M.S.

Ramaiah Institute of Technology

(Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to VTU)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Course Name: Fundamentals of Computing

Course Code: CS16
Credits: 2:0:0
UNIT 1

Term: Odd Semester 2021

Faculty:
Mrs.Darshana A Naik
Mrs.Shilpa H
Mrs Sunitha R S

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UNIT 1 Syllabus Covered
Overview of C: Basic Structure of C Programs. Constants, Variables, and Data
types: Character Set, C-Tokens, Keywords and Identifies, Constants, Variables,
Data Types, Defining Symbolic Constants. Managing Input and Output
Operations: Reading a Character, writing a Character, Formatted Input
Formatted Output

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Program Structure

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Program Structure

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Some Key Terms

◼ Source Program
◼ printable/Readable Program file
◼ Object Program
◼ nonprintable machine readable file
◼ Executable Program
◼ nonprintable executable code
◼ Syntax errors
◼ reported by the compiler
◼ Linker errors
◼ reported by the linker
◼ Execution/Run-time errors
◼ reported by the operating system

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Executing a Computer Program

◼ Compiler
◼ Converts source program to object program
◼ Linker
◼ Converts object program to executable program

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 General Form
preprocessing directives ◼ The main function contains two types
of commands: declarations and
int main(void)
statements
{
◼ Declarations and statements are
declarations statements required to end with a semicolon (;)
} ◼ Preprocessor directives do not end with
a semicolon
◼ To exit the program, use a

return 0; statement

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Process of Compiling and executing
C program

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 Another Program
/***************************************************/
/* Program chapter1 */
/* This program computes the sum of two numbers */
#include <stdio.h> int main(void)
{
/* Declare and initialize variables. */
double number1 = 473.91, number2 = 45.7, sum;
/* Calculate sum. */
sum = number1 + number2;
/* Print the sum. */
printf(“The sum is %f \n”, sum);

return 0; /* Exit program. */

}
/****************************************************/

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/* */ Comments Preprocessor,
/* Program chapter1_1 */
/* This program computes the */ standard C library
/* distance between two points. */
every C program must have
#include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> main function, this one takes no
parameters and it returns int
int main(void) value
{ { → begin
/* Declare and initialize variables. */
double x1=1, y1=5, x2=4, y2=7, side_1, side_2, distance; Variable declarations, initial
values (if any)
/* Compute sides of a right triangle. */
Statements
must end with ;
side_1 = x2 - x1; side_2 = y2 - y1;
indentation
distance=sqrt(side_1*side_1 + side_2*side_2);

/* Print distance. */ indentation

printf("The distance between the two " "points is
indentation
%f \n", distance);
return 0
return 0; /* Exit program. */ } → end of function
}
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/* */
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 Constants and Variables
◼ What is a variable in math? f(x) = x2+x+4
◼ In C,
◼ A variable is a memory location that holds a value

◼ An identifier or variable name is used to reference a

memory location.

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 Memory
double x1=1,x2=7,distance;
name address Memory - content
…
11
How many memory cells
x1 12 1 = 00000001 does your computer have?
Say it says 2Gbyte memory?
x2 13 7 = 00000111
1K=103 or 210 = 1024
1M=106 or 220 =10242
14
1G=109 or 230 =10243
distance 15
? = 01001101

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Memory Snapshot

Name Addr Content

x1 1
y1 5
x2 4
y2 7
side_1 ?
side_2 ?
distance ?

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 Rules for selecting a valid
identifier (variable name)
◼ Must begin with an alphabetic character or underscore
(e.g., abcABC_)
◼ May contain only letters, digits and underscore (no
special characters ^%@)
◼ Case sensitive (AbC, aBc are different)
◼ Cannot use C keywords as identifiers (e.g., if, case,
while)

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Are the following valid identifiers?
◼ distance ◼ rate% ◼ initial_time
◼ 1x ◼ x_sum ◼ DisTaNce

◼ x_1 ◼ switch ◼ X&Y

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C Numeric Data Types

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Example Data-Type Limits

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 C Character Data Type: char
char result =‘Y’;
In memory, everything is stored as binary value, which can be interpreted as char or integer.
Examples of ASCII Codes

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 Memory
name address Memory - content
How to represent ‘a’ ?
char My_letter=‘a’; 0
int My_number = 97
My_letter 1 ‘a’= 01100001
Always we have 1’s and 0’s in the 97 = 01100001
memory. It depends on how you look My_number 2
at it?
For example, 01100001 is 97 if you 3
look at it as int, or
4
‘a’ if you look at it as char
? = 01001101
5
‘3’ is not the same as 3 How to
6
represent 2.5?
…
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 Constants
◼ A constant is a specific value that we use in our programs. For
example
3.14, 97, ‘a’, or “hello”
◼ In your program,
int a = 97; a
char b =‘a’;
01100001
double area, r=2.0; 01100001 b
double circumference;
? area
area = 3.14 * r*r;
circumf
circumference = 2 * 3.14 * r; ? erence

