Continuum Mech. Thermodyn.

(2020) 32:541–554
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00161-020-00893-1

E D I TO R I A L

Emilio Barchiesi

Multi-scale and multi-physics: towards next-generation

Published online: 19 May 2020

Abstract Multi-scale and multi-physics are two important thematics when thinking to how next-generation
materials will be engineered, aimed at delivering exceptional performances. This special issue attempts at
collecting a representative sample of the interdisciplinary efforts that the scientific community is making
towards the understanding and exploitation of the complex behaviours that can arise from multi-scale and
multi-physics interactions. This contribution aims at contextualising and giving a perspective on the current
trends and ideas which drive these efforts.

Keywords Multi-scale · Multi-physics

1 Introduction

Recent improvements in manufacturing techniques able to manipulate (different) materials [46,56,62] at small
length scales are currently pushing the community of theoretical and computational mechanicians towards the
development [3,9,43,92] and computation [1,8,31,37,50,98] of reliable mathematical descriptions of engi-
neering multi-physics micro-structured materials. A key observation in this field is that micro-structured
materials made up of many elements whose interaction is governed by relatively simple laws can give rise
to remarkable and complex collective behaviours [75]. Nevertheless, dealing with many elements by using
element-by-element discrete descriptions [5,97,99] can be challenging in different respects. Roughly speaking,
when discrete systems are made up of sub-systems which are periodically repeating, and the size of these sub-
systems is much smaller than the total one, spatially continuous formulations are able to describe the behaviour
of the system at large and thus to capture and/or reveal emerging behaviours [13,39,54,57,58,92] Even though
available computational capabilities have remarkably increased during the last years, the numerical analysis of
discrete systems with many degrees of freedom can still get easily very complex with respect to the equivalent
continuum models. In conclusion, a multi-scale approach is particularly suited when studying multi-physics
micro-structured materials, provided that one can bridge different scales [11,26,33,80,81] and couple dif-
ferent physics [32,52,53]. The different techniques which enable passing from a refined scale to a coarser
one can be grouped under the name “homogenisation” [3,6,13,16,30,40,50,54,83,95,102]. Multi-scale and
multi-physics are, in short, approaches of utmost importance when dealing with materials whose performances
are due to a strong coupling between different scales and physical phenomena, like in the emerging field of
metamaterials [18,29,33–35,42,44,56,66,68,100]. This special issue attempts at giving an account, as broad
as possible, of the interdisciplinary efforts that the scientific community is making towards the understanding
and exploitation of the complex behaviours that can arise from multi-scale and multi-physics interactions.

E. Barchiesi (B)
International Research Center M&MoCS, Università degli Studi dell’Aquila, Via Giovanni Gronchi 18 - Zona industriale di Pile,
67100 L’Aquila, Italy
E-mail: BarchiesiEmilio@gmail.com
 542 E. Barchiesi

Topics include local buckling of composites, wave dispersion in micro-structured solids, phase field mod-
elling of crack growth, isogeometric and assumed strain finite element analysis of composite laminates, boron
nitride nanotubes for nano-sensing, electromechanical coupling of Bleustein–Gulyaev wave propagation in
prestressed piezoelectric-layered materials, two-temperature generalised magneto-thermoelastic formulations,
and Becker-Döring modelling for two-phase materials.

