1.

Introduction
Research Background

Urban air quality is a critical concern as cities worldwide experience rapid growth, increased
vehicular traffic, and intensive construction activities. Particulate matter (PM), consisting of
particles like PM10 (≤10 µm), PM2.5 (≤2.5 µm), and PM1 (≤1 µm), is a significant pollutant
contributing to deteriorating air quality in urban areas. These particles are especially dangerous to
human health as they can penetrate deep into the respiratory system and bloodstream, leading to
respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and premature death (World Health Organization,
2021). Construction activities, including demolition, earthworks, and material handling, are major
sources of PM emissions in cities and are responsible for elevating PM concentrations in urban
air (Apte et al., 2018, Khamraev, Cheriyan, & Choi, 2020). These emissions exacerbate air
quality issues, particularly in densely populated cities where construction sites are located near
residential and commercial areas, thereby affecting not only the health of construction workers
but also the surrounding communities (Khamraev et al., 2020; Yang et al.,2020, Cheriyan et
al.,2021).

In addition to particulate matter, construction sites also release various gaseous pollutants,
including nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and ammonia (NH₃). These gases
are commonly produced by equipment emissions, the use of certain construction materials,
and chemical reactions during construction processes. NO₂ is primarily emitted automobile
exhaust, power plants, and machinery which is one of the most used machineries
construction processes. (Ji et al.,2022). It reacts in the atmosphere to form nitrates, which
are a major component of PM2.5. These reactions elevate PM2.5 levels and contribute to
further air pollution, exacerbating respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Sandanayake et
al., 2019). Long-term exposure increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, particularly in
urban areas, and it is strictly regulated by both the World Health Organization (WHO) and
national air quality standards (WHO, 2018). H₂S is emitted during activities such as
underground excavation, sewage treatment, and waste management. It is a toxic gas with a
characteristic odor, and high concentrations can cause serious health effects. H₂S oxidizes to
form sulfates, which are a key component of PM2.5, worsening air quality and exposing
workers to respiratory and nervous system damage (OSHA., (2023). NH₃ is a precursor to
PM2.5 and contributes to air pollution when it reacts with other pollutants. Its presence at
construction sites, particularly during activities such as explosive use and wastewater
treatment, can elevate fine particulate concentrations (Butler et al., 2015). NH₃ interacts
with other pollutants to form ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, further
contributing to air quality degradation.

Monitoring and managing these pollutants—PM1, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, H₂S, and NH₃—is
crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of construction activities. Traditionally, air quality
monitoring relies on high-cost reference instruments, which may not be feasible for
continuous, real-time measurements in dynamic environments such as construction sites
Low-cost sensors have become an attractive alternative, offering portability and
affordability. However, their accuracy and reliability, particularly in complex environments
like construction sites, require thorough evaluation and calibration (Dubey et al., (2022).

Recent advances in drone technology have enabled a transformative approach to

environmental monitoring, particularly for air quality assessments (Lambey and Prasad,
2021). Drones offer several advantages for monitoring large, complex, or inaccessible areas
such as construction sites. Equipped with modern sensors, drones can provide real-time
data on air quality at multiple locations across a site, overcoming the limitations of fixed
monitoring stations that only capture data from a single point (Villa et al., 2016a, b;
Hedworth et al., 2021.). Drones can navigate varying altitudes and terrains, enabling users
to monitor PM concentrations from different perspectives, including above construction
zones, near emission sources, and in hazardous areas that would be dangerous for
personnel to access. The mobility and flexibility of drones allow them to quickly respond to
changing conditions on construction sites and provide real-time data to support decision-
making (Babak et al., 2021; Bakirci, 2024b). Drones are helping construction managers
identify areas where dust levels are highest and implement mitigation measures such as
dust suppression or adjusting work schedules.

In parallel with the development of cost-effective monitoring tools, air quality modeling
techniques like AERMOD (American Meteorological Society/Environmental Protection
Agency Regulatory Model) are employed to simulate the dispersion and transport of
pollutants. AERMOD has been widely used for regulatory air quality modeling but has not
been sufficiently applied to construction site emissions, which present unique challenges in
terms of emission sources, terrain, and meteorological conditions. Simulating pollutant
dispersion from construction sites to nearby residential and commercial areas, where
populations may be exposed to elevated pollutant concentrations, is crucial for assessing
broader environmental and health impacts. A comprehensive environmental impact
assessment (EIA) that considers both gaseous pollutants and particulate matter is necessary
to fully understand the scope of these impacts. Existing EIAs often focus on limited pollutant
types, leaving gaps in our understanding of cumulative environmental and health effects.
This research aims to integrate low-cost sensors with advanced modeling tools to monitor,
simulate, and assess the impacts of construction-related pollutants on air quality.

