching items test is likely to give clues
to the learners

Supply items tests

These are tests which require a student to apply single words, phrase(s) or sentences to a given
question. There are two types: completion questions and short-answer questions. Completion
questions require the students to fill I a missing phrase, word or symbol in a statement related to
an area of learning (Shiundu & Omulando: 1992) Its purpose is to determine the student’s ability
to recall or recognize the appropriate term; concept or phases to complete a statement (Ogunniyi:
1984; 30). They are recognized by the presence of blanks either at the beginning or end of a
statement in which the students write answers to the questions. At times a number of words or
phrases are placed below the question from which the student will be required to choose the most

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suitable one to complete the sentence or statement (Nasibi et al: 1995) Short-answer questions
require the learner to give specific information to a direct question e.g. who is the president of
Kenya?

Suggestions on how to design supply item test

Below are some suggestions to the teacher on how to construct supply items tests:

1. Give clear instructions for each question

2. Make the wording clear and specific enough in order to avoid ambiguous responses
3. Provide for brief responses
4. Provide blanks either at the beginning or at the end of a statement
5. Use only key words for blanks
6. Do not leave many blank spaces in the sentences as they tend to confuse students
7. Make sure there is only one correct answer
8. Do not make answers too obvious
9. Avoid long and complex statements
10. Avoid vague questions which may elicit different types of answers from students
11. Avoid using highly technical terms

Examples of supply items tests

a) Completion tests

The examples under this type of test items are:

1) The pressure exerted by a liquid depends on its___________

2) --------------was the first African President of South Africa.
3) ---------------is the present name of Former Zaire.
4) Lubengula was a leader of the-----------
5) P.A.T was formed in the year?
b) Completions tests using a phrase statement or word
1) The term apartheid---------------
2) The main reason why some African communities prayed facing the east was because------
------
3) The main results of Mau Mau war which broke out in 1952 in Kenya was----------
4) Cancer of lungs can be caused by excessive---------
a) A short- answer test
1. Which instrument is used to measure wind?
2. Who was the founder of islam?
3. Which Kenyan community lived in fortified villages known as makaya?

Note: a completion test item can also be a short-answer item

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 Essay tests

These are tests which require learners to give lengthy answers by a narrative on a given topic.
The learners are expected to organize ideas or show creativity through writing. There are two
types of essays: Extended (open-ended) and restricted response (structured). These are also
known as long and short essays respectively.

In the extended type, no bounds are placed on the students as to the number of points they will
discuss and the type of organizations to use. In this type of essay test, the students are permitted
to demonstrate their ability to call upon factual knowledge, evaluate it, organize ideas and
present them in a coherent fashion. It is commonly used with older or mature students. The
extended response essay question is suitable at level of synthesis and evaluation. Terms
commonly used in this type of question are discussed, describe, explain, apply, determine
analysis; compare and contrast etc.

In the restricted response essay questions, the students are more limited in the form and scope of
their answer because they are told specifically the context that the answer is to take. It is suitable
for measuring learning outcomes at the comprehension, application and analysis levels. Terms
associated with restricted response questions include such words as define, state, identify, give,
name, compare, contrast, classify, classify, trace etc. it has been argued that such questions
provide scope for evaluation of learning of a specific point and are used to overcome the
disadvantages of long open ended question ( Shiundu, Omulando: 1992). For instance, one
would ask for a response calling for a single statement, e.g. the cause or effect of something.

Characteristics of essay questions

1. They require students to organize their work logically and express themselves clearly in
their own words.
2. They consist of a few questions which require lengthy answers.
3. They are relatively easy to prepare and too hard to mark accurately
4. Their quality depends on the skills of the setter and the scorer.

When to use essay questions

1. The school is small

2. The teacher wishes to encourage the fullest development of the learners skills in written
expression
3. The teacher wants students to organize ideas or to show their creativity
4. The evaluator is more interested in exploring the learner’s attitude than in measuring
achievement.
5. The assessor is more confident of his or her proficiency as a critical reader
6. The time available for test presentation is shorter than the time available for scoring
7. Evaluating complex or controversial areas of a subject

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8. Learners are expected to apply the acquired knowledge to novel situations.

