Biomedical

Instrumentation Design 1
BMI-D1
 Basic Sensors and Principles
Displacement Measurement
1. Resistive Sensors
2. Inductive Sensors
3. Capacitive Sensors
4. Piezoelectric Sensors
Temperature Measurement
1. Thermocouple
2. Thermistors
3. Radiation Thermometry
4. Fiber Optic Temperature sensor
Optical Measurement
1. Radiation sources
2. Geometrical and Fiber Optics
3. Optical Filters
4. Radiation sensors
5. Optical Combination
 Transducers
• Transducer: a device that converts energy from one form to another.
Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
• A transducer takes the form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor: converts a physical parameter to an electric output.
• Actuator: converts an electric signal to a physical output.
• An electric output from the sensor is normally desirable because of the advantages it gives in
further signal processing.
 Displacement Measurement
Physicians and Biomedical Engineers are concerned with evaluating the size, shape and
position of the organs and tissues of the body.
• require displacement measurement

Examples
• (direct) diameter of blood vessel
• (indirect) movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid movement through the
heart

Displacement measurement methods:

• Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gage)
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Piezoelectric Sensors
 Resistive Sensors

Potentiometers
 Resistive Sensors

Potentiometers

Translation Single Turn Multi Turn

Measures translation Rotational displacements ranging from

displacements from 10o to more than 50o are detected
2 to 500 mm

• The resolution of these potentiometers is a

function of the construction.
• The resistance elements may be • It is continuous stepless using a straight piece of
excited by either DC or AC wire for low resistance values up to 10 Ω.
voltage. • For variations in resistance, from several ohms to
• They produce a linear output as a several megaohms.
function of displacement. • The variation is stepwise because the wiper
moves from one wire turn to the next.
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 Resistive Sensors

Potentiometers
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Faders.jpg

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 Resistive Sensors
Strain Gage

• When a fine wire (25 µm) is strained within its elastic limit, the wire’s
resistance changes because of changes in the diameter, length, and
resistivity.

• This is the principle of strain gauge.

• Strain gauge is a device the electrical resistance of which varies in proportion

to the amount of strain in the device.

• The resistance change is commonly measured using a Wheatstone bridge.

 Strain Gage
Resistive Sensors

The basic equation for the resistance R of a wire resistivity ρ (ohm–meter),

length L (meters), and cross-sectional area A (meter squared) is given by:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
𝜌𝑑𝐿 −2
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑅 = − 𝜌𝐴 𝐿𝑑𝐴 + 𝐿
𝐴 𝐴
∆𝑅 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐴 ∆𝜌
= − +
𝑅 𝐿 𝐴 𝜌

Poisson’s ratio µ : ΔD/D = –µΔL/L

∆𝑅 ∆𝐿 ∆𝜌
= 1 + 2𝜇 +
𝑅 𝐿 𝜌
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

∆ 𝑅Τ𝑅 ∆ 𝜌Τ𝜌
Gage factor G 𝐺= = 1 + 2𝜇 +
∆ 𝐿Τ𝐿 ∆ 𝐿Τ𝐿 9
 Resistive Sensors
Wheatstone Bridge Configuration
• Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit which is used to calculate
unknown resistance.

𝜈𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑣𝐶 − 𝑣𝐷 )

𝜈𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅

𝜈𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑼𝒏𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅

 Resistive Sensors

1. Unbonded Strain Gage

Unbonded strain gauges are not directly attached to the surface of the material.
Instead, they are installed within a protective housing or carrier, which is then
mounted onto the material's surface using mechanical fixtures. The carrier
provides protection to the gauge and allows for easy removal and replacement.
 Resistive Sensors
Unbonded/ Wheatstone Bridge
1. The four sets of strain-resistive wires are connected to form a Wheatstone
bridge.
2. These wires are mounted under stress between the frame and moveable
armature.
3. This type of sensor may be used for converting blood pressure to diaphragm
movement, to resistance change, and then to an electric signal.
4. With increasing pressure, the strain on gage pair B and C is increased, while
that on gage pair A and D is decreased.

