minerals

Review
Ni(Co) Laterite Deposits of Southeast Asia: A Review
and Perspective
Landry Soh Tamehe * , Yanpeng Zhao *, Wenjie Xu and Jiahao Gao

China Nonferrous Metals (Guilin) Geology and Mining Co., Ltd., Guilin 541004, China;
xwjxwj668@126.com (W.X.); gjhow1987@163.com (J.G.)
* Correspondence: sohlandry@163.com (L.S.T.); 15907888286@163.com (Y.Z.)

Abstract: Southeast Asia has great potential for mineral exploration, and this region is well-known to
host huge economic ore deposits located in complex tectonic terranes. Amongst these ore deposits,
the Ni(Co) laterite deposits are mainly distributed in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar.
There are two main types of Ni(Co) laterite deposits consisting of hydrous Mg silicate (or garnierite)
and oxide ores, with limited development of clay silicate type. These deposits are influenced and
controlled by the lithology of ultramafic bedrock, topography, climate, weathering, structures, and
tectonic environment. The degree of bedrock serpentinization has an important influence on the
grade of Ni laterite ore. Given the growing demand of modern society for Ni(Co) ore resources,
deep research should be focused on a better understanding of the genesis of this laterite deposit
and geological features of Ni(Co) ore, as well as its exploration applications in southeastern Asia.
Improving current research and exploration methods by means of cutting-edge technologies can
enhance the understanding of the Ni(Co) enrichment mechanism in weathered laterite and lead to
the discovery of new deposits in Southeast Asia. Ni(Co) laterite deposits from this region, especially
Indonesia and the Philippines, have the potential to be a source of scandium, rare earth elements,
and platinum group elements.

Keywords: Ni(Co) ore; laterite deposit; weathering; exploration; Southeast Asia

Citation: Soh Tamehe, L.; Zhao, Y.;

1. Introduction
Xu, W.; Gao, J. Ni(Co) Laterite
Deposits of Southeast Asia: A Review
Nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) are critical metals that are widely used for aerospace,
and Perspective. Minerals 2024, 14, architectural, industrial, marine, military, and transport applications. The Ni(Co) laterite
134. https://doi.org/10.3390/ deposits produce significant amounts of nickel compared to cobalt [1]. Nickel metal
min14020134 is generally derived either from nickel sulfide ore or from laterite nickel ore, with the
nickel sulfide deposits being the main source of nickel ore due to their high grade, low
Academic Editor: Maria Boni
impurity, and easy metallurgy [2,3]. Recently, the decline in nickel sulfide resources has
Received: 12 November 2023 led to the development of new sources of Ni in anticipation of the future demand for this
Revised: 17 January 2024 metal [1–3]. Thus, nowadays, the Ni(Co) laterites are important exploration targets, which
Accepted: 19 January 2024 are stimulated by the strong world economic growth. The Ni(Co) laterites are mid-Tertiary
Published: 26 January 2024 to recent supergene deposits that are widely distributed in southern and northern America
(Brazil, Colombia, and USA), the Caribbean (Dominican Republic and Cuba), southeastern
Europe (Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Cyprus, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia,
and Turkey), western Africa (Cameroon and Ivory Coast), western Asia (Iran and Oman),
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
southeastern Asia (Indonesia, the Philippines, Myanmar, and China), and southern Pacific
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
(Australia, New Caledonia, and Papua New Guinea) [4–20].
This article is an open access article
Southeast (SE) Asia is located at the junction between the Tethys and Circum-Pacific
distributed under the terms and
metallogenic domains, and it is well-known for being an important metallogenic belt with
conditions of the Creative Commons
huge mineral resources, such as aluminum, copper, chromium, iron, gold, lead, nickel,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
potassium, tin, and zinc [21]. Laterite nickel deposits are widely developed in SE Asia, with
4.0/).
Indonesia containing the world’s largest published Ni ore reserves (21,000,000 tons Ni) and

Minerals 2024, 14, 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14020134 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2024, 14, 134 2 of 22

is considered the world’s largest Ni producer with 26% of the Ni global mine production
(760,000 tons Ni) [22]. The Philippines is the world’s second-largest Ni producer (~14% of
global Ni mined), with an annual production of 320,000 tons and published Ni reserves
of 4,800,000 tons [22]. Ni laterite deposits are well-developed in Myanmar, while Ni-Mg
laterite deposits are found in China. The later Ni type is beyond the scope of this paperand,
thus, is not included.
In recent years, with the increase in nickel demand driven by the strong growth
recorded by the Chinese economy, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate
Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia. Previous studies have well documented these Ni(Co)
laterite deposits in terms of geological, mineralogical, and geochemical characteristics, as
well as the ore-forming process and exploration techniques [23–34]. Although these studies
have provided a good foundation for further research and exploration work, few have
proposed a brief summary of Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia, whereas most published
literature is available in Chinese.
In this work, we provide a review of the tectonic settings, metallogenic belts, and
magmatic rock and ore types for the Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia. A comprehensive
analysis of the influence of protolith, climate, geomorphology, and structure on the devel-
opment of favorable weathering profiles is further discussed in this region, as well as the
role of serpentinization on the grade of Ni laterite ore. Then, we highlight the potential of
Ni(Co) laterite deposits of SE Asia to be a source of critical metals, such as Sc, rare earth
elements (REE), and platinum group elements (PGE). Perspectives are also proposed for
future research and exploration work on these Ni(Co) laterite deposits.

2. Geological Background and Metallogeny

2.1. Tectonic Settings
SE Asia has a complex tectonic pattern built from the interaction between the Eurasian,
Indian–Australian, Pacific, and Philippine Plates (Figure 1). Detailed tectonic settings of SE
Asia are discussed in previous publications [21,35–41] and are briefly summarized below.
SE Asia consists of complex structural units (Indochina, Nambung, Sibumasu, and
West Myanmar terranes) resulting from the subduction and collision between the Pacific
and Indian–Australian plates toward the Eurasian Plate, while the opening and closure
of the Paleotethys and Neotethys led to multiple suture zones between these terranes
since the late Paleozoic [21]. The structural units of SE Asia also comprise separated
terranes (Sundaland and Philippine) and associated island arcs and arc-continental collision
belts [38]. To the northern edge of SE Asia, the Indochina and Sibumasu terranes collided
to form the Paleotethys suture zone, while the Sibumasu and West Myanmar terranes
converged to form the Sagaing tectonic zone at the end of Mesozoic [41]. The central
volcanic arc belt of Myanmar and the Andaman–Sumatra–Java–Banda volcanic arc belt
were formed as a result of subduction of the Indian–Australian plate under the Eurasian
plate [35]. To the southern margin of SE Asia, the Philippine Islands arc belt and the
Philippine Trench resulted from the subduction of the Pacific and Philippine plates into the
Eurasian plate [40]. This compressive tectonic had further caused the development of the
Philippine Islands–North Sulawesi volcanic belt and suture zones, such as the Borneo and
Sulawesi sutures, which recorded the development, subduction, collision, and extinction
of oceanic basins [40–43]. From the west of the Philippines to Kalimantan, the Philippine
Islands subducted and squeezed in both sides of east and west directions, leading to
the NW–SE directed subduction of the North Sulawesi Island and the development of
the Manila trench and the Northwest Borneo, North Sulawesi, and Sulu troughs in this
region [44].
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 3 of 22

Figure 1. SimplifiedFigure
tectonic sketch map
1. Simplified of SEsketch
tectonic Asiamapshowing the showing
of SE Asia major component terranes and
the major component terranes and
fold belts (modified after [35]). The arrows indicating plate motion are adapted from
fold belts (modified after [35]). The arrows indicating plate motion are adapted [41], andfrom
their[41], and
lengths are proportionate to velocity
their lengths with large
are proportionate arrows
to velocity withrepresenting absolute (International
large arrows representing absolute (International
Terrestrial ReferenceTerrestrial
Frame 2000) motions
Reference of plates
Frame 2000) motions(after [41]).
of plates Data
(after [41]).are
Datafrom openly
are from sourced
openly sourced General
General BathymetricBathymetric
Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), 2023 Grid dataset.
Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), 2023 Grid dataset.