Guidelines for constructing essay questions

1. Define the learner’s task as completely and clearly as possible.

2. Write the items clearly and specifically in order for the learners to know what is expected
of them
3. The expected responses from the students should relate to significant content and
behavior as indicated in the table of specifications and objectives
4. Restrict the subject matter to be covered by the questions
5. The area of emphasis for the question should be indicated by underlining
6. The questions should be interesting and challenging enough
7. Structure the questions in such a way that an overall understanding of learners can be
assessed
8. Each question should be easy to follow from the learner’s point of view.
9. Avoid vague terms that could elicit contradictory responses from the learners
10. Avoid the practice of allowing for optional questions because take the same test as any
other student if the scores are to be compared
11. Try to set questions which test specific skills that the learners have been undergoing.
12. Check the adequacy of the question by seeing whether you and other experts can agree
on an ideal answer.
13. Provide generous time limit for the test depending on the number and complexity of the
questions
14. Have a common basis for evaluation by preparing a marking scheme based on valid
criteria.
15. Ensure that it measures the intended objectives.

Examples of essay question

1. Open-ended
a) Discuss the factors which favor the establishment of an industry.
b) Explain factors which influences personality and behavior
c) Compare and contrast population change patterns in developing and developed countries
d) Explain the importance of compounds of nitrogenous in the natural and industrial
environment.

Restricted

1. Give three reasons which led to the formation of COMESA

2. Explain four characteristics of bases
3. Discuss causes of sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
4. State three characteristics of acids

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 Advantages of essay questions

1. They provide opportunities for the learners to demonstrate the degree to which they can
analyze a given problem.
2. They enable the learners to creatively select relevant information related to the
questions they are discussing
3. They can provide good measure of the learners understanding of any given area of
knowledge
4. They enable the learners to organize answers in a systematic and comprehensive manner
5. They help the leaners to provide their learning skills
6. They provide the learners with opportunities to demonstrate as much as possible, how
much know on a given item since there is no absolutely wrong or write answer.
7. They give students opportunities to express themselves using their own phrases, words
and expression and with minimum restrictions
8. They measure more complex high levels of understanding e.g. analysis, synthesis and
evaluation
9. Analyzing the learner’s responses to an essay, an instructor becomes aware of the
learners approach to problem solving.
10. They are easy to set and leave no room for guessing.

Disadvantages of essay questions

1. They suffer from content unreliability and inadequate sampling of items because the
teacher can assess on only a limited sample of contact covered and on very few items,
given the lengthy answers expected
2. There is lack of consistency in judgment because scoring depends of the physically and
mental state of the scorer.
3. Scoring is highly subjective because the evaluator can at times be impressed with literally
skill and handwriting of the learners.
4. Grading calls for expert judgment because they produce responses which can only be
effectively by a competent examiner.
5. Learner’s performance in a given item can influence the scorer in other items. The scorer
gives more or less marks depending on the first performance of the student
6. Suffers from reliability where options questions are allowed. Students answer questions
of different content.
7. They are time consuming for students because a lot of time is spent thinking and writing.
And also to the teacher while grading because one is expected to understand and
interpreted the students mind.
8. They encourage bluffing since the students are encouraged to express themselves freely.
9. They have low- reader reliability because some students do better on some questions and
poorly on others depending how questions are constructed

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 Suggestions for improving/reducing essay questions limitations

1. Restrict essay tests to objectives that are best achievable through this type of testing. e.g
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
2. Avoid vague terms that would elicit contradictory responses from learners.
3. Structure items in such a way that the overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed. This can be achieved through the use of questions such as “explain why”,
“analyze how” , “give reasons for”, etc.
4. Score one question at a time for all who attempted it for consistency and follow off your
line of thought.
5. Score every objective that is to be measured independently.
6. Make an essay test when you are physically sound and mentally alert.
7. Make sure the environment in which you are marking in is free from destruction.
8. Prepare marking scheme based on a valid criteria.