2 Multi-scale and multi-physics: emerging ideas by examples

As mentioned above, scale bridging is one of the most relevant challenges in the multi-scale mathematical
description of engineering materials and structures. Particularly, discrete-to-continuum bridging, with special
emphasis on the identification of standard and enriched kinematical fields in generalised continuum descrip-
tions, is currently a hot topic in the field [11,26,33,80,81]. The multi-scale thematic is a transverse one, being
the protagonist of many recent developments in digital image correlation techniques. Indeed, aimed at substan-
tiating and improving the mathematical descriptions at different scales, current research work is also directed
towards interfacing experimental measurements, obtained by imaging techniques, with numerical modelling
[14,19–24,27,48,59,65,70,77–79,86,87] in a scale-consistent—and hence kinematically consistent way, e.g.
homogenised continuum modelling is fitted and validated by full-field measurements [63,64,69,76,85,89,93].
Generalised continuum theories are experiencing a renewed interest from different scientific communities
working in mechanics, especially those dealing with metamaterials. Indeed, after the initial impetus given
by the early works of the 60’s [35,36,72–74,96], up to a few years ago the field of generalised continua
was sustained only by some small academic niches. While the use of macroscale continuum descriptions in
modelling engineering materials is widespread, it is now well-known that models within the standard Cauchy
continuum mechanics framework are not able to properly describe the mechanical behaviour of these materials
in presence of strong heterogeneities at micro-scale [51,60,71,97], like in metamaterials. Thanks to their
enriched kinematics [49,66,67] and/or non-local features [3,8,9,13,37,51,68,82,83,91], so-called generalised
continua are needed to capture micro-scale deformation mechanisms, including long-range interactions [94],
which are indeed conferring many sought non-standard macroscopic properties [18].
To get more insight into these phenomenological theories, much ongoing work is aimed at bridging the
gap between discrete and continuum. A promising research line is that exploiting asymptotic variational
homogenisation techniques [2,3,10,12,16,40,83,102] to transfer the discrete description of a self-similar
finite-dimensional system into a continuous formulation, when the degrees of freedom tend to infinity. Indeed,
such techniques can deal with discrete systems whose kinematics is such that the emerging continua belong
to the class of generalised continua with enriched kinematics. These variational asymptotic homogenisation
procedures, used to deduce the continuum, can be generally sketched as follows
(i) A family of discrete spring systems with micro-length scale ε > 0 is introduced—generalised coordinates
and energy contributions Eε are defined
(ii) The kinematic descriptors of the continuum are introduced as continuous functions—these functions are
chosen such that their evaluation at particular points can be related to the generalised coordinates of the
micro-model
(iii) Formulation of the deformation energy of the micro-model Eε using the evaluation of the continuum
descriptors at particular points, followed by a Taylor expansion of the energy with respect to the micro
length scale ε
(iv) Specification of scaling laws for the constitutive parameters in the micro-model followed by a limit process
in which the energy of the continuum E is related to the micro-model by E = limε→0 Eε .

2.1 A recent declination of the multi-scale pantographic motif

To give a (not outdated!) hint of the potentials offered by these techniques, it may be mentioned that the
derivation of a strain gradient 2D-continuum model with three stiffness parameters, being capable of describing
arbitrarily large elastic deformations of so-called bi-pantographic fabrics in plane (see Fig. 1), was recently
achieved by the procedure sketched above [12,15]. Bi-pantographic fabrics are engineering fabrics controlled
by two micro-scales: they are pantographic fabrics [39,45,46,54,80,81,90] whose fibres are in turn pantographs
[13,17]. The kinematics of the homogenization target is given by its displacement function u H C : Ω → R2 .
In Fig. 1, the domain Ω is the plain, i.e. no holes, rectangle whose sides are ∂Ω1 , ∂Ω2 , ∂Ω3 , and ∂Ω4 . Bias
Multi-scale and multi-physics: towards next-generation engineering materials 543

Fig. 1 Bi-pantographic fabrics (L = 187 mm,  = 119 mm). a Domain Ω b Undeformed configuration of a unit cell c Force
elements and deformed configuration of a unit cell

Table 1 Nominal continuum modelling boundary conditions

∂Ω1 ∂Ω3
u H C (x) = 0 u H C (x) = ūeζ , ū ∈ R+
[∇u H C (x)]n(x) = 0 [∇u H C (x)]n(x) = 0
The vector n is the unit normal to ∂Ω = ∪i=1
4 ∂Ω in x
i