2.0 r
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 Symbolic Constants
◼ What if you want to use a better estimate of ?
For example, you want 3.141593 instead of 3.14.
◼ You need to replace all by hand
◼ Better solution, define  as a symbolic constant, e.g.
#define PI 3.141593
…
area = PI * r * r;
circumference = 2 * PI * r;
◼ Defined with a preprocessor directive
◼ Compiler replaces each occurrence of the directive identifier with the
constant value in all statements that follow the directive

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 Assignment Statements
◼ Used to assign a value to a variable
◼ General Form:
identifier = expression;
/* ‘=‘ means assign expression to identifier */
◼ Example 1
double sum = 0; 0 sum
Example 2 int x; x=5; x
◼
5
◼ Example 3
char ch;
ch = ‘a’;
‘a’ ch

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Assignment examples (cont’d)
◼ Example 3
int x, y, z; x
x = y = 0;
0
y
right to left! 0
z
Z = 1+1; 2

◼ Example 4
y=z;
y=5;

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 Assignment examples with
different types
int a, b=5; ? 2 a
double c=2.3; 5 b
… a=c; c=b;
2.3 5.0 c

long double, double, float, long integer, integer, short integer, char
→ Data may be lost. Be careful!
 No data loss

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Exercise: swap
First Attempt
x=y; y=x;

x 3 x 5 x 5
y 5 y 5 y 5

Before After x=y After y=x

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 Exercise: swap
Solution
temp= x;
x=y; y=temp;

x x x x 5
3 3 5
y y y y 3
5 5 5
temp temp temp temp 3
? 3 3

Before after temp=x after x=y after y = temp

Will the following solution work, too? temp= y;
y=x;
x=temp;
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Standard Input and Output
◼ Output: printf
◼ Input: scanf
◼ Remember the program computing the distance between two points!
/* Declare and initialize variables. */
double x1=1, y1=5, x2=4, y2=7, side_1, side_2,
distance;
◼ How can we compute distance for different points?
◼ It would be better to get new points from user, right? For this we will use
scanf
◼ To use these functions, we need to use
#include <stdio.h>

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Standard Output
◼ printf Function
◼ prints information to the screen
◼ requires two arguments
◼ control string
Access
◼ Contains text, conversion specifiers or both
Specifier
Identifier to be printed
◼

◼ Example Control String

double angle = 45.5;
printf(“Angle = %.2f degrees \n”, angle);

Output:
Angle = 45.50 degrees

Identifier
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Conversion Specifiers for Output
Statements

Frequently Used

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Standard Output
Output of 157.8926
Specifier Value Printed
%f 157.892600
%6.2f 157.89
%7.3f 157.893
%7.4f 157.8926
%7.5f 157.89260
%e 1.578926e+02
%.3E 1.579E+02
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Exercise
int sum = 65;
double average = 12.368; char ch = ‘b’;

Show the output line (or lines) generated by the following statements.

printf("Sum = %5i; Average = %7.1f \n", sum, average);

printf("Sum = %4i \n Average = %8.4f \n", sum, average);
printf("Sum and Average \n\n %d %.1f \n", sum, average);

printf("Character is %c; Sum is %c \n", ch, sum);

printf("Character is %i; Sum is %i \n", ch, sum);

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Exercise (cont’d)
◼ Solution
Sum = 65; Average = 12.4
Sum = 65
Average = 12.3680 Sum and
Average

65 12.4
Character is b; Sum is A
Character is 98; Sum is 65

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 Standard Input
◼ scanf Function
◼ inputs values from the keyboard
◼ required arguments
◼ control string
◼ memory locations that correspond to the specifiers in the

control string
◼ Example:
int distance; char unit_length;
scanf("%lf %c", &distance, &unit_length);
 It is very important to use a specifier that is appropriate for the data
type of the variable

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Conversion Specifiers for Input
Statements

Frequently Used

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Exercise
float f; int i;
scanf(“%f %d“, &f, &i);

◼What will be the values stored in f and i after scanf statement if

following values are entered
12.5 1

12 45
12 23.2
12.1 10
12
1

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 Good practice
◼You don’t need to have a printf before scanf, but it is
good to let user know what to enter:
printf(“Enter x y : ”);
scanf(“%d %d”, &x, &y);
◼ Otherwise, user will not know what to do!
◼ What will happen if you forget & before the variable
name?