Table of specification

When preparing tests whether objective or essay, one should be guided by a table of specification
to know which level of learning is to be tested. This can be defined as a blue print in which
content area to be covered in test as well as levels cognitive learning and specified. The behavior
tested is related to six levels of cognitive development according to blooms taxonomy, namely
knowledge, comprehension, application, synthesis and evaluation.

Knowledge: involves recall of specific or universal or recognition of facts, terminologies, dates

persons, etc.

Comprehension: involves interpretation, translation, extrapolation, imagination ,etc. the learner is

expected to put information in his own words, or to paraphrase. The terms used in formulating
such questions are explain, describe, discuss, among others.

Application; requires one to apply knowledge or make generalization to new situations, e.g.
illustrate, demonstrate, and interpret.

Analysis: involves breaking down knowledge into parts and showing relationship among the
parts e.g. analyze, compare, and contrast.

Synthesis: requires the learner to put together parts and element of knowledge to form a whole
and build relationship for new situation e.g. write, formulate, organize, contract.

Evaluation: includes the marking of judgments about the value of something on the basis of a
given criteria e.g. evaluate, choose, compare, etc.

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The table of specification consists of one row (vertically) showing the subject matter (content) to
be tested, and six columns defining the different levels of cognitive abilities to be tested in each
subject matter area shown in the row (vertical)

Importance of table of specification

The table of specification is important in test construction because:

1. It defines as clearly as possible the scope of emphasis of the test.

2. It helps the setter to determine the levels of learning (type of objectives) are given to be
assessed in a given area.
3. It ensures that each content area and levels of learning (interactional objectives) are a
given proper amount of attention in the test.
4. It guides the setter in devising the type of test to set whether it is objective or essay.

How to prepare a table of specification

1. Identify the content area to be covered

2. Prepare a grid chart
3. List the content area to be tested vertically in the chart
4. Across the top of the chart give a breakdown of the six levels of learning
5. Decide on the numbers of item to be set in a given content area
6. Decide on the number of item per topic and the appropriate level of testing
7. Ensure that there is more concentration in the middle level of learning with a few
questions in the lowest and highest level.

Note;

i. Content does not always fall in a single cognitive level. Sometimes it cuts across two
or more levels of learning.
ii. The number of items per learning level depends on the amount of content covered and
the promotion of emphasis given during instruction.
iii. It is not always easy to differentiate between some levels of learning e.g. it is difficult
to draw a line between analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Illustration 29: A Sample of table of specification.

COURSE
CONTENT
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total Total
question percentages
Introduction 1 1 1 3 6
to chemistry
Simple 2 1 2 2 1 8 16
classification
of substances
The 1 2 1 1 1 6 12
atmosphere

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and
combustion
Water and 1 1 1 2 1 6 12
hydrogen
Acids, bases 2 1 1 4 8
and
indicators
Structure of 1 3 1 2 7 14
the atom,
periodic
table,
chemical
symbols,
formulae and
equations
Chemical 1 2 1 1 5 10
families,
patterns in
properties
salts 1 2 1 2 6 12
Structure and 1 1 2 1 5 10
bonding
Total number 5 6 10 10 10 9 50 100
of questions
Percentage 10 12 20 20 20 18 100

1. Ensure there is sufficient resources needed e.g. test papers, foolscap, pens, pencil,
rubbers, chairs etc. have more than the required number.
2. Prepare the room by clearing it off any relevant materials like charts, pictures, objects,
maps, globes, which might give some pupils unfair advantage in the assessment.
3. If possible have a clock in a central place in the room for all to see.
4. Distribute papers overturned. They should remain so until you are over with the
distribution.
5. Ask the learners to turn their papers
6. Allow them time for reading to overcome nervousness.
7. Tell them to start writing, check the time they are starting, write it on a chalkboard, and
time for stopping.
8. Ensure they remain in their seats throughout the test.
9. Move to help those with difficulties.
10. Announcement should be made to the whole class incase errors are discovered in the
question paper.
11. Correct the errors.
12. Ensure the answer is not divulged in answering the learners questions related to the tests
13. Announce the time at suitable intervals of 30 minutes when the test examination is long.
14. Give alternative tests to different rows to avoid copying.
15. Advise them to read through their answer and check on their names and numbers on each
sheet of paper used.
16. Note names and numbers of absentees.