extension test of bi-pantographic fabrics has been nominally defined through the essential boundary conditions
in Table 1. Non-classic kinematics prescriptions in the second row, as combined with those in the first row of
Table 1, imply that ∇u H C (x) = 0 on the short sides of the specimen.
Lightweight rectangular bi-pantographic specimens have been additively manufactured by selective laser
sintering (SLS) 3D-printing using polyamide [41,46,56]. The condition ∇u H C (x) = 0 was realised by intro-
ducing stocky rhomboidal elements. Specimens have been subjected to displacement-controlled bias extension
tests for total elastic deformations up to ca. 40% (see Fig. 2). It was observed that bi-pantographic fabrics exhibit
an extremely wide elastic range. Such extreme elastic deformations are achievable as the total deformation
is considerably greater than single-element deformations. Indeed, elements arrange locally in space in such
a way as to minimise the total deformation energy by mimicking mechanisms corresponding to zero-energy
deformation modes, a hallmark of second gradient materials. Being pantographic fabrics whose fibres are in
turn pantographs, zero-energy deformation modes of bi-pantographic fabrics correspond to combinations of
pantographic mechanisms at both scales (see Fig. 3). For total large deformations, in the most deformed regions
of the specimen, pantographic mechanisms at said scales are progressively deployed until a densification phe-
nomenon, similar to that occurring in compressed foams, is observed and the material toughens dramatically,
undergoing a kind of phase transition.
Research work carried out in the design and modelling of bi-pantographic fabrics is also being comple-
mented by the quantitative validation of homogenised modelling as descriptive and predictive tool. These steps,
i.e. design, modelling and validation, should be considered as strongly interconnected in the development of a
new metamaterial; they may be repeated multiple times as a feedback loop [35,101]. The deformations of the
544 E. Barchiesi

Fig. 2 Bias extension test of bi-pantographic fabrics

Fig. 3 Uniform shearing floppy modes for pantographic fabrics (a), uniform extension floppy modes for pantographic fibres (b).
Bi-pantographic fabrics are pantographic fabrics whose fibres are pantographs (c)

bi-pantographic sample were measured via FE-based digital image correlation (DIC). Clearly, notwithstanding
that lower-scale, i.e. local, mechanical and DIC analyses [86,87] considering richer kinematics and geometries
could achieve better results in terms of grey-level correlation residuals, the objective is to assess to what extent
a coarse macroscale continuous description can represent and predict experimental measures. Aimed at a con-
sistent comparison between modelling and DIC, the two of them shall employ the same (macroscale) domain
geometry and kinematics. This motivates the use of global DIC [76], where the underlying hypothesis is the
continuity of the displacement field. It is worth to be remarked that such macroscale analyses would clearly
compare better with experimental pictures should the number of unit cells be increased, as the scale separa-
tion would become more evident. Weak-scale separation implies that the background area fraction within the
plain, i.e. no holes, region of interest (ROI) shaped as the whole specimen is non-negligible [25]. Being the
background a low-contrast region and not moving, this affects negatively the performance of global DIC, it
being an inverse problem with multiple solutions. For the reasons discussed above, a mechanical regularisation
of the (inverse) DIC problem must be used as a filtering to recover mechanically admissible displacements.
Measured boundary conditions drive the numerical model of the experiment. Indeed, while experimentally it
is attempted to enforce displacement boundary conditions in Table 1, displacement at constrained boundaries
as measured by DIC is generally different. The grey-level residuals are utilised to independently probe DIC
and FE simulations against the full video of the experiment. Given an experimentally registered picture, the
grey level correlation residuals, i.e. difference between the current picture and the one obtained by applying the
displacement field to the initial picture, are chosen as a point-wise measure of goodness. Its root-mean-square
(RMS) computed over the region of interest (ROI) is chosen as a global goodness measure. A flowchart of the
analysis is shown for an exemplary picture in Fig. 4. Preliminary results indicate that measured and computed
displacements fields seemingly overlap. To have a closer look, the grey-level correlation residuals and their
RMS over the ROI are computed for the full experiment. It is observed that in the correlation residuals the
micro-scale pattern emerges, which is expectable as it is obviously not completely taken into account at the
considered description scale.
Future work shall include the following points, requiring the development of new modelling, computational
and experiment–numerics interfacing tools
Multi-scale and multi-physics: towards next-generation engineering materials 545