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 Resistive Sensors
Unbonded/ Wheatstone Bridge
Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R0
𝑅1 𝑅4
𝜈𝑜 = 𝜈𝑖 −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅4 + 𝑅3
At Equilibrium (no displacement)
𝜈𝑜 = 0
After displacement:
R1 =Ro + R R3 =Ro + R
R2 =Ro - R R4 =Ro - R

substitute these in:

𝑅1 𝑅4
𝜈𝑜 = 𝜈𝑖 −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅4 + 𝑅3

Δ𝑅
𝜈𝑜 = 𝜈𝑖
𝑅𝑜 13
 Resistive Sensors
Bonded Strain Gage
Bonded strain gauges are affixed directly to the surface of the material or
structure being tested using a special adhesive or bonding agent
It consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface

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 Resistive Sensors
Bonded Strain Gage
 Resistive Sensors

Bonded Strain Gage

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 Resistive Sensors

Bonded/ Wheatstone Bridge

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 Resistive Sensors

Medical Applications

Four bonded metal strain gages

can be used on cantilever
beams to measure bite force in
dental research
 Resistive Sensors

Elastic-resistance strain gages are

extensively used in biomedical
applications, especially in
cardiovascular and respiratory
dimensional and plethysmographic
(volume-measuring) determinations.

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 Inductive Sensors
Ampere’s Law: flow of electric Faraday’s Law: a magnetic field
current will create a magnetic passing through an electric circuit will
field. create a voltage.
i +
+ +
v2
v  𝑑𝜙
v1  - 𝑁1
- 𝜈=𝑁 - 𝜈1 = 𝜈
𝑁2 2
𝑑𝑡 N1 N2

An inductance L can be used to measure displacement by varying any three of the coil
parameters:
Where: n = number of turns of coil,
𝑳 = 𝒏𝟐 𝑮𝝁 G = geometric form factor,
µ = effective permeability of the medium.

(a) Self-inductance,
(b) Mutual-inductance, and,
(c) differential transformer.

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 Inductive Sensors

• The alterations in the self-inductance of a coil may be produced by

Self changing the geometric form factor or the movement of a magnetic
Inductance core within the coil.
• The change in inductance for this device is not linearly related to
displacement.
• The fact that these devices have low power requirements and produce
large variations in inductance makes them attractive for radiotelemetry
applications.

• The mutual-inductance sensor employs two separate coils and uses the
variation in their mutual magnetic coupling to measure
displacement. The application of these devices in measuring cardiac
Mutual dimensions, monitoring infant respiration, and ascertaining arterial
Inductance diameters.
• The applications of mutual inductance transformers in measuring
changes in dimensions of internal organs (kidney, major blood
vessels, and left ventricle).

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 Inductive Sensors

• The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is widely

Linear Variable used in physiological research and clinical medicine to measure
Differential
pressure, displacement, and force.
Inductance
LVDT
• The LVDT is composed of a primary coil (terminals a-b) and two
secondary coils (c-e and d-e) connected in series.
• It converts the linear motion into an electrical signal.
• The output across the secondary of this transformer is the differential
thus it is called so.
• Sensitivity is much higher than that for strain gages.
• Disadvantage requires more complex signal processing
+

𝜈𝑜 = 𝜈𝑐𝑑 = 𝜈𝑐𝑒 − 𝜈𝑑𝑒 +

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 Capacitive Sensors

The capacitance between two parallel plates of area A separated by distance x is:
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑥
Where:
εo is the dielectric constant of free space and
εr is the relative dielectric constant of the insulator (1.0 for air).
In principle, it is possible to monitor displacement by changing any of the parameters εr, A,
or x. However, the method that is easiest to implement and that is most commonly used is to
change the separation between the plates (x).

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 Piezoelectric Sensors

Generate an electric potential when Piezoelectric An electric potential can cause physical
mechanically strained Materials deformation of the material.

For sensor applications, the constitutive relation in a piezoelectric material relates the
charge q to the applied force F. q = k F where k is the piezoelectric constant in units of Coulombs/Newton.
The associated voltage can be found by assuming that the system acts like a 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑓𝑥
𝜐= =
parallel-plate capacitor, yielding 𝐶 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴

There are various modes of operation of piezoelectric

sensors, depending on the material and the
crystallographic orientation of the plate. Include:
a. Thickness or longitudinal compression
b. Transversal compression,
c. Thickness-shear action, and
d. Face-shear action.

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 Piezoelectric Sensors

• Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure physiological displacements and record heart sounds.
• Piezoelectric sensors are used quite extensively in cardiology for external (body-surface) and
internal (intracardiac) phonocardiography. They are also used in the detection of Korotkoff
sounds in blood pressure measurements.

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