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Exercise: How to input two points without re-
compiling the program

printf(“enter x1 y1: “); scanf(“%lf %lf“,

&x1, &y1); printf(“enter x2 y2: “);
scanf(“%lf %lf“, &x2, &y2);

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Programming exercise
◼Write a program that asks user to enter values for
the double variables (a, b, c, d) in the following
formula. It then computes the result (res) and prints it
with three digits after .

a + b a + c c +b c − d
res = +
a−b a +c
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 Math Functions
#include <math.h>
fabs(x) Absolute value of x.

sqrt( x) Square root of x, where x>=0.

pow(x,y) Exponentiation, xy. Errors occur if

x=0 and y<=0, or if x<0 and y is not an integer.
ceil(x) Rounds x to the nearest integer toward  (infinity). Example, ceil( 2 .
01 ) is equal to 3.
floor( x) Rounds x to the nearest integer toward - (negative infinity).
Example, f loor( 2 . 01 ) is equal to 2.
exp(x) Computes the value of ex.
log(x) Returns ln x, the natural logarithm of x to the base e.
Errors occur if x<=0.
log10(x) Returns log10x, logarithm of x to the base 10.
Errors occur if x<=0.

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Trigonometric Functions

si n( x) Computes the sine of x, where x is in radians. Computes the

cos( x) cosine of x, where x is in radians Computes the tangent of x,
tan(x) where x is in radians. Computes the arcsine or inverse sine of x,
asin(x) where x must be in the range [-1, 1].
Returns an angle in radians in the range [-/2,/2].

acos(x) Computes the arccosine or inverse cosine of x,

where x must be in the range [-1, 1].
Returns an angle in radians in the range [0, ].
atan(x) Computes the arctangent or inverse tangent of x. The
Returns an angle in radians in the range [-/2,/2].
atan2(y,x) Computes the arctangent or inverse tangent of the value y/x. Returns an angle in
radians in the range [-, ].

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 Parameters or Arguments of a
function
◼ A function may contain no argument or contain one
or more arguments
◼ If more than one argument, list the arguments in the correct order

◼ Be careful about the meaning of an argument. For example, sin(x)

assumes that x is given in radians, so to compute the sin of 60 degree,
you need to first conver 60 degree into radian then call sin function:
#define PI 3.141593
theta = 60;
theta_rad = theata * PI / 180;
b = sin(theta_rad); /* is not the same as sin(theta); */

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Exercise
◼ Write an expression to compute velocity using the following equation
◼ Assume that the variables are declared

velocity = vo2 + 2a(x − xo)

velocity = sqrt(vo*vo+2*a*(x-xo));

velocity = sqrt(pow(vo,2)+2*a*(x-xo));

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 Character Functions
#include <ctype.h>

putchar(‘a’);
C= getchar();

toupper(ch) If ch is a lowercase letter, this function returns the corresponding uppercase

letter; otherwise, it returns ch Returns a nonzero value if ch is a decimal digit;
isdigit(ch) otherwise, it returns a zero.
Returns a nonzero value if ch is a lowercase letter; otherwise, it returns a zero.
islower(ch) Returns a nonzero value if ch is an uppercase letter; otherwise, it returns a zero.
Returns a nonzero value if ch is an uppercase letter or a lowercase letter;
isupper(ch) otherwise, it returns a zero.
Returns a nonzero value if ch is an alphabetic character or a numeric digit;
isalpha(ch) otherwise, it returns a zero.

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 Exercise
What is the output of the following program

#include <stdio.h> #include <ctype.h>

int main(void)
{

char ch1='a', ch2; char

ch3='X', ch4;
char ch5='8';
ch2 = toupper(ch1); printf("%c %c
\n",ch1,ch2); ch4 = tolower(ch3);
printf("%c %c \n",ch3,ch4);
printf("%d\n",isdigit(ch5));
printf("%d\n",islower(ch1));
printf("%d\n",isalpha(ch5));
return(0);
}

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 Exercise Output
What is the output of the following program

#include <stdio.h> #include <ctype.h>

int main(void)
{
char ch1='a', ch2; char
ch3='X', ch4;
char ch5='8';
ch2 = toupper(ch1);
printf("%c %c \n",ch1,ch2); aA

ch4 = tolower(ch3); Xx
printf("%c %c \n",ch3,ch4); 2048
printf("%d\n",isdigit(ch5)); 512
printf("%d\n",islower(ch1)); 0
printf("%d\n",isalpha(ch5));
return(0);
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Summary
◼ Computing systems need a specific plan to design a solution for a
problem.
◼ The steps to engineering problem solving methodology are:
◼ Problem statement.
◼ Describe the input and output.
◼ Work the solution by hand with simple set of data.
◼ Design a solution and convert it into a program.
◼ Test the solution.
◼ Internal organization of a computer.
◼ Linking and loading process.

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 Thank you

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