DIC - displacements

DIC - correlation residual Picture # 93

RMS=31.4622

HC - displacements
HC – boundary conditions HC - correlation residual

RMS=42.8974

Fig. 4 Flowchart of the process followed by comparing global digital image correlation (DIC) and homogenised continuum (HC)
modelling for a given exemplary picture

Fig. 5 DIC across different geometries and kinematics for multi-scale analyses: holed domain taking into account bi-pantographic
microstructure (continuous kinematics, left), and plain domain (continuous kinematics, right), i.e. global DIC. Courtesy of François
Hild

– applying the validation procedure to a wide class of in-plane experiments as bi-axial extension/shearing
tests and to different scales (see Fig. 5)
– applying the validation procedure to three-dimensional experimental observations elaborated by Digital
Volume Correlation, i.e. full volume displacement and strain field measurements, at different scales (local
kinematic fields could be analysed by techniques as X–ray tomography)
– addressing 3D buckling instabilities through generalised plate models derived by homogenisation [8].
To recap, past work in bi-pantographic fabrics has been here presented as an exemplary case, as it dealt with
many interdisciplinary aspects of metamaterials’ synthesis. It indeed consisted in
– the formulation of a nonlinear discrete Hencky-type spring model of bi-pantographic fabrics at micro-scale
and its numerical implementation [9]
– the asymptotic homogenisation of such a discrete system in statics and dynamics regimes by a two-
step procedure based on energy limits: a. homogenisation of a discrete pantographic fibre [13,17], b.
homogenisation of a 2D lattice made by assembling pantographic fibres (see Fig. 3c) leading to a generalised
continuum formulation [12]
– the numerical validation of the homogenisation procedure [13,14]
– the design and additive manufacturing of bi-pantographic fabrics specimens in Polyamide base material
for bias extension test and experimental data collection [12]
546 E. Barchiesi

Fig. 6 Multi-scale mathematical description of fibrous materials

– the DIC/numerics interface for discrete and continuous modelling aimed at experimental validation [10,
14,15]
On the applicative side, previous research allowed for the mathematical description, design, manufacturing and
experimentation of fibred metamaterials with an extremely wide elastic range, showing a nonlinear toughening
effect for large deformations.

2.2 Multi-scale mechanics of fibrous engineering materials

Aimed at further exemplifying the significance of the multi-scale paradigm, a perspective on its use in the
description (obviously directed towards the understanding, and design) of ordered fibrous materials with
continuous fibres, like those employed in reinforced composites, will be given. Possible future directions will
be traced and elucidated. Current research deals indeed with multi-scale descriptions leading to generalised
continua at macroscale. The final objective of ongoing research is the identification of standard and enriched
kinematical fields, by interfacing numerics and experimental data elaborated by 2D/3D imaging techniques.
In fibrous materials different scales may be identified. A possible choice can be the following one: micro-
scopic scale (fibres), mesoscopic scale (yarns) and macroscopic scale (specimen), see Fig. 6. The micro-
and meso- structures play a crucial role on the overall mechanical behaviour at the macroscopic scale. One
key point of the ongoing research in the field is the understanding of the (non-local) properties conferred to
the overall material behaviour by complex weaving patterns as, e.g. 2.5D weaving. Weaving pattern indeed
strongly determines the overall material properties: for instance, 2.5D weaving can be employed in woven
reinforcements, where multiple layers of warp are joined together by a plurality of wefts. This structure of
interwoven layers avoids the problems of delamination that may occur in multi-layered materials obtained by
superimposing independent woven layers, and permits the realisation of thick reinforcements. Such materials
are reserved for advanced aeronautics and aerospace applications.
As mentioned above, when applied to heterogeneous fibrous materials at the specimen scale, conventional
continuum modelling techniques fail to capture the complex phenomena occurring across multiple length scales
[88]. Therefore, a multi-scale modelling approach must be devised to pass information across the different
length scales [47,50]. Macroscale modelling is thus required to be able to catch the macroscopic effects due
to meso-scale phenomena and properties. Owing to the geometric arrangement of the two families of yarns,
orthotropic behaviour must be accounted for at macroscale [80,81]. Yarns are constituted by many fibres. When
a yarn is subjected to tension, a linear behaviour can be identified if it is made by elastic and non-twisted or
non-braided fibres. Given the relatively high tension stiffness, modelling may be based on the hypothesis that
Multi-scale and multi-physics: towards next-generation engineering materials 547

