CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Grain grinding is a fundamental process in various agricultural and food production activities,

crucial for transforming raw grains into consumable forms. A grinding machines primary

purpose is to break down grains like corn, wheat, or rice into fine particles or flour, making them

suitable for various culinary and industrial applications. Optimizing this machine involves

engineering methods that improve performance, efficiency, and durability, which helps reduce

operating costs and energy consumption while improving productivity and grain quality

(Adebayo & Egil, 2020).

Traditionally, grain grinding has been carried out using manual tools such as stones, pestles, and

mortars (Rowe, 2013). Milling was accomplished by grinding the grain between two stones. The

grinding stone consists of a lower stationary one, called the Quern stone and an upper stone

which is mobile and called the hand stone. The oldest known flour milling devices are saddle

stones (Williams and Rosentrater, 2007).

A saddle stone is a cradle-shaped piece of hard stone which holds the grain. The hand stone can

either be a cylindrical piece of stone (held in both hands and drawn across the grain rather like a

rolling pin) or a disc with a vertical handle on its back (rather like an upside-down mushroom)

held in one hand. These hand stones were used to crush the grain and produce coarse flour

(Thomas and Filippov 1999).

In order to make grinding easier, the grain is normally malted. Malting refers to the process

whereby cereal grain is made to germinate by soaking in water and then have the germination

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halted by drying in hot air. Obviously, such method is both laborious and time consuming. In

addition, it produces only enough ground or cracked grain for a household or extended family.

These methods, while effective in small-scale applications, are labor-intensive and time-

consuming. In many developing countries, including Nigeria, these traditional methods are still

prevalent due to the lack of access to modern machinery (Olufemi, Akindinola, & Sedara,

2022).This reliance on manual methods limits productivity and hampers the economic growth of

these communities.

Today, as man advances in various technological activities, the traditional pepper milling

machine has been converted to a series of product grinders, such as the grinding of melon (both

dried and wet), grains (such as corn for pap, beans for cake, rice for massa, and so on), and tuber

in its dried form (i.e., elubo), and so on (African foods, 2017). Culpin (1992) claimed that grain

grinding has been practiced since very early times, when a device resembling a pestle and mortar

was used in the production of meal for human consumption. The physical states of these grains

are modified after grinding; the grain size is reduced, the grain disposition and shape is altered to

meet the requirements (Ryan and Spencer, 2008).

Stones in modern burrstone mills are made of cast iron and have grooved and ridged faces

(Barbosa et al, 2005). Following the burrstone mills came hammer mills, which are the most

well-known equipment used for shredding/grinding, in which the material fragment is subjected

to complex forces and the resulting particles are used in the pellet obtaining technology's

following operations (Moiceanu et al., 2012). In light of this, as technology advances, the

introduction of this machine (grinder) made manifest and come into existence which is less

stressful, easy to operate, low costing and time reduction with a high degree of production

volume and efficiency modifications have also made it possible to be manually and electro-

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mechanically operated depending on the choice of design and speed. Grain grinders are available

in the market, which has drastically reduce the challenges and the problem usually encounter

with the manual method of grinding agricultural products (Hoque et al, 2007).

The disc attrition, also known as the burr mill, is made up of two hard-surfaced circular plates

that are pressed together and rotate with relative motion (Onwualu et al, 2006). Traditional crops

like sorghum, millet, and maize have been ground for centuries, either with a crude mortar and

pestle made from a tree stump and branch, or with flat stones or rubbing stones (Okpara, 2015).

So for several decades, men were faced with challenges of particles being grinded alongside with

grains with the available grinders, however, the grinded products were unknowingly consumes

by the consumers and thereby cause series of illness in the human system.

Globally, moving away from traditional foods to more refined Western diets has been linked to

increases in the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases (Suleyman, 2014) of which

over the years, the means to overcome this challenge has been searching for. Most developing

countries like Nigeria experience high mortality rate and this is exacerbated by poor health

delivery and inadequate monitoring of foodstuffs which results in high intake of unwholesome

food.