2.2. Metallogenic Belts and Spatio–Temporal Distribution

2.2. Metallogenic Belts and Spatio–Temporal Distribution
The Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia are developed in tectonically active plate
The Ni(Co) laterite
collisiondeposits in SE Asia terranes,
zones or accretionary are developed
where theinhosttectonically active
ultramafic rocks and plate
weathering
collision zones or accretionary
processes rangeterranes,
in age fromwhere the host
Cretaceous ultramafic
to late rocks
Tertiary [2]. and weathering
A summary of the metallogenic
processes range in beltsage
and from
geological features of to
Cretaceous Ni(Co)
latelaterite deposits
Tertiary [2].in ASE Asia is given of
summary in Table
the S1 and
discussed below.
metallogenic belts and geological features of Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia is given
The distribution of the Indonesian Ni(Co) laterite deposits is controlled by the spatial
in Table S1 and discussed below.
occurrence of ophiolites (Figure 2) [45–47]. Based on the lithostructural settings of these
The distribution of the
deposits, theyIndonesian
can be regroupedNi(Co)
into laterite deposits belts
three metallogenic is controlled
from west toby eastthe
(Figure 2):
spatial occurrence (i)
of the
ophiolites (Figure 2) [45–47]. Based on the lithostructural settings
Eastern Kalimantan (e.g., Pulau Sebuku Ni deposit), (ii) Sulawesi (e.g., Sorowako, of
these deposits, they can be regrouped
Kolonodale, and Moraweli into three
Ni(Co) metallogenic
deposits), and (iii)belts fromMaluku
Northern west to east
(e.g., Weda Bay
and IrianKalimantan
(Figure 2): (i) the Eastern Barat Ni deposits)
(e.g.,metallogenic
Pulau Sebuku belts [21,26,27,34,48–52]. The Eastern
Ni deposit), (ii) Sulawesi Kalimantan
(e.g.,
Sorowako, Kolonodale,metallogenic belt is an Ni(Co)
and Moraweli arc-continental collision
deposits), and belt
(iii) characterized
Northern Maluku by Jurassic-Miocene
(e.g.,
Subduction ophiolite suites, mélange accumulation, unconformably overlain by Neogene,
Weda Bay and Irian Barat Ni deposits) metallogenic belts [21,26,27,34,48–52]. The Eastern
Kalimantan metallogenic belt is an arc-continental collision belt characterized by
Jurassic-Miocene Subduction ophiolite suites, mélange accumulation, unconformably
overlain by Neogene, Oligocene granites, and deep-water sediments [21]. The Sulawesi
metallogenic belt consists of subduction-magma and an arc-continental belt composed of
 Minerals 2024, 14, 134 4 of 22

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Oligocene granites, and deep-water sediments [21]. The Sulawesi metallogenic belt con-
sists of subduction-magma and an arc-continental belt composed of an eastern magmatic
complex, northern Cenozoic arc volcanic rocks, porphyry-related quartz-rich diorites, and
western arc-continental collision I-type granites [21]. The Northern Maluku metallogenic
half of the Irian Jayabelt
Island andthethe
comprises western
Waigeo and Gag and eastern
Islands, half of
the northern the
half Halmahera
of the Island
Irian Jaya Island and the
(Figure 2), which form magmatic
western archalfand
and eastern subduction
of the complexes
Halmahera Island made
(Figure 2), which upformof Paleozoic
magmatic arc and
metamorphic rocks subduction
(graniticcomplexes
gneisses, made up of schists,
mica Paleozoic metamorphic
and phyllites) rocks (granitic gneisses, mica
unconformably
schists, and phyllites) unconformably overlain by ultrabasic rocks of andesitic and adakitic
overlain by ultrabasiccomposition,
rocks of andesitic and adakitic composition, Tertiary ophiolites and
Tertiary ophiolites and felsic intrusions, and Triassic–Lower Cretaceous to
felsic intrusions, andUpper
Triassic–Lower
Cretaceous–UpperCretaceous to Upperrocks,
Tertiary sedimentary Cretaceous–Upper
including limestones Tertiary
and clastic
sedimentary rocks, including limestones and clastic rocks [21,40,45,46].
rocks [21,40,45,46].

Figure 2. Metallogenic Figure

map of Ni laterite map
2. Metallogenic deposits and ophiolites
of Ni laterite inophiolites
deposits and Indonesia (modified
in Indonesia after after
(modified [47]).
[47]).

The Ni(Co) laterite deposits in the Philippines are distributed along ophiolite com-
The Ni(Co) laterite deposits in the Philippines are distributed along ophiolite
plexes. Based on their lithostructural settings, these deposits are regrouped into two distinct
complexes. Based onmetallogenic
their lithostructural settings,
belts from north to south these
(Figure deposits are regrouped
3): the Philippine intoSta.
Mobile Belt (e.g., twoCruz
distinct metallogenic belts from north to south (Figure 3): the Philippine Mobile Belt (e.g., Ni-
Ni and Intex Ni-Co deposits) and the Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block (e.g., Berong
Co, Danao
Sta. Cruz Ni and Intex Ni-Co Ni, deposits)
Dinagat Ni, RioandTubatheNi,Palawan–Mindoro
and Surigao Ni deposits) [23,28,30–33,53,54].
Continental BlockThe
Philippine Mobile Belt was formed from the amalgamation of island arcs and north-south
(e.g., Berong Ni-Co,trending,
Danaoeast-dipping
Ni, Dinagat Ni, suites,
ophiolite Rio Tuba
includingNi,a succession
and Surigao Ni deposits)
of ultramafic and mafic cu-
[23,28,30–33,53,54]. The Philippine
mulates, Mobile Belt
residual harzburgites, was formed
lherzolites, from theand
dike-sill complexes, amalgamation of
volcanic rocks [55–58].
island arcs and north-south trending, east-dipping ophiolite suites, including rocks
The Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block consists of Late Paleozoic metamorphic a
comprising quartzites, schists, phyllites, and slates, which are unconformably overlain by
succession of ultramafic and mafic cumulates, residual harzburgites, lherzolites, dike-sill
Lower Triassic to Lower Miocene clastic sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, limestones,
complexes, and volcanic
slates,rocks [55–58].
tuffs, and cherts The Palawan–Mindoro
[21,54,59]. Amphibolites, micaContinental Block consists
schists, and ophiolites are exposed
of Late Paleozoic metamorphic
to the south ofrocks comprising
this block, and they are quartzites, schists,
associated with Late phyllites,
Cretaceous to and
Earlyslates,
Miocene
shales, mudstones, limestones, and sandstones
which are unconformably overlain by Lower Triassic to Lower Miocene clastic[60–63]. The Palawan–Mindoro Continental
Block is separated from the Philippine Mobile Belt by the Mindoro suture resulting from
sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, limestones, slates, tuffs, and cherts [21,54,59].
their arc-continent collision that occurred during the Miocene [64,65].
Amphibolites, mica schists, and ophiolites are exposed to the south of this block, and
they are associated with Late Cretaceous to Early Miocene shales, mudstones, limestones,
and sandstones [60–63]. The Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block is separated from the
Philippine Mobile Belt by the Mindoro suture resulting from their arc-continent collision
that occurred during the Miocene [64,65].
14, x FORMinerals
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2024, 14, 134 5 of 22
5 of 22

Figure 3. Metallogenic map

Figure of Ni(Co) laterite
3. Metallogenic map of deposits and ophiolite
Ni(Co) laterite complexes
deposits and ophiolitein the Philippines
complexes in the Philippines
(modified after [47]).
(modified after [47]).