yarns are inextensible. More complex constitutive laws could be then conceived extending such a limit case.
Nevertheless, such hypothesis introduces some difficulties: indeed, the ratio between the extensional stiffness
and the shearing stiffness would go to infinity. A further mechanism which should be considered as having
an effect on the macroscale behaviour of fibrous materials is the compaction of yarns. It is defined as their
cross-section area change. When a yarn is compressed in a direction which is orthogonal to its centre line, then
its fibres become more closely packed and fill the voids initially present in the cross section, thus increasing
yarns’ stiffness. Clearly, such a compaction phenomenon presents an asymptotic behaviour, following an initial
phase where fibres move and fill the voids, compaction slows down. Characterising experimentally compaction
is currently a challenge. Attempts in this regard shall be made, e.g. by synchrotron X–ray tomography.
Distortion, i.e. cross section deforming without compaction, of yarns is an additional deformation mecha-
nism which occurs at the meso-scale. For instance, one can consider a yarn subjected to a bending deformation:
fibres are forced to slide one with respect to the other in order to let the yarn assume the desired form and, at
the same time, keep the fibres’ quasi-inextensibility constraint. This internal sliding of fibres can be interpreted
as a motion of the yarns’ cross sections (for example a rotation). Yet another deforming mechanism can be
identified for yarns which is transverse shearing. It consists in fibre–fibre sliding in the direction of the fibres
themselves. It is worth noting that a coupling mechanism can be recognised between the compaction of a
yarn and its distortion: when the yarn is compacted, its distortion occurs with increased difficulty. Indeed,
when fibres are compacted then friction mechanisms are more pronounced, which renders sliding more diffi-
cult. For the same reason it is also clear that, as for the distortion, an increased compaction of a yarn causes
a stiffening effect on its shearing. As yarn shearing and distortion deformations are affected by the same
microscopic mechanisms at fibres’ level, a coupling exists between them. Yarns’ bending is another relevant
meso-scale deformation mechanism to be taken into account. All these mechanisms are neglected in Cauchy
modelling and this determines its failure in describing and predicting the macroscopic behaviour of fibrous
materials [28,38,61]. Aimed at modelling, the meso-scale features mentioned above, yarns may be modelled
as generalised nonlinear 1D continua with an enriched kinematics [7]. Applying the homogenisation procedure
sketched at the beginning of this article to a lattice consisting in two orthogonal families of such 1D continua,
one would clearly obtain a generalised 2D continuum with enriched kinematics. As two touching yarns are
kinematically free to move one with respect to the other, the target continuum shall have two displacement
fields, i.e. one for each family of yarns, thus being a mixture theory. Clearly, a conservative or non-conservative
coupling should be introduced between the two displacements to account for the sliding friction (in addition
to the coupling between two orthogonal yarns’ rotations). In fact, assuming that two touching yarns can rotate
around their contact point with no slipping, thus implying a zero relative displacement among the two fam-
ilies of yarns, is generally reasonable. Indeed, during experimental analyses—even at finite strains—when
straight lines are drawn on textile reinforcements, these lines become curved still remaining continuous. It
is foreseeable that simplifying kinematic assumptions should be able to recover, as a special case, a second
gradient theory [2,55]. The rigorous derivation by homogenisation and utilisation of second gradient theories
in the modelling of ordered fibrous materials has been already widely studied in the literature [4,5]. Even
representing a special case, such theories are still capable of describing relevant properties, as the formation
of finite-size shear boundary layers due to fibres bending [37,98]. Second gradient theories are indeed able
to account for the macroscopic manifestation of the mesoscopic bending of the yarns. It is worth to mention
that second gradient theories are also able to catch local size effects, manifesting as shear bands, which are
ultimately due to nonlinearities in the two main micro-scale deformation mechanisms of yarns, i.e. fibre-scale
transverse compression and shearing.
Experimental methodologies for the quantitative analysis of deformation mechanisms occurring at the
fibre scale play an important role in this research. Image processing tools to analyse 3D images of evolving
fibrous microstructures obtained by X-ray microtomography are being developed [10–13,15]. These tech-
niques are applicable even in composite materials with an optically opaque matrix. These tools further allow
for the tracking of position, orientation, displacement and deformation (bending, twisting, shearing, exten-
sion/compression, distorsion) of each fibre together with the position and the evolution of each fibre–fibre
contact. The in situ tracking of these microstructure descriptors provides useful information for theoretical or
numerical models.
To recap, current research in fibrous materials aims at a full expedition towards the macroscopic modelling
of fibrous materials by means of generalised continua, possibly including damage phenomena, with applications
in biomimetic materials like arterial tissues and composites reinforced with architectured fibrous networks [14].
Investigations are carried out from experimental characterisation and modelling at micro-scale all the way up
to macroscopic modelling and validation by imaging/numerics interfacing. Discrete/finite element simulations
548 E. Barchiesi