Problem Statement
Construction activities are a major source of air pollution, emitting a combination of
particulate matter and gaseous pollutants, including PM1, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, H₂S, and NH₃.
The management and monitoring of these emissions, however, are often inadequate. Low-
cost sensors have the potential to provide continuous, real-time monitoring at construction
sites, but their performance in terms of accuracy and reliability in dynamic construction
environments is not well understood. Furthermore, the dispersion of both particulate
matter and gaseous pollutants from construction sites to surrounding areas has not been
thoroughly studied using models such as AERMOD. The propagation of these pollutants and
their potential effects on neighbouring communities remain largely unquantified, leaving
gaps in our understanding of the health risks and environmental impacts.

Additionally, the lack of comprehensive environmental impact assessments for construction

sites, especially those involving multiple pollutant types, hinders the development of
effective mitigation strategies. This research aims to fill these gaps by evaluating and
calibrating low-cost sensors for both particulate and gaseous pollutants, using AERMOD to
simulate pollutant dispersion, and conducting a detailed environmental impact assessment.

Research Gaps

The following research gaps have been identified:

 Calibration and Evaluation of Low-Cost Sensors for Multiple Pollutants:

Although low-cost sensors are widely used for PM measurements, there is a lack of
research on their calibration and performance in measuring multiple pollutants,
such as NO₂, H₂S, and NH₃, in complex environments like construction sites.
Accurate calibration of these sensors in such dynamic settings is essential for their
effective use in air quality management (Dubey et al., (2022).

 Simulation of Dispersion for a Range of Pollutants: While AERMOD is a proven

tool for simulating the dispersion of pollutants, its application to construction site
emissions, which involve both particulate and gaseous pollutants, has not been fully
explored. The unique nature of construction site emissions, including diverse
emission sources and variable meteorological conditions, requires further
investigation to improve the accuracy of AERMOD simulations in this context

 Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment: Existing environmental

impact assessments for construction projects typically focus on one or two
pollutants. However, construction sites emit a combination of particulate and
gaseous pollutants, which require a more integrated approach to assess their
cumulative environmental and health impacts. Current assessments are not fully
capturing the range of pollutants emitted or their effects on local air quality and
public health
Objectives and Impacts of the Research Plan

This research aims to address the above gaps through the following objectives:

1. Evaluation and Calibration of Low-Cost Sensors for Particulate Matter and

Gaseous Pollutants: The primary objective is to evaluate and calibrate low-cost PM
sensors, as well as sensors for NO₂, H₂S, and NH₃, for use in construction site
environments. This will involve comparing sensor readings with reference instruments
and conducting field-based calibration to enhance sensor performance in real-world
conditions.

2. Monitoring and Simulation of Pollutant Emissions from Construction Sites: This

research will utilize calibrated low-cost sensors to monitor real-time concentrations of
PM1, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, H₂S, and NH₃ at various locations with advanced drone
technology on construction sites. Although, AERMOD will be used to simulate the
dispersion and transport of these pollutants, providing a comprehensive understanding
of their spatial distribution and potential effects on nearby areas.

3. Assessment of Pollutant Propagation and Effects on Neighbouring Areas: The

research will focus on the dispersion and propagation of PM and gaseous pollutants
from construction sites to neighbouring residential, commercial, and sensitive areas.
This will help assess the potential health risks and environmental impacts in the
surrounding communities, especially in high-density urban areas

4. Validation of Results: The AERMOD simulation results will be validated by comparing

them with real-time data obtained from drone measurements with low-cost sensors,
ensuring the accuracy of the model and the sensors in predicting pollutant
concentrations and dispersion patterns.

5. Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): A detailed EIA will be

conducted to evaluate the environmental and health impacts of construction-related
pollutants, considering both particulate matter and gaseous emissions. The EIA will
assess the potential risks to public health, ecosystems, and air quality, and will provide
recommendations for mitigating the impacts of construction activities.

The impact of this research will be significant, as it will provide a more accurate and reliable
system for monitoring air quality at construction sites, using low-cost sensors combined
with advanced dispersion modeling. The findings will contribute to the development of
better air quality management practices, helping to reduce the health risks associated with
construction-related pollution. Additionally, the study will help inform policy and
regulatory decisions, promoting sustainable construction practices and ensuring better
protection for public health and the environment. By addressing the existing research gaps
and providing actionable insights into the management of construction-related pollution,
this research will make a valuable contribution to improving air quality monitoring and the
overall sustainability of construction activities. Moreover, the study’s findings will
contribute to the broader field of environmental monitoring, promoting the use of low-cost
sensors for real-time air quality monitoring in various industries. By demonstrating the
value of integrated monitoring systems, this research could influence policy changes and
encourage the adoption of more sustainable practices in construction and urban planning.