Marking of a test/examination.

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 1. Use a marking scheme prepared during construction
2. For essay questions arrange the papers by questions
3. Read through a number of students response to get an idea of the kind of work you are
going to mark. This might lead to altering the marking scheme a little to include some
new points
4. Read and interpret each response in relation to the point of the marking scheme.
5. Give marks for good and relevant points not in your scheme
6. Be objective. Do not be influenced by earlier impression about a given student when
reading their responses.
7. Mark immediately the test is done.
8. Use understandable symbols when indicating errors, but do not correct them e.g. sp. For
spelling, nc. For not clear etc.
9. Indicate every mistake for bright student, for slow learners indicate only recurring
mistakes.
10. Make a list of common errors as you mark.
11. Mark question after question, i.e. mark all responses to question one before you move to
the next question.
12. Add up the totals scores for each candidate.
13. Arrange the papers in order of the scores starting with the highest. Break the scores into
top, upper, middle, and bottom.
14. Compare a few papers from the quarters to check the fairness of your marking.
15. Keep recording of this score’
16. Commit on all impro0vement and avoid discouraging remarks.

Grading of students

1. Make a list of the scores in descending order and against each score write in the name
and number of the students who got it.
2. Draw lines cutting about the top 5% for A, the next 25% for B, the next 40% for C, next
for D and less than 5% for an E. This is only the case if it is norm-referenced assessment.
Otherwise, the grades should be awarded according to established criteria where A would
be awarded to those who have scored 80 and above.
3. Give the same grade for those who score the same marks
4. Vary the above distribution slightly up or down to cater for an extra bright class or an
extra dull class.
5. Calculate the average( mean), median (middle score), the range of scores( the difference
between the highest and the lowest score), and the mode( most common score)
6. Keep a record of these marks.

Grades as determined by performance

Percentage Letter grade Remark

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80 or above A Very excellent
70-70 A- Excellent
65-69 B+ Very good
60-64 B Good
55-59 B- Fairly good
50-54 C+ Satisfactory
45-49 C Average
40-44 C- Fair
35-39 D+ Below average
30 or below D Fail

Announcement of results

1. Return the papers as soon as possible because the students are eager to know how they
performed. Delay skills their motivation for the on-going lesson.
2. To avoid embarrassed, hand the paper directly to the owner.
3. Announce highest score, medium and average.
4. Explain the marking scheme by going through the test if it was poorly done. Otherwise
go only through questions which had poor responses.
5. Explain on the class common mistakes but not each individual’s mistakes.
6. Comment on the improvements.
7. Avoid discouraging remarks like you are stupid, lazy, you are going to fail, you will
never make it.
8. Refuse dealing with complaints in class but after class allow it but only genuine
complains. Knock off marks for justification complains to discourage them.

Summary

This chapter has discussed the key features of assessment in teaching and learning process. The
main focus has been on the classroom evaluation. Two types of evaluation were defined and their
functions highlighted. Although there were many methods of assessing the learners, the chapter
focused on testing as the most popular from the evaluation in Kenyan schools. Two types of
testing essay and objective test were identified and explained. It was seen that each had its
strength and weaknesses, and that they should be selected or preferred in relation to what the
assessor wants to assess. It was further emphasized that in constructing any type of test it is
important that a table of specification be used because it identifies what levels of cognitive
development and content areas should be tested. Lastly, guidelines were given on how a test
should be administered, scored and announcement of the results made to the learners.

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