Fig. 7 From bone to additively manufactured bio-inspired micro-structured materials through topological optimisation

Fig. 8 Topological optimisation results in natural bone microstructure

performed at the fibre scale are a relevant tool to get a better understanding of the micro-scale, and benefit
from the availability of experimental data collected at the fibre scale.

2.3 Conception of multi-scale bio-inspired metamaterials

Among the many declinations that the multi-scale thematic has assumed in the last years, a very promising
one regards the conception and manufacturing of bio-inspired micro-structured materials (see Fig. 7). It is
well-known that topology optimisation [84] can give many hints on the rational behind biological materials,
which are indeed the result of a millenary optimal adaptation process. For example, it has been widely proved
that bone is an optimal structure [55], where strength is maximised using the optimal distribution of bone
mass (Wolff’s law). One of the most appropriate mathematical validations of this law is indeed a structural
optimisation-based formulation where total strain energy is minimised against a mass and a space constraint,
see Fig. 8. Inspired by this observation, the main question that is currently addressed in facing the conception
and design of bio-inspired micro-structured materials is the following one: does there exist (and what is it)
the (topology) optimisation problem formulation (design variables, objective function, constraints, loading
conditions, etc.) which results in mathematically optimal solutions resembling biological materials? For this
purpose, an efficient structural optimisation-based computational model should be devised to be used as a
routine within an iterative methodology aimed at solving this complex inverse problem.
Multi-scale and multi-physics: towards next-generation engineering materials 549