To the west of SEToAsia, Myanmar

the west is tectonically
of SE Asia, Myanmarlocated between
is tectonically the Indian
located betweenPlate
theand
Indian Plate
the South China and the[35].
Block South NiChina Block
laterite [35]. Niare
deposits laterite deposits in
widespread areMyanmar
widespread in Myanmar
where they where
are distributed they are distributed
in three sub-parallelin three sub-parallelophiolite
N–S-trending N–S-trending
beltsophiolite belts from
from west to eastwest to east
(Figure 4): the Western Ophiolite Belt (e.g., Mwetaung and Mindinkyin Ni deposits),deposits),
(Figure 4): the Western Ophiolite Belt (e.g., Mwetaung and Mindinkyin Ni
Central Ophiolite Belt (Budaung and Indawgyi Ni deposits), and Eastern Ophiolite Belt
Central Ophiolite Belt (Budaung and Indawgyi Ni deposits), and Eastern Ophiolite Belt
(Tagaung Taung and Tauggadon Ni deposits) [20,66]. These Ni laterite deposits are well
(Tagaung Taung distributed
and Tauggadon Ni deposits)
along ophiolite [20,66].
complexes These Ni
consisting laterite
of Late deposits are well
Cretaceous–Early Eocene mafic
distributed alongand
ophiolite
ultramaficcomplexes consisting
igneous rocks of Late
associated Cretaceous–Early Eocene
with Cretaceous–Quaternary mafic[40,66,67].
sediments
and ultramafic These
igneous rocks
ultramafic associated
rocks are underlainwith Cretaceous–Quaternary
by high-grade metamorphic rockssediments
(gneisses, migmatites,
[40,66,67]. Theseandultramafic rocks and
some quartzites) aregranitoids,
underlainand bythey
high-grade metamorphic
have favorable metallogenicrocks
conditions for
the formation of high-grade Ni laterite deposits [20,66,67].
(gneisses, migmatites, and some quartzites) and granitoids, and they have favorable
metallogenic conditions for the formation of high-grade Ni laterite deposits [20,66,67].
Minerals 2024,
Minerals 2024, 14,
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Figure 4.
Figure 4. Metallogenic
Metallogenicmap
mapofof
NiNi
laterite deposits
laterite andand
deposits ophiolite beltsbelts
ophiolite in Myanmar (modified
in Myanmar after
(modified
[20]).
after [20]).

2.3.
2.3. Ultramafic Bedrock
Bedrock Types
Types and
and Characteristics
Characteristics
Cretaceous
Cretaceous ophiolite-related
ophiolite-relatedultramafic
ultramafic rocks areare
rocks widespread in allinmetallogenic
widespread belts
all metallogenic
of Indonesia,
belts including
of Indonesia, the Eastern
including Kalimantan,
the Eastern Sulawesi,
Kalimantan, and Northern
Sulawesi, and Northern Maluku belts
Maluku
(Figure 2) [21,68–70].
belts (Figure These These
2) [21,68–70]. ultramafic rocks form
ultramafic rocksthe bedrock
form from which
the bedrock fromthe Ni laterite
which the Ni
deposits are developed. These rocks mainly comprise 70% peridotites
laterite deposits are developed. These rocks mainly comprise 70% peridotites made of made of harzburgite,
lherzolite,
harzburgite, and minor dunite
lherzolite, and 30%
and minor pyroxenites
dunite and gabbros,and
and 30% pyroxenites which have which
gabbros, undergone
have
regional high-grade metamorphism and strong weathering resulting
undergone regional high-grade metamorphism and strong weathering resulting in the in the formation of
serpentinites
formation of [26,27,34,52,69,71]. In the Sulawesi
serpentinites [26,27,34,52,69,71]. In belt, the Kolonodale
the Sulawesi belt, theand Morowaliand
Kolonodale Ni
laterite
Morowali deposits are hosted
Ni laterite deposits by are
harzburgite
hosted by and lherzolite and
harzburgite [26,27,34], while
lherzolite the Sorowako
[26,27,34], while
Ni
thelaterite
Sorowako deposit is developed
Ni laterite depositonisharzburgite
developed on and dunite [71].and
harzburgite Thedunite
Weda [71].
Bay NiThelaterite
Weda
of Northern Maluku belt is also developed on dunite and harzburgite
Bay Ni laterite of Northern Maluku belt is also developed on dunite and harzburgite [52]. [52]. Serpentine,
olivine, orthopyroxene,
Serpentine, and, in someand,
olivine, orthopyroxene, cases,
inclinopyroxene are dominant are
some cases, clinopyroxene in peridotites
dominant of in
the Kolonodale and Weda Bay Ni laterites [26,52]. The pyroxenites
peridotites of the Kolonodale and Weda Bay Ni laterites [26,52]. The pyroxenites of theof the Morowali Ni
laterite
Morowali deposit principally
Ni laterite contain
deposit orthopyroxene
principally contain as the major mineral,
orthopyroxene as thewhile
majorserpentine
mineral,
occurs as an alteration product of orthopyroxene [34]. Talc-like phases
while serpentine occurs as an alteration product of orthopyroxene [34]. Talc-like phases are also observed
in
areperidotite bedrock
also observed in of the Kolonodale
peridotite bedrockand Morowali
of the Ni laterite
Kolonodale and deposits
Morowali[27,52]. The
Ni laterite
geochemical characteristics of ultramafic rocks of Indonesia are scarce
deposits [27,52]. The geochemical characteristics of ultramafic rocks of Indonesia are in the literature.
In the Philippines, the Ni(Co) laterite deposits are developed on the underlying mafic
scarce in the literature.
to ultramafic rocks comprising peridotites (harzburgite, dunite, and lherzolite), pyroxenites,
In the Philippines, the Ni(Co) laterite deposits are developed on the underlying
and gabbros, which are found in ophiolite complexes of the Philippine Mobile Belt and
mafic to ultramafic rocks comprising peridotites (harzburgite, dunite, and lherzolite),
the Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block (Figure 3) [30–33,47,72]. The Sta. Cruz Ni laterite
pyroxenites, and gabbros, which are found in ophiolite complexes of the Philippine
deposit of the Philippine Mobile Belt is developed on harzburgite with minor chromitite
Mobile Belt and the Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block (Figure 3) [30–33,47,72]. The
and sporadic dunite lenses [31]. Harzburgite mainly consists of olivine and orthopyrox-
Sta. Cruz Ni laterite deposit of the Philippine Mobile Belt is developed on harzburgite
 olivine and orthopyroxene, which are altered to serpentine and talc-chlorite, respectiv
[31]. At the Mindoro suture zone, the bedrock of Intex Ni-Co laterite deposits compr
lherzolite, harzburgite, and dunite, with serpentine veins cutting primary minerals in
types of bedrock [32]. Lherzolite mostly contains talc, olivine, pyroxene, chromite, a
Minerals 2024, 14, 134
Fe-oxide [32]. Harzburgite is characterized by olivine, orthopyroxene, and 7clinopyroxe of 22