2. Literature Review
Low-cost sensors have gained prominence due to their cost-effectiveness and ability to
provide localized air quality data. Castell et al. (2017) emphasized the need for robust
calibration techniques to improve the performance of low-cost PM sensors in real-world
conditions. Similarly, Borghi et al. (2020) highlighted the potential of machine learning
algorithms to address cross-sensitivity and environmental interference in sensors used for
gaseous pollutants such as NO₂ and NH₃.

Recent studies, such as Castellanos et al. (2021), have focused on the field validation of multi-
pollutant sensors. Their findings suggest that while low-cost sensors perform well under
controlled conditions, their accuracy decreases in environments with fluctuating pollutant
concentrations, such as construction sites. Jayaratne et al. (2018) further stressed the need
for site-specific calibration, particularly for dynamic environments, where emissions vary
both spatially and temporally.

Simulation of Dispersion for a Range of Pollutants Using AERMOD

AERMOD, a Gaussian plume dispersion model, is widely utilized to predict pollutant

concentrations from industrial and urban sources. Zhao et al. (2019) reviewed AERMOD's
application in simulating PM emissions and noted its effectiveness in urban settings when
input data, such as meteorology and emission sources, are accurately defined. However, the
study also highlighted limitations in modeling transient and intermittent emissions, which
are characteristic of construction sites.

Castellanos et al. (2021) applied AERMOD to simulate dispersion patterns in a mixed

industrial and urban zone. Their findings underscored the need for high-resolution
emission inventories and meteorological data to improve the model's predictive
performance. Similarly, Kumar et al. (2020) integrated real-time sensor data with AERMOD
to enhance the accuracy of pollutant dispersion predictions in complex terrains.

One of the key limitations of AERMOD is its reliance on steady-state assumptions, which
may not accurately reflect the dynamic emissions from construction activities. Lin et al.
(2021) proposed the use of hybrid modeling approaches, combining AERMOD with machine
learning techniques, to address these challenges and improve the model's ability to simulate
multi-pollutant dispersion.
Validation of AERMOD Predictions Using Drone-Mounted Sensors

The validation of AERMOD predictions is critical for assessing its reliability in complex
environments. Schneider et al. (2019) validated AERMOD predictions for PM concentrations
using ground-based monitoring data and found strong agreement for steady-state
emissions. However, discrepancies were observed in regions with highly variable emission
sources.

Drone-mounted sensors provide a novel approach to validation, offering high spatial and
temporal resolution data. Lin et al. (2021) demonstrated the effectiveness of using drones to
capture vertical gradients of PM and gaseous pollutants, which are often underrepresented
in ground-based measurements. Similarly, Castell et al. (2017) highlighted the advantages of
drones for collecting real-time data in areas with limited accessibility, such as near
construction sites.

The integration of drone-collected data into AERMOD validation processes offers significant
potential for improving the accuracy of dispersion models. For instance, Borghi et al. (2020)
employed drones equipped with low-cost sensors to validate PM and NO₂ dispersion
patterns, achieving improved alignment between observed and predicted concentrations.

Comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for construction projects often focus on

individual pollutants, overlooking the cumulative effects of multiple emissions on air quality
and public health. Wang et al. (2018) highlighted the importance of integrating multi-
pollutant data into EIAs to provide a holistic assessment of environmental impacts. Their
study demonstrated that combined PM and NO₂ data significantly improved the accuracy of
air quality degradation estimates around construction sites.

Recent advancements in EIA methodologies include the integration of Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) and predictive modeling tools. Das et al. (2021) applied GIS to
map the spatial distribution of PM and NO₂ concentrations around an urban construction
project, identifying hotspots with elevated health risks. However, the study acknowledged
the exclusion of gaseous pollutants like NH₃ and H₂S, which are often overlooked in
standard EIAs.

Standardized frameworks for multi-pollutant EIAs are still lacking. Patel et al. (2020)
proposed a methodology that incorporates real-time monitoring data and dispersion
modeling into EIAs, emphasizing the role of low-cost sensors in providing localized
pollutant data. Their findings suggest that integrating health risk assessments into EIAs
could enhance the understanding of pollution-related health impacts.