Fig. 9 Lattices based on triply periodic minimal surfaces

2.4 Multi-scale and multi-physics: metamaterials for comfort in buildings

Finally, a hint of the significance of the multi-scale and multi-physics thematics in ongoing civil engineering
research shall now be given, with regard to the conception, realisation and modelling of innovative high-
performance architected materials for comfort in buildings. Some future research perspectives that can be
envisaged will be also out-lined.
Energy saving has become one of the most important problems that modern society is facing. Buildings
are among the largest consumers of energy. This has attracted the interest of the Civil Engineering community
towards their energetically rational design. The issue of material selection in achieving overall energy efficiency
is increasingly gaining importance. There is unanimous agreement on the fact that buildings should be designed
and constructed in such a way that they consume a minimal amount of energy, but with the simultaneous
provision of maximal living comfort. Comfort is affected by many parameters, such as temperature, humidity,
air movement, air quality, lighting and noise which are not only dependent upon building architecture and
environment, but also on the properties of building materials. The use of high-performance building materials
for comfort in buildings is especially recommended, because they are passive elements, thus not requiring
external behavioural guidance or energy to operate.
The heat flow through building materials can be explained in terms of their heat capacity and of heat
conduction and convection occurring through them. Both heat and moisture might be stored or transmitted
through a building material, depending on its hygrothermal properties. An uncontrolled increase of humidity
within a building material is undesired; it may cause changes in its thermal, mechanical and sound propagation
properties, thus affecting its durability, not to mention that it may trigger or sustain corrosion phenomena.
Dry stagnant gas is one of the best insulating materials. The insulating properties of the most successfully
employed materials, like closed-cell foams, are determined by the amount of gas held inside the material and by
the number of gas pockets. Indeed, air’s thermal conductivity can be neglected without affecting the effective
thermal conductivity, i.e. the thermal conductivity of the matrix material is for most materials several orders
of magnitude higher than the air’s one. Therefore, the higher the number of cells (which can maintain the gas
stagnant) and the smaller their size, the lower the thermal conductivity of such insulating material. These cells
should not be interlinked, as this will allow convection of heat. Indeed, in these materials, heat transport by
radiation is often predominant. Also, an optimal thermally insulating building material should be lightweight,
yet mechanically stable, so it will not crumble or pack down.
Aimed at increasing energy efficiency and environmental comfort in buildings, the design of innovative
architected insulating materials shall take into account the physical picture depicted above. Clearly, those
specifications are competing (lightweight vs stiff, etc.) and an optimal trade-off shall be found. Architected
materials, as a novel class of low-density materials, gain their multifunctional performances mainly from the
underlying periodic architecture, as opposed to the base material. Given a base material, tuning cell shape and
geometrical dimensions for fixed mass (iso-mass) or volume (iso-volume) allows to finely control features
like mechanical stiffness, interconnectivity, tortuosity, thermal conduction anisotropy, mechanical anisotropy,
surface to volume ratio, which are all relevant to the specifications mentioned above for thermally insulating
building materials (Fig. 9).
550 E. Barchiesi

Fig. 10 Honeycomb structure

Architected materials thus provide design flexibility, which is essential for the optimisation of said competing
design targets. One key objective of the ongoing research in the field is the understanding of mechanical and
hygrothermal properties conferred to the overall material behaviour by complex material architecture patterns.
Indeed, in order to optimise the architected micro-structure of thermally insulating building materials, it is rele-
vant to dispose of computationally efficient macroscopic laws that allow to take into account the heterogeneity
and multi-physical complexity of these materials at the micro-scale [32,53]. One possible solution to describe
materials which are highly heterogeneous on the micro-scale is to assimilate them to equivalent continuous
media on a macroscopic scale by using homogenisation methods. The effective medium is then characterised
by effective transport and mechanical properties reflecting physics at the architecture scale. Mathematical
descriptions at all scales shall couple deformation phenomena with heat, air, and moisture transfer. Most
likely, the theory of unsaturated mixture media with heat diffusion shall be exploited at the macroscale. As
mentioned above, optimisation over the space of design variables shall be carried out. The effective mechanical
properties, as well as hydraulic and heat conductivity for an equivalent continuum, as defined in terms of the
material architecture and base material, shall be investigated for any type of architecture-induced heterogene-
ity. Studies shall be performed to assess the role of humidity transfer on the material durability and on its
thermal behaviour when submitted to environmental solicitations. Potentially interesting architectures include
periodic (hierarchical) honeycomb (easily producible industrially) and lattices based on triply periodic minimal
surfaces, whose utilisation in structural sandwich panels or core fillers, for which the thermo-mechanical per-
formance is of paramount importance, is promising. It could be relevant to evaluate the microscopic behaviour
of such architected materials under hydric solicitations to better understand the swelling induced by relative
humidity variations, which is also affected by their multi-scale, anisotropic, and heterogeneous structure. The
use of microscopic non-destructive methods like X-ray tomography and Digital Volume Correlation shall
be considered as a way to perform hygromechanical and morphological characterisations at the micro-scale
(Fig. 10).
The use of bio-based materials, like cellulose and bio-polymers, may be considered in view of the efforts
currently made in delivering environmentally sustainable materials not coming from non-renewable sources.
Authors must disclose all relationships or interests that could have direct or potential influence or impart
bias on the work:

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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