while dunite mainly consists of olivine and minor orthopyroxene [32]. The Berong Ni-
laterite
ene, whichdeposit of tothe
are altered Palawan–Mindoro
serpentine and talc-chlorite,Continental
respectively Block
[31]. Atisthedeveloped
Mindoro on
harzburgite bedrock containing serpentine surrounded by olivine,
suture zone, the bedrock of Intex Ni-Co laterite deposits comprise lherzolite, harzburgite, pyroxene, a
chromite
and dunite,[33].
with The geochemistry
serpentine of the
veins cutting Philippine
primary mineralsultramafic
in all types rocks is poorly
of bedrock [32]. studi
Lherzolite mostly contains talc, olivine, pyroxene, chromite, and
Some ophiolite suites, such as the Eocene Zambales Ophiolite Complex, displayFe-oxide [32]. Harzbur-
gite is characterized
bimodal by olivine,
geochemical orthopyroxene,
signature and clinopyroxene,
with island arc tholeiite while
anddunite mainly
transitional from
consists of olivine and minor orthopyroxene [32]. The Berong Ni-Co laterite deposit of the
mid-ocean ridge basalt to island arc affinity [56,64].
Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block is developed on the harzburgite bedrock containing
Petrography
serpentine surrounded and bygeochemistry
olivine, pyroxene,of ultramafic
and chromiterocks from
[33]. The which Ni laterite
geochemistry of the depo
developedultramafic
Philippine are documented in Myanmar
rocks is poorly [20,67,73–75].
studied. Some In thesuch
ophiolite suites, Central
as theOphiolite
Eocene Belt,
weathering
Zambales profile
Ophiolite of the display
Complex, Budaung Ni laterite
a bimodal is developed
geochemical signature withon island
serpentinite,
arc lik
metamorphosed
tholeiite harzburgite
and transitional [20]. Serpentine
from a mid-ocean ridge basaltwith a small
to island amount
arc affinity of chromite a
[56,64].
Petrography
magnetite and geochemistry
is common of ultramafic
in the Budaung bedrock,rocks from contains
which which Ni 36.1laterite deposits
wt.% SiO2, 40.2 w
developed
MgO, and 0.38 wt.% NiO [20]. The Tagaung Taung Ni laterite deposit ofthethe East
are documented in Myanmar [20,67,73–75]. In the Central Ophiolite Belt,
weathering profile of the Budaung Ni laterite is developed on serpentinite, likely meta-
Ophiolite Belt was formed on massive serpentinites and peridotites composed
morphosed harzburgite [20]. Serpentine with a small amount of chromite and magnetite
harzburgite
is common in and dunite bedrock,
the Budaung [20,67,73–75].
which The main
contains 36.1minerals
wt.% SiOin these rocks are olivi
2 , 40.2 wt.% MgO,
serpentine, orthopyroxene, smectite, montmorillonite, and
and 0.38 wt.% NiO [20]. The Tagaung Taung Ni laterite deposit of the Eastern minor amounts
Ophio- of enstat
magnetite,
lite and chromite
Belt was formed on massive[20,67,74]. The Tagaung
serpentinites Taung
and peridotites serpentinites
composed generally cont
of harzburgite
and dunite [20,67,73–75]. The main minerals in these rocks are
38.9 wt.% SiO2, 40.2 wt.% MgO, and 0.27 wt.% NiO [20]. These rocks generally olivine, serpentine, or- occur
thopyroxene, smectite, montmorillonite, and minor amounts of enstatite,
the mountain ridges and slopes, while the peridotites are exposed at lower topograp magnetite, and
chromite [20,67,74]. The Tagaung Taung serpentinites generally contain 38.9 wt.% SiO2 ,
[67,74].
40.2 wt.% MgO, and 0.27 wt.% NiO [20]. These rocks generally occur in the mountain
ridges and slopes, while the peridotites are exposed at lower topography [67,74].
2.4. Ore Deposit Type and Ore Distribution
2.4. Ore Depositlaterite
Ni(Co) Type anddeposits
Ore Distribution
in SE Asia typically display three lithostratigraphic layers
Ni(Co)
variable laterite deposits
thicknesses in SE Asia
developed overtypically display three
the ultramafic lithostratigraphic
bedrock, which arelayers
fromofthe bott
variable thicknesses developed over the ultramafic bedrock, which are from the bottom
to the top (Figure 5): the saprolite layer (0.3–24 m), the limonite layer (2–18 m), and
to the top (Figure 5): the saprolite layer (0.3–24 m), the limonite layer (2–18 m), and the
ferruginous cap (0.2–1 m). It should be noted that these lithostratigraphic layers may
ferruginous cap (0.2–1 m). It should be noted that these lithostratigraphic layers may not be
be completely
completely developed
developed in all weathering
in all weathering laterite
laterite profiles profiles
(Figure 5). Ni (Figure 5). Ni found
ore is generally ore is genera
found in the saprolite and limonite horizons and at the transition zone
in the saprolite and limonite horizons and at the transition zone between the saprolite and between
saprolite
limonite and[20,26–34,52,53,67,73–75].
layers limonite layers [20,26–34,52,53,67,73–75].

Figure 5. Schematic columnar sections of selected Ni(Co) laterite from (a) Indonesia (Kolonodale Ni
deposit after [26]), (b) the Philippines (Berong Ni-Co deposit after [33]), and (c) Myanmar (Dagong-
shan Ni deposit after [75]).
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 8 of 22

The Ni laterite deposits of Indonesia mostly consist of high-grade hydrous Mg-silicate

type with 2–3 wt.% Ni and exceptionally 5–10 wt.% Ni [26,27,34,52,71]. Low-grade oxide
limonite types are further found with 0.97 wt.% Ni and 40.09 wt.% Fe [76]. The Ni-
bearing phases in these deposits are mainly composed of serpentine (lizardite, polygonal
serpentine, karpinskite, and népouite), talc (kerolite and pimelite), olivine, pyroxene,
goethite, hematite, and chromite, with less amount of chlorite and amphibole [26,27,
34,50,52,71]. A mixture of serpentine-like and talc-like phases known as garnierite is
common in the saprolite horizon of the Sorowako, Kolonodale, and Morowali Ni deposits
in Indonesia [26,27,34,50,52,71]. Although high Ni contents are noticeable in garnierite of
the saprolite layer, Ni is preferentially enriched in the talc-bearing phases rather than the
serpentine-bearing phases [27,34]. The Ni content is generally higher in the saprolite layer
than in the limonite layer, where Ni is hosted by goethite and hematite [26,27,34,52]. The
limonite layer is dominated by goethite with minor hematite, while the saprolite layer is
dominated by serpentine and garnierite with minor goethite [26,27,34,52]. The Ni content
of residual serpentine of the saprolite layer can be up to six to seven times higher than that
of primary serpentine of the bedrock [26,27]. Higher Ni contents can be found in olivine
(0.1–0.3 wt.% Ni) and serpentine (0.3–3.0 wt.% Ni) [27,71].
Besides the traditional laterite Ni deposits of Indonesia, gravel lateritic Ni ore deposits
have been reported in the Sulawesi metallogenic belt in northern and western of the
Sulawesi Island [77,78]. From the bottom to the top, the structure of the deposit includes
fresh to semi-weathered conglomerate, strongly weathered conglomerate, and laterite
layer [77,78]. The Ni ore body is mainly distributed in the semi-weathered conglomerate
layer [77,78].
In the Philippines, Ni(Co) laterite deposits mostly belong to high-grade hydrous Mg-
silicate type, with local development of oxide and clay silicate deposits [28,30–33]. Ni ore
is principally associated with Fe-oxide/oxyhydroxide (goethite and hematite) and Mn-
oxyhydroxide (asbolane and lithiophorite–asbolane intermediate) phases in the limonite
layer, with Ni contents up to 0.85 wt.%, 1.71 wt.%, and 23.89 wt.% in hematite, goethite, and
lithiophorite–asbolane intermediate, respectively [30–33]. In the limonite horizon, Co ore is
also hosted by goethite, hematite, and lithiophorite–asbolane intermediate, with Co content
up to 0.90 wt.%, 1.13 wt.%, and 12.59 wt.%, respectively [31–33]. In the saprolite layer, Ni ore
is hosted by serpentine and garnierite [31–33]. Garnierite generally belongs to the sepiolite-
like (sepiolite–falcondoite) and talc-like (kerolite–pimelite) series and occurs as vein or
fracture fillings in the saprolite layer of most Philippine Ni(Co) deposits [30–33]. Garnierite
consisting of a mixture of serpentine-, kerolite-, and sepiolite-like clay is characterized by
higher Ni contents up to 6.11 wt.% [32,33].
The Ni laterite deposits in Myanmar, including the Tagaung Taung, Budaung, Dagong-
shan, and Mwetaung deposits, are of hydrous Mg-silicate type and locally oxide type [24,67,
73–75,79–81], although the Tagaung Taung deposit is considered as a hybrid of the hydrous
Mg and clay silicate type [20]. The later Ni laterite deposit may host clay silicate ore type
based on the crystal chemistry of smectite and its occurrence in the weathering profile [20].
Ni orebody is generally distributed in the saprolite and limonite layers developed on ser-
pentinized peridotites [67,74,79–81]. At the Tagaung Taung deposit, Ni ore mostly occurs
in the saprolite layer, which contains more than 1.4 wt.% Ni hosted by serpentine, smectite,
and talc, while goethite is abundant in the limonite horizon, with a mean Ni content of
1.24 wt.% [74,80].

3. Factors Controlling the Development of Ni(Co) Laterite Deposits

3.1. Lithology, Geomorphology, Climate, and Structure
Previous studies have demonstrated that the enrichment of Ni in the weathering
profile is controlled by the interplaying of several factors, including the parent rock, cli-
matic regime, geomorphology, drainage, chemistry/rate of chemical weathering, and
structure [2,3,82–87]. A comprehensive analysis is conducted below to understand how the
above factors interplay to produce Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia.
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 9 of 22

The distribution of the Ni(Co) laterite deposits is generally controlled by the bedrock
type and topography in SE Asia [26,27,30–34,71,74,79–81]. The deposits are character-
ized by underlying unserpentinized ultramafic rocks (lherzolite, harzburgite, and dunite)
containing 0.25 to 0.35% Ni hosted by variably serpentinized olivine and pyroxene [26,27,30–
34,71,74,79–81]. The high content of pyroxene in bedrock has promoted the formation of
high-grade Ni ores in Myanmar [20], whereas the abundance of olivine in parent rock is
considered to be one of the most important factors in the formation of high-grade Ni ores in
the Philippines and Indonesia [26,27,30–34,71]. Most Ni(Co) laterite deposits are developed
on serpentinized ultramafic rocks located in plateaus and terraces or areas with moderate
to low-lying relief, while hills and ridges or areas with high-lying relief are not conducive
to the development of laterite profile [26,27,30–34,71,74,79–81]. In the Philippines, terrain
with a slope of less than 30◦ has a well-developed laterite profile above the ultramafic
rocks [32]. The tropical climate of SE Asia is characterized by heavy monsoon rain (1300
to >1800 mm) and dry weather (25–30 ◦ C) with some short showers. This climatic regime
involving humid and hot tropical conditions of high rainfall and warm temperatures pro-
motes a prolonged and pervasive chemical weathering process of ultramafic rocks to form
a thick lateritic profile comprising from the bottom to the top: the saprolite, limonite, and
ferruginous cap layers developed over the serpentinized bedrock [26,27,30–34,71,74,79–81].
These lithostratigraphic layers are not often developed in all weathering laterite profiles
(Figure 5), and some layers locally may not be observed due to the discrepancy in erosion
or weathering processes [26,27,30–34].
The weathering is influenced by the geomorphology, climate, Eh and pH of percolating
water, and mineralogical characteristics of the parent rock [88]. In SE Asia, the weathering
of bedrock is stronger and more aggressive in lower topography and low land depressions,
where water percolates downward along preferential biological and geological pathways,
which represent the main channel of Ni activation and vertical migration [26,27,30–34,74,80].
Differences in the mineralogical composition of bedrock can result in contrasting types of
chemical weathering [2]. Taking the case of the Myanmar Ni laterite deposits, the Tagaung
Taung serpentinites have undergone more intensive chemical weathering relative to the
Budaung serpentinites, likely metamorphosed harzburgites, due to the slower dissolution
rate of serpentine relative to olivine and pyroxene [20]. The saprolite and limonite layers
of Ni laterites of SE Asia generally display an increase in Ni contents relative to those of
the bedrock, which can be explained by ion exchange processes between the weathering
solution and primary minerals [27,30–34,67]. During the chemical weathering process
of the parent rocks, circulating water triggers the alteration of primary minerals and the
most soluble elements (Mg, Ca, and Si) are leached, whereas the least soluble elements
(e.g., Ni, Co, Cr, Fe, Al, and Ti) are concentrated, with Ni leaches from olivine, pyroxene,
and serpentine, then reprecipitates to form garnierite [26,27,30–34,74,80,89]. As the pH of
percolating water decreases, the mineral solubilities increase, and Ni is prone to be released
from limonite into percolating water under acid conditions, leading to Ni enrichment in the
saprolite layer [26,27,30–34,74,80,89]. In the Philippine Ni laterite deposits, mildly acidic
environmental conditions (pH ≤ 6.57) in the limonite layer have enhanced the mobilization
and re-distribution of Ni from the limonite horizon towards the saprolite layer of the
weathering profile [23,32].
Significant fracturing was developed in the bedrock under the influence of long-term
tectonic processes that have affected SE Asia (see Section 2.1). The existence of faults,
fractures, joints, and fissures in the bedrock provides favorable conditions for percolating
water that promotes the decomposition and denudation of these rocksand enhances the
weathering of primary minerals (e.g., olivine and pyroxene), which are unstable in humid
and hot tropical environments [27,31–34,71,74,80,81,89]. In SE Asia, the thickness of the Ni
weathering profile developed over the bedrock is generally controlled by the topography
and degree of erosion, whereas the Ni grade is influenced by a combination of the type of
bedrock, topography, and structure [26,27,30–34,71,74,80]. For instance, the mean thickness
of the limonite layer tends to increase from steep to flat topography, while that of the
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 10 of 22

saprolite layer does not correlate with the topographic slope in the Sorowako Ni laterite
deposit of Indonesia [71]. At Sorowako, high Ni grades were found to be commonly
concentrated in the saprolite layer developed over dunite (2.36% Ni), having more olivine
than harzburgite (0.95%–2.02% Ni), under slight slope topography with a slope angle of
5–19◦ , typical of the most strongly fractured and deeply weathered areas at Sorowako [71].
In SE Asia, the Ni(Co) ore generally occurs in garnierite present in the joints and fractures
at the lower and upper parts of the saprolite horizon and in the limonite layer [23,26,27,30–
34,74,80,89]. Garnierite may locally extend into the underlying bedrock layers along the
fractured zone where a high density of joints or fractures occurs. Fieldwork and mineralogy
indicate that garnierite occurs at the lower part of the saprolite layer of a serpentinite-
derived regolith in SE Asia [27,31–34,89]. A study on garnierite of the Kolonodale Ni laterite
deposit of Indonesia has shown that the origin of garnierite is linked to a preferential flow of
oversaturated solutions through accessible conduits in the regolith [27]. At Kolonodale, the
colloidal nature, high organic matter, and low pH of aqueous fluids along preferential flow
pathways in garnierite-bearing rock are suggested to be the key markers in the transport
and deposition of Ni ore [27].
In summary, most Ni(Co) laterite deposits of SE Asia are located in hill and low
mountain topographic regions, and they formed during deep erosion and strong chemical
weathering of serpentinized and unserpentinized ultramafic rocks, such as harzburgite,
lherzolite, and dunite. The combined effects of lithology, geomorphology, climatic condi-
tions, and structure commonly produce a vertical sequence with horizons, including the
saprolite, limonite, and ferruginous cap layers. The humid and hot tropical climate of SE
Asia is the weathering force condition for the formation of a thick Ni-rich laterite profile,
while the flat topography combined with significant fracturing in the bedrock provides
channels for Ni activation, leaching, precipitation, and redistribution along the laterite
profile. The mobility of elements is governed by the preferential flow pathways and the
whole structure of the laterite profile, which provide ideal conditions for preferential Ni
(Co) enrichment in the weathered layers.

3.2. Degree of Serpentinization of Bedrock and Related Ni-Co Contents

The distribution of Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia is linked to the spatial distri-
bution of ophiolitic complexes (Figures 2 and 3), where similar protoliths, topography,
climatic regime, and structural conditions prevail, especially in Indonesia, the Philippines,
and Myanmar [26,27,30–34,52,67]. However, Ni enrichment is strongly related to the devel-
opment of saprolite layer, which is mainly controlled by the degree of serpentinization and
fragmentation of the bedrock [23,26–28,30–34,52,67].
The degree of bedrock serpentinization has an important influence on the grade of Ni
laterite ore [32,67,89], which is further controlled by the combined effect of bedrock type,
structure, and topography (see Section 3.1). Moderate to higher degree of serpentinization
provides the condition for the development of high-grade Ni ore, while no or low degree of
serpentinization is conducive to the development of low-grade Ni ore [67]. The Ni content
is related to the alteration and weathering degree of the rock, and the Ni content can reach
above the industrial grade in the parts where serpentinization is strong and Ni silicate
veins are well developed [32–34,67,74,89]. When comparing Ni laterite developed on
different bedrock (Figure 6), the greatest Ni enrichment is generally observed in the saprolite
horizon, or rarely limonite layer, developed on the serpentinized harzburgite (Ni up to
4 wt.%), serpentinite (Ni up to 2.9 wt.%), lherzolite (Ni up to 2 wt.%), harzburgite (Ni up to
2 wt.%), harzburgite–dunite (Ni up to 1.9 wt.%), and clinopyroxenite (Ni up to 1.5 wt.%)
bedrock [32,74,89]. The Ni contents increase from the lower part to the upper part of the
saprolite layer and decrease at the saprolite–limonite transition zone (Figure 6c–e) [27,74,89].
The high Ni gain in the saprolite layer is due to the downward migration of dissolved Ni
from the limonite into the saprolite [27,74]. In a few cases, the maximum enrichment occurs
at the bottom of the lower saprolite [67].
 and clinopyroxenite (Ni up to 1.5 wt.%) bedrock [32,74,89]. The Ni contents increase from
the lower part to the upper part of the saprolite layer and decrease at the
saprolite–limonite transition zone (Figure 6c–e) [27,74,89]. The high Ni gain in the
saprolite layer is due to the downward migration of dissolved Ni from the limonite into
Minerals 2024, 14, 134
the saprolite [27,74]. In a few cases, the maximum enrichment occurs at the bottom 11
ofofthe
22

lower saprolite [67].

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Vertical
Vertical distribution
distribution of
of olivine,
olivine, Ni,
Ni, and
and Co
Co contents
contents for
for selected
selected laterite
laterite profile
profile developed
developed
on different
on differentbedrock
bedrockfrom
from
thethe (a) Konde
(a) Konde andPetea
and (b) (b) Petea
Ni(Co)Ni(Co)
depositsdeposits in Indonesia
in Indonesia [89], (c)
[89], (c) Tagaung
Tagaung Taung Ni deposit in Myanmar [74], (d–f) Intex Ni-Co deposit in the Philippines [32].
Taung Ni deposit in Myanmar [74], (d–f) Intex Ni-Co deposit in the Philippines [32].

Co isismainly
Co mainlyenriched
enriched(up (upto to 8 wt.%)
8 wt.%) in lower
in the the lower section
section of theoflimonite
the limonite layer
layer devel-
developed
oped on theon the serpentinized
serpentinized harzburgite
harzburgite bedrockbedrock in Indonesia
in Indonesia (Figure(Figure
6b) [89],6b)while
[89], minor
while
minor Co enrichment (up to 0.16 wt.%) was documented in the upper
Co enrichment (up to 0.16 wt.%) was documented in the upper part of the limonite layer part of the limonite
layer developed
developed overlherzolite,
over the the lherzolite, harzburgite–dunite,
harzburgite–dunite, and and clinopyroxenite
clinopyroxenite bedrock
bedrock in
in the
the Philippines (Figure 6d–f) [32]. Co contents up to 0.9 wt.% were also
Philippines (Figure 6d–f) [32]. Co contents up to 0.9 wt.% were also reported in the lower reported in the
lower section
section of the limonite
of the limonite layer inlayer in the Berong
the Berong Ni-Co laterite
Ni-Co laterite profile ofprofile of the Philippines
the Philippines [33]. In
[33]. In contrast
contrast to other to other deposits
deposits of SE Asia,of SE
theAsia, the Nideposits
Ni laterite laterite deposits
of Myanmar of Myanmar are not
are not enriched
enriched
in in Co [24,67,74,79–81].
Co [24,67,74,79–81].

4. The Potential for Critical Metals of Ni(Co) Laterite

Apart from Ni and Co ore, Ni(Co)
Ni(Co) laterite
laterite deposits
deposits of SE Asia
Asia are
are variably
variably enriched
enriched
in critical metals (Sc, REE, and
and PGE)
PGE) in
in Indonesia
Indonesia and
and the
the Philippines
Philippines [89–93].
[89–93]. Although
Although
their contents are low compared with conventional critical metal ore deposits (Table S2),
they may be of economic significance as these critical metals are considered to be cost
inexpensive by-products during the Ni(Co) production [94].
Indonesian Ni laterite deposits host scandium, which is generally associated with the
occurrence of iron oxide from pyroxene [91,92]. Pyroxene-bearing bedrock (harzburgite in
composition) has Sc content of 15 ppm, while it reaches up to 87 ppm in the limonite layer
developed on this ultramafic rock [91]. In Southeast Sulawesi, the Lapaopao Ni laterite
hosts Sc content of 15 ppm and up to 81 ppm in the ultramafic bedrock and overlying
limonite layer, respectively [92]. Based on detailed investigations of four Ni laterite pro-
files (Konde, Petea, Watulabu, and Willson) in the Soroako and Pomalaa mining areas,
Ito et al. [89] have revealed that Sc contents vary from 24 to 81 ppm (mean of 38–64 ppm)
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 12 of 22

in the limonite layer, which is consistent with that in the underlying bedrock. Moreover,
significant contents of Sc hosted by goethite were reported in the limonite layer of Ni
laterite deposits from the Philippines, such as the Surigao Ni laterite (31.1 to 59.4 ppm,
mean = 47.1 ppm), Zambales Ni laterite (67.2 to 79.5 ppm, mean = 73.0 ppm), and Pulang
Daga Ni laterite (68.7 to 89.3 ppm, mean = 75.5 ppm) deposits [93,95]. The average Sc
content for Ni laterite deposits of SE Asia is comparable to that found in New Caledonia
(36.72 ppm for the Koniambo Ni deposit; [96]), Greece (42 and 64 ppm for the Larymna
and Evia Ni(Co) deposits, respectively; [18]), Cuba (61.75 ppm for the Punta Gorda Ni
deposit; [94]), Dominican Republic (72.65 and 82.08 ppm for the Loma Caribe and Loma
Minerals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Peguera Ni deposits, respectively; [94]), but higher than that (21.71 ppm; [13]) for the13Loma
of 22
de Hierro Ni(Co) deposit in Venezuela (Table S2, Figure 7a).

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Average
Average content
content of
of (a) Sc and
(a) Sc and REE
REE (ppm)
(ppm) and
and (b)
(b) PGE
PGE (ppb)
(ppb) for
for different
different Ni(Co)
Ni(Co) laterite
laterite
deposits of SE Asia [89,93] in comparison to those for Ni(Co) laterite deposits from Oman [14], New
deposits of SE Asia [89,93] in comparison to those for Ni(Co) laterite deposits from Oman [14], New
Caledonia [96], Greece [18], Cuba [94], Dominican Republic [94], and Venezuela [13].
Caledonia [96], Greece [18], Cuba [94], Dominican Republic [94], and Venezuela [13].

Elevated
The contents
Ni laterite of Cr (up
deposits in to 2 wt.%)
the were found
Philippines in the
contain lowlaterite layer(ΣREE)
total REE of the Tagaung
content
Taung Ni deposit in Myanmar [20,74]. Recent studies have further
with an average of 13.8–45.3 ppm [93], which are similar to that reported for the reported significant
Konde,
amounts
Petea, of Cr (upand
Watulabu, to 5Willson
wt.%) and Mn (updeposits
Ni laterite to 0.7 wt.%) hosted byhaving
of Indonesia goethite anand hematite
average ΣREEin
the bedrock
content and saprolite
of 3.50–29.83 ppm [89]layer of the
(Table S2).Intex Ni (Mindoro
The average Island) of
ΣREE content and Berong
these Ni-Co
Ni laterites
(Palawan
is Island)
comparable to laterite deposits
that found in Newin the Philippines
Caledonia [32,33]. Ni deposit: 5.61 ppm; [96])
(Koniambo
Given that(Loma
and Venezuela the weathering
de Hierroprocess can trigger
Ni(Co) deposit: theppm;
23.17 remobilization and low
[13]), but very enrichment
compared of
a range of potentially valuable metals [22], the above results suggest
to that of the Larymna Ni(Co) (773.88 ppm), Punta Gorda Ni (861.93 ppm), and Loma that the Ni(Co)
laterite Ni
Caribe deposits inppm)
(1047.41 Indonesia and the
and Loma Philippines
Peguera and, to
Ni (1180.09 some
ppm) extent,in
deposits inGreece,
Myanmarare
Cuba,
worthy
and targets Republic,
Dominican for critical and transition
respectively metalsS2,
[18,94] (Table although they
Figure 7a). may not
Therefore, thereach
REE
economically of
beneficiation useful levels for
Ni laterite Sc, REE,
deposits and
of SE PGE.
Asia is economically unviable when compared
to the REE contents of 500–3000 ppm for ion-adsorption REE (iREE) deposits having
5. Future Perspectives
substantial economic value [97]. This can be explained by the absence of typical REE-
bearing minerals (e.g., allanite, bastnäsite, gadolinite, and titanite) in the Ni laterite deposits
5.1. Research Perspectives
of SE Asia, but well distributed in iREE deposits [97]. In the Ni laterite deposits of Indonesia,
Previous studies have raised some questions, and there are still a lot of unknowns
it is generally suggested that REE were released from goethite near the ferruginous cap
regarding the physical and chemical changes in the parent lithology and the Ni-bearing
of the laterite profile and accumulated by adsorption onto Mn-rich oxyhydroxides in the
phases during the weathering process. It is important to understand the mineralogy,
transition zone between the saprolite and laterite layers, whose processes were governed
structure, and crystal chemistry of ore and gangue minerals, along with the mobility of
by the dissolution and recrystallization of goethite enhanced by weathering [89]. This
elements through the weathering profile of the Ni(Co) laterite deposits. Such studies can
process may have contributed to different degrees of REE enrichment, consistent with the
be achieved by applying cutting-edge technologies (e.g., micro X-ray diffraction (µXRD)
and TESCAN Integrated Mineral Analyzer (TIMA)) in combination with common
techniques (e.g., scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and reflected light microscopy).
The current understanding of the formation and origin of Ni(Co) laterite deposits
remains enigmatic to specific areas in SE Asia. At present, there is a lack of theory
explaining why some areas host both Ni and Co mineralization (mostly in the
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 13 of 22

lower REE content of the more weathered profiles (Konde and Petea) relative to the less
weathered profiles (Watulabu and Willson) [89].
The Ni laterites of Indonesia display relative enrichment of Pt and Pd (mean content
of 32–51.9 ppb; [89]), which is comparable to that for the Ni laterites of Northern Oman
Mountains in Oman (46.28 ppb; [14]) but lower than that of Ni laterites in Cuba (109.93 ppb,
Punta Gorda) and Dominican Republic (130.90 and 142.21 ppb for Loma Caribe and Loma
Peguera, respectively; [94]) (Table S2, Figure 7b). It is commonly suggested that the PGE
enrichment in Ni laterites of Indonesia was probably due to the deep oxidative weathering
and residual concentration as impurities in weathering-resistant minerals and subsequent
remobilization then reduction and precipitation controlled by the presence of Fe- and
Mn-rich oxyhydroxides and/or bioactivity [89].
Elevated contents of Cr (up to 2 wt.%) were found in the laterite layer of the Tagaung
Taung Ni deposit in Myanmar [20,74]. Recent studies have further reported significant
amounts of Cr (up to 5 wt.%) and Mn (up to 0.7 wt.%) hosted by goethite and hematite
in the bedrock and saprolite layer of the Intex Ni (Mindoro Island) and Berong Ni-Co
(Palawan Island) laterite deposits in the Philippines [32,33].
Given that the weathering process can trigger the remobilization and enrichment of a
range of potentially valuable metals [22], the above results suggest that the Ni(Co) laterite
deposits in Indonesia and the Philippines and, to some extent, in Myanmarare worthy
targets for critical and transition metals although they may not reach economically useful
levels for Sc, REE, and PGE.

5. Future Perspectives
5.1. Research Perspectives
Previous studies have raised some questions, and there are still a lot of unknowns
regarding the physical and chemical changes in the parent lithology and the Ni-bearing
phases during the weathering process. It is important to understand the mineralogy,
structure, and crystal chemistry of ore and gangue minerals, along with the mobility of
elements through the weathering profile of the Ni(Co) laterite deposits. Such studies can be
achieved by applying cutting-edge technologies (e.g., micro X-ray diffraction (µXRD) and
TESCAN Integrated Mineral Analyzer (TIMA)) in combination with common techniques
(e.g., scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and reflected light microscopy).
The current understanding of the formation and origin of Ni(Co) laterite deposits re-
mains enigmatic to specific areas in SE Asia. At present, there is a lack of theory explaining
why some areas host both Ni and Co mineralization (mostly in the Philippines) while other
areas only host Ni ore (Indonesia and Myanmar). The geological causes of the abnormal
distribution of Ni(Co) grade in this region remain unknown. Hence, in-depth investigations
and comparative studies should be conducted on the mineralogical, geochemical, and geo-
biological mechanisms that govern the Ni and Co enrichment throughout the weathering
profile of Ni(Co) laterite deposits in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar. In this way,
it is of crucial importance to combine mineralogical and chemical analytical techniques,
such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
(µXRF), laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS), X-Ray Powder
Diffraction (XRPD), and micro-Raman spectroscopy [98–102]. These methods are useful to
acquire the most comprehensive information and provide further insights into the structure,
mode of occurrence, and speciation of the Ni(Co)-bearing ore and gangue minerals. The
complex textural relationships between these minerals and their formation mechanism
can be successfully unraveled by means of TEM and LA-ICP-MS [99,100]. Combined
with electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), XRPD-based quantitative phase analysisand
automated SEM-based analysis systems (e.g., TIMA and QEMSCAN® ) offer the possibility
to assess the mineral abundance and metal deportment in the Ni(Co) laterite ores [101–103].
These analytical techniques have helped to discriminate between Ni-rich and Ni-poor
goethite in the laterite ores [102]. Recently, the ultramafic index of alteration (UMIA) has
been proposed to assess the geochemical variations triggered by chemical weathering in a
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 14 of 22

specific profile [94,104]. To better understand the local enrichment of Ni in the saprolite
layer, a combination of 3D modeling with field observations and a borehole dataset can
be helpful [105]. A similar method can be implemented to characterize the relationship
between the distribution of Ni(Co) and their contents in the lithostratigraphic layers of
these laterite deposits of SE Asia.
The Ni-bearing Mg phyllosilicates (garnierites) host significant ore minerals in the
Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia [26,27,31–33]. Due to their fine-grained nature, low
crystallinity, and common occurrence as mixtures, the characterization and classification of
different types of garnierite is complex [27,31–33]. However, recent studies on garnierite
from the Caribbean Ni(Co) laterite deposits have suggested that the characterization of
this mineral phase can be achieved by using a combination of diverse innovative methods,
including high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), analytical electron
microscopy (AEM), differential thermal analysis and thermogravimetry (DTA-TG), µRaman
spectroscopy, and synchrotron microfocus X-ray absorption spectroscopy (µXAS) [106–109].
A combination of XRD and HR-TEM has been previously applied with the aim of describing
the composition and dissolution kinetics of garnierites from the Loma de Hierro Ni(Co)
laterite deposit in Venezuela [110]. A comprehensive understanding of the alteration dy-
namics controlling the source and enrichment of Ni mineralization during saprolitization
was achieved through insightful (nano)textural and mineralogical investigations (XRPD,
EMPA, and TEM-HRTEM) of the Ni-rich phyllosilicates occurring in the saprolite layer
developed on distinct magmatic protoliths from the Wingellina Ni-Co deposit in Western
Australia [111,112]. The mobility and accumulation of Ni in serpentine and garnierite across
the weathering profile were elucidated by means of µXRD, EPMA, and µXAS [106,107].
The textural relationship between the different garnierite phases and the distribution of Ni
at a nanometer scale can be defined and clarified by a detailed TEM-HRTEM-AEM imaging
study [100]. This integrated technique combined with DTA-TG, µRaman spectroscopy, and
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) can contribute to a better textural and min-
eralogical characterization of garnierite from Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia and shed
new insights into the formation processes of garnierite in lateritic environment [100,109].
The process of Fe and Ni enrichment in Fe–Ni–serpentine of Ni laterite deposits can be
better explained by combining the knowledge of the compositional variations of serpentine
and detailed mineralogical analyses with thermodynamic and geochemical calculations
related to the serpentine stability [108]. Combined with detailed fieldwork, innovative
mineralogical techniques can be successfully implemented for the garnierite phases and
other Ni-rich minerals (e.g., goethite and montmorillonite) in order to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the weathering and enrichment processes throughout the Ni(Co) laterite
deposits in SE Asia.
When compared to sulfide Ni deposits, a precise age of mineralization for the Ni(Co)
laterite deposits is difficult to constrain since most of these deposits were formed and
evolved over long periods under various weathering regimes [3]. This may explain that
direct dating of regolith has not been conducted, even on the Ni(Co) laterites themselves
in SE Asia. Moreover, the period of intense weathering is not yet constrained. Although
the formation of Ni laterite deposits have been linked to climate change [113], there is no
clear relationship between the present climate and the ore type, grade, or size of Ni(Co)
laterite deposits from this region. It should be of interest to constrain whether or not some
localities have undergone cold month mean temperatures of 15–27◦ C or warm month
mean temperatures of 22–31◦ C [114]. Hence, the history of formation of the Ni(Co) laterite
deposits of SE Asia would be clearly defined, while the exploration potential can be better
assessed [114].
In addition to Ni ore and economic contents of Co, the Ni(Co) laterite deposits host
critical metals or high-tech elements that are increasingly demanded by many industries.
These deposits are becoming worth targets for Sc, REE, and PGE [94,113–117]. Recent
studies have shown that Ni(Co) laterite deposits from the Caribbean, Balkan, and Pacific
regions are enriched in critical metals (e.g., REE, PGE, and Sc) that could be economically
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 15 of 22

extractable [94,116–118]. However, few studies have been conducted on the occurrence
and distribution of Sc, REE, and PGE in Ni(Co) laterite deposits of SE Asia (see Section 4).
Previous investigations were focused on the remobilization/recrystallization and enrich-
ment of critical metals in the laterite profile from Indonesia [89–92], while recent work
has proposed the REE potential of the Ni(Co) laterite deposits from the Philippines [93].
Therefore, further in-depth investigations should be dedicated to assessing the element
contents of critical metals in Ni(Co) laterite deposits of SE Asia. Detailed investigation
of the minor and trace element behavior of these metals would be of great interest for
understanding the mobility of such elements throughout the weathering profile.

5.2. Exploration Perspectives

The southeastern Asia region has considerable potential for further discovery and
development of new reserves of Ni(Co) laterite ore in the Philippines, Indonesia, and
Myanmar, which have similar features to those in the Southern Pacific, likely in Australia
and New Caledonia. Exploration surveys for these deposits in this region have faced
many problems, such as the complex regional or local geology, remote areas and lack of
road access, complex distribution of ore minerals and ore-forming elements, and limited
sampling density and strategy for soil and rock chemical analyses [23,25,67].
The Ni(Co) laterite deposits in SE Asia have been explored for decades by using classic
field methods, including mapping and sampling of outcropping bedrock and saprolite
or laterite surfaces, manual pit digging, trenching, and later incorporated stereo-photo
interpretation, drilling, and geochemical and geomorphological analyses [119–122]. These
classical methods have the potential to hamper the discovery of hidden deposits due
to a thick lateritic cover and regolith [67,123,124]. Hence, new investigation techniques
integrating regolith mapping, remote sensing, geophysics, and mineralogy coupled with
geochemistry have been proposed to improve the finding of Ni(Co) laterite deposits.
Integration of these innovative exploration techniques could have important perspectives
in SE Asia.
Previous work has revealed that most Ni laterite deposits give rise to distinct vegeta-
tion anomalies, which can be readily identified by remote sensing methods [124]. Regolith
mapping is a recent depth non-invasive technique proposed to enhance the prospecting and
drilling survey of hidden Ni(Co) laterite deposits [105,125,126]. Airborne electromagnetic
(AEM) has been applied in combination with mineralogical and geochemical analyses in
order to clarify the relationship between regolith materials, petrophysical properties, hy-
drogeology, and mineralization at the Cawse Ni laterite deposit in Western Australia [125].
Accurate analysis of remote sensing data using ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer) images and different airborne systems (e.g., Landsat
TM imagery) provide useful and high-resolution mineral information, which is applied
in regolith-landform mapping [126]. Further enhancement to the data using temporal
merging can create images that are both easier to interpretand more reliable indicators
of lithology and alteration [126]. Thus, regolith-landform mapping can be a useful guide
for geochemical sampling strategy during the exploration of Ni(Co) laterite deposits since
geochemical anomalies in the weathering profile can result from the formation of secondary
ore such as Ni laterite [105]. Highly improved regolith mapping helps to identify major con-
trols on metal dispersion, select suitable geochemical sampling areas, and assist anomaly
interpretation [105]. Dense vegetation would particularly affect regolith mapping and not
electromagnetic or other airborne surveys.
The application of aerial photos combined with aeromagnetic surveys at different
scales is useful in delineating more accurately the distribution, lithology change, and favor-
able location of structures and ultramafic bedrock [105]. For instance, 2D regolith (down
to >80 m) imaging has been successfully applied by means of electrical resistivity tomog-
raphy [127,128]. This useful tool has been proven efficient insignificantly reducing the
number of drilling holes for Ni ore exploration in Zimbabwe and New Caledonia [123,129].
Heliborne electromagnetic surveys of different areas have accurately outlined structure
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 16 of 22

images of the weathering mantle and underlying bedrock down to 300 m [129]. Three-
dimensional regolith mapping is an innovative tool that uses airborne electromagnetic
measurements, remote sensing technology, and various software, such as Mining Visualisa-
tion System (MVS), ArcView 3D Analyst version 9.3, and Vulcan version 8.2, to visualize
and quantify geochemical, geological, and regolith data [105].
Since geochemical analyses have insufficient contribution in the first steps of the Ni(Co)
prospection, the combine with mineralogical identification by means of portable X-ray
fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy devices has been suggested, which helps exploration
geologists to grasp knowledge on the chemical and mineralogical features of samples in
the field [108]. Geological mapping can also be coupled with geochemical halo secondary
scanning using the above devices to determine the Ni(Co) mineralization zones [124].
When exploration activities reach a high level that produces a large amount of data,
digitalization with statistics could help to improve the prediction of exploration targets
through a better understanding of the data gathered. A suitable statistical analysis of large
sample data has been proven to be an effective method for analyzing and discussing the
geochemical features of Ni laterite deposits in Indonesia [130]. Although this statistical
method is promising, further work is required to explain the geological causes of the
abnormal distribution of Ni grade [130]. Moreover, geostatistical techniques (e.g., ordinary
kriging for a single variable) have been successfully applied for modeling the Ni grade in
Indonesian laterite Ni deposits, with regard to the topographic effects (slope gradient and
thickness of the limonite and saprolite layers) and paleo-groundwater system [51,71]. This
helps to obtain a more precise estimation of available Ni grade and an identification of fac-
tors controlling the grade distribution in these laterite deposits [51], while the relationship
between the degree of weathering, groundwater–rock interaction, strata thickness, and the
Ni content and distribution can be clarified [71]. The geostatistical modeling methods have
good perspectives for the exploration of Ni(Co) deposits in SE Asia.

6. Conclusions
In recent years, laterite Ni(Co) ore resources have become widely attractive due to the
decrease of Ni sulfide ore resources. The laterite Ni(Co) deposits occur within 20 degrees
of the equator, with a few exceptions, and develop from the progressive weathering of
ultramafic bedrock found in accretionary terranes and cratonic areas.
Southeast Asia has extensive ophiolite distribution and a hot humid climate, which
makes it an ideal environment for the development of Ni(Co) laterite deposits, especially
in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar. Generally, a typical Ni(Co) laterite profile
includes four lithostratigraphic layers comprising from the bottom to the top: the serpen-
tinized bedrock, saprolite, limonite, and ferruginous cap layers. In this region, Ni and Co
were formed from the pervasive chemical weathering of ultramafic rocks. Topography,
tectonic setting, lithology, alteration, climate, and structures are the main ore-controlling
factors of the Ni(Co) laterite deposits. Hydrous Mg silicate (or garnierite) and oxide are
the major ore types in Southeast Asia, while clay silicate ore is locally developed. Ni
enrichment is strongly related to the development of saprolite layers, which is mainly
controlled by the degree of serpentinization and fragmentation of the bedrock. Besides Ni
and Co, the laterite ore body can contain a reasonable concentration of critical metals, such
as scandium, rare earth elements, and platinum group elements.
In Southeast Asia, the role of conventional methods and cutting-edge technologies in
the exploration of Ni(Co) laterite deposits has become more and more important for the
discovery of concealed deposits. Good prospecting sites for Ni(Co) ore can be discovered in
this region by using a combination of advanced remote sensing technologies, geophysical
surveys, and chemical analyses.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://

www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14020134/s1, Table S1. Summary of the metallogenic belts and
geological features for the Ni(Co) laterite deposits in Southeast Asia, Table S2. Average content of
Pt and Pd (ppb) and Sc and REE (ppm) of different Ni(Co) laterite deposits from Southeast Asia in
Minerals 2024, 14, 134 17 of 22

comparison to those of Ni(Co) laterite deposits from Oman, New Caledonia, Greece, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, and Venezuela.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.S.T. and Y.Z.; methodology, L.S.T.; software, L.S.T.;
validation, L.S.T. and Y.Z.; formal analysis, L.S.T. and J.G.; investigation, L.S.T. and J.G.; resources,
Y.Z.; data curation, L.S.T., W.X. and J.G.; writing—original draft preparation, L.S.T.; writing—review
and editing, L.S.T. and J.G.; visualization, W.X. and J.G.; supervision, W.X.; project administration,
Y.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s
Republic of China, National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant number
2022YFC2903502.
Data Availability Statement: Data of the article are contained in the Supplementary Materials.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the financial support from the Ministry of Science
and Technology of the People’s Republic of China, National Key Research and Development Program
of China (Grant No. 2022YFC2903502). We thank three anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: Landry Soh Tamehe, Yanpeng Zhao, Wenjie Xu, and Jiahao Gao are employees
of China Nonferrous Metals (Guilin) Geology and Mining Co., Ltd. The paper reflects the views of
the scientists and not the company. All auhtor declare that the research was conducted in the absence
of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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