High level of trace metals in food is a potential source of disease when consumed by humans and

constant monitoring of foodstuff for trace metal contamination is crucial for the health of the

citizenry due to the various diseases they induce. Unhygienic grinding of grains for foodstuff

with old and worn out grinding machines is the usual practice in Nigerian markets and the

operators do not appreciate the health risks involved in their operations (Jude and Prosper, 2016).

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Heavy metals disrupt basic metabolic functions in two ways: on one hand, they disrupt the

functioning of vital organs and glands such as the heart, brain, kidney, bone or liver, on the other

hand, they move nutrients that are essential minerals and prevent them from fulfilling their

biological functions. For example, aluminum as a chelator has the ability to capture and prevent

the uptake of essential elements such as calcium, zinc and copper, and disrupt the proper use of

many of them (Dabonne et al, 2010). This metal is heavily involved in the onset of Alzheimer’s

disease. It is responsible for the alteration of neurons (Miu and Beng, 2006; Bharathi et al.,

2008). Depending on the heavy metal in question, toxicity can occur at levels just above

naturally occurring background levels, meaning that consumption of foods with a high heavy

metal concentration can cause acute or chronic poisoning (Llobet et al, 2003). A domestic grain

grinding machine is equipment used for grinding maize, beans, melon, millet and such other food

crops. This equipment comprises essentially of an electric motor, belt, pulley, transmission

shaft, hopper, mills, spiral conveyor and stands. These alleviate the rigors and problems we

encounter when grinding grains for the foodstuff. A domestic grain grinding machine is a

domestic grinder that is used to grind various grains of any form without the usual metallic or

heavy particles being eating by human being.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Grinding of grains is one of the oldest cultural techniques of humanity. All civilizations that feed

more or less exclusively from cereals were forced to develop technology for grinding grain

crops. In all traditional civilizations, grinding is the domain of women because they use it more

frequently in kitchen for different processes. There are two different techniques used in effecting

size reduction of grains (Okoro et al., 2019) The grinding done by pounding the grains (mortar

and pestle) and the grinding done by crushing the grains between two stones (grinding stone).

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The method of pestle and mortar is the widely used in the West-African country (Ahmed et al.,

2022). The use of grinding machine is one of the simplest methods of processing grains

alternative to the traditional methods of grain processing using stone, mortar and pestle.

However, machines constructed using metal plates results in tearing and wearing away of the

materials of construction. The effect of this is the contamination of the processed foodstuff. This

is known to have negative health implications when accumulated and consumed in large

quantities. Another problem is that the pounding work using mortar and pestle is demanding and

tiring and the used of grinding stone is very laborious. Based on this backdrop, This study seeks

to develop and optimize a grain grinding machine tailored to the needs of rural communities. By

focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and ease of use, the project aims to provide a

sustainable solution that can enhance agricultural productivity and improve the economic well-

being of rural inhabitants.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The primary aim of this study is to develop and optimize a dry-grain grinding machine that is

efficient, cost-effective and suitable for use in rural communities which is called a hammer mill.

The specific objectives of this study are:

1. To design a dry-grain grinding machine with improved efficiency and performance.

2. To optimize the machine's performance through systematic testing and modifications.

3. To evaluate the economic viability of the machine in rural settings.

4. To ensure the machine's durability and ease of maintenance, making it suitable for rural use.

5. To assess the impact of the optimized dry-grain grinding machine on the productivity and

economic development of rural communities.

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1.4 Justification/Significance of the Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to address critical challenges faced by rural

communities in dry-grain processing by developing an optimized grain grinding machine, this

project aims to:

By providing a more efficient method of grain grinding, the machine will increase the

productivity of small-scale farmers and households. Efficient grinding allows for the processing

of larger quantities of grain in less time, which can significantly boost agricultural output. This

increased productivity can lead to higher incomes for farmers, enabling them to invest in better

farming practices and improve their overall quality of life.

The manual grinding of grains is a labor-intensive task, often performed by women and children

in rural households. This labor can be physically demanding and time-consuming, limiting the

time available for other productive activities. The introduction of an optimized grain grinding

machine will reduce the physical effort required for this task, freeing up time for other economic

or educational pursuits. This can contribute to gender equality by alleviating the burden on

women and children and enabling them to engage in other meaningful activities.

The cost-effective nature of the optimized grain grinding machine will make it accessible to rural

communities. By reducing the costs associated with grain processing, the machine can enhance

the economic viability of small-scale farming. Farmers will be able to retain a larger portion of

their income, which can be reinvested into their farms or used to improve their living conditions.

Additionally, the machine can create new economic opportunities, such as small-scale grain

processing businesses, further stimulating local economies.

Efficient grain processing is essential for food security in rural areas. The optimized grain

grinding machine will ensure that households have adequate access to processed grains for

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consumption and sale. By reducing post-harvest losses and improving the quality of processed

grains, the machine will contribute to a stable and secure food supply. This, in turn, can enhance

the nutritional status of rural populations, leading to better health outcomes and overall well-

being

The development and optimization of this grain grinding machine will contribute to

technological advancements in agricultural machinery. By creating a machine tailored to the

specific needs of rural communities, this project will serve as a model for future innovations. The

knowledge and experience gained from this project can inform the design of other agricultural

tools and technologies, promoting a culture of innovation and technological adoption in rural

areas.

The optimized grain grinding machine will also have a positive environmental impact.

Traditional methods of grain grinding often involve the use of firewood for energy, contributing

to deforestation and environmental degradation. Mechanized grinding can reduce the reliance on

firewood, thereby preserving local forests and reducing carbon emissions. Additionally, the

machine will be designed to operate efficiently, minimizing energy consumption and reducing its

overall environmental footprint.

In conclusion, the development and optimization of a grain grinding machine hold significant

promise for improving the lives of rural inhabitants. By addressing the inefficiencies and high

costs associated with traditional and commercial grain grinding methods, this project aims to

foster economic development, enhance productivity, and promote sustainable agricultural

practices in rural Nigeria and beyond. The machine's potential to enhance food security, reduce

labor, and improve economic viability makes it a valuable tool for rural development.

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1.5 Scope of the Work

This project will involve the conceptualization, detailed design, and creation of a grain grinding

machine, using CAD software to develop precise models and simulations. After the design phase,

the machine will be fabricated according to the specifications, including material selection,

component assembly, and structural integrity checks. Optimization efforts will then focus on

testing and refining the machine’s performance through iterative testing, data collection, and

analysis to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness. An economic evaluation will assess the

machine’s cost-effectiveness in rural settings through a cost-benefit analysis, comparing it to

existing methods. Usability and maintenance will also be prioritized by testing in real-world

conditions and gathering feedback from potential users in rural communities. Targeting common

grains like maize, millet, and sorghum, this project will initially focus on rural areas in Nigeria,

with the potential for expansion to similar communities in other developing countries.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

Grain grinding machines play a pivotal role in the agricultural and food processing industries,

especially in rural communities where they serve as a cornerstone for food security and

economic stability (Subramanian & Madopothula, 2021). This chapter aims to provide a detailed

review of existing literature on the development and optimization of grain grinding machines. By

examining various studies, this review will highlight the historical evolution, technological

advancements, types of machines, and the challenges faced in grain grinding. Furthermore, it

will identify trends gaps in current research and project the problems, the current project aims to

address and justify the significance of this research in enhancing the efficiency, affordability, and

sustainability of grain grinding machines.

Grain grinding has been a critical part of agricultural practices since ancient times. According to

Kishore et al. (2022), these early innovations were pivotal in transitioning societies from

subsistence farming to more organized agricultural systems. Kishore, et al. (2022) provides a

comprehensive historical account, detailing the gradual shift from manual to mechanized

grinding methods, which laid the foundation for modern grain grinding technology. Early

methods involved hand tools like mortars and pestles (Okpara, 2015), which were labor-intensive

and inefficient. Historical records show that the use of querns and saddle stones dates back to

ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians and Romans, who used these tools for milling grains.

The Industrial Revolution brought significant changes with the introduction of mechanized mills.

Steam-powered mills in the 19th century replaced manual labor, leading to increased

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productivity and efficiency. These mills primarily catered to urban centers, leaving rural areas

with limited access.

According to Culpin (1992), grinding of grains has been practiced since very early times when a

device resembling a pestle and a mortar was employed in the production of meals for human

consumption. The first mills were modifications of this device, in which a grain was put through

an opening in a disc-shaped stone which was caused to rotate upon another. The gradual

development of this type of mills over thousands of years has led to the evolution of the burr

stone mill. The earliest records of food production in Africa show that indigenous grains have

long been milled to produce coarse flour for cooking. Traditional crops such as sorghum, millet,

and maize have been grounded for centuries either with a crude mortar and pestle fashioned from

a tree stump and branch or by using flat stones or rubbing stones. All these types of grinding

systems are still in common use throughout Africa today.

Brain and Rottger (2006) reported that in the mid-nineteenth century, electric motors were

invented, and higher-speed machines, such as hammer and plate mills, began to replace

traditional stone grinders. This electric motor was used to power a hammer mill which produces

maize flour of acceptable quality. These mills are in widespread use in rural parts of the world in

areas where electricity grid is available. Diesel-powered grain mills are limited to areas with

access to fuel and no electricity. Many people still cannot afford to pay for commercial grain-

grinding services and they grind by hand using traditional techniques. Therefore, pounding is a

common sight and sound in many areas. It is often a social activity, carried out predominantly by

women, and many hours are spent each day in this laborious and time-consuming task. The

pestle may weigh up to 4 kg, and pounding requires a lot of effort (FAO, 2005). For several

decades, men were faced with the challenges of particles being ground alongside grains with the

10
available grinders, however, the ground products were unknowingly consumed by the consumers

and thereby caused series of illnesses in the human system (Chen et al., 2022).

Globally, moving away from traditional foods to more refined Western diets has been linked to

increases in the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases (Suleyman, 2014) which over

the years, the means to overcome this challenge has been searching for. Madopothula et al.

(2021) studied the effect of grinding mechanisms using an alumina grinding wheel on the

formation of white layers in AISI 52100 steel. Further, the grinding power variation was

correlated with the metallurgical changes noticed in the ground material. (Huang et al.., )

investigated the effect of grinding parameters such as grinding depth, wheel speed, wheel wear,

work piece speed, and cooling condition on the thickness of the white layer by performing a

grinding experiment on AISI 52100 hardened steel. It was concluded that the grinding depth,

wheel speed, wheel wear, and coolant significantly affect the thickness of the white layer.

Grinding is probably the oldest surface processing method. It has been utilized since the

early days of civilization. In these early days, it was observed that some natural materials

scratched the others and resulted in wear in these other materials when they were slid against

each other under pressure. These hard materials used by mechanic action were called “abrasives”

and parallel to the developments in technology, these abrasives and abrasive processes also

developed. Abrasives were called with different names depending on their purpose of use and

their properties (Gullu & Poyrazoglu, 2000). Grinding is an important manufacturing process

which shapes the workpieces with the required geometry, dimensions and tolerances. This

process is especially used when the workpieces cannot be shaped with the required accuracy and

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surface quality by the other processes such as turning and milling (Kalpakjian, 1991). In grinding

terminology, increasing grain number means decreasing grain size.

Grinding is the process of removing metal by the application of abrasives which are bonded to

form a rotating wheel. When the moving abrasive particles contact the workpiece, they act as

tiny cutting tools, each particle cutting a tiny chip from the workpiece.

Grinding of foodstuffs can be said to have started from Adam. Records however show

that during the Stone Age (About 6700BC) man ground grains of wheat with rocks to make flour.

By 5500 BC came the mill stone which consists of two large individual stones between which

the wheat is ground to flour. (Milling and Baking Information Sheet, 2010).The industrial

revolution ushered in the Buhrstone mill and the Roller mill. The buhrstone mill is probably the

oldest type of grinding machine still in use today. This consists of one stationary disc of stone.

Much like the millstone, though the stones grind at the interface of their mating faces. Modern

Buhrstone mills have stones constructed in cast iron with faces cut in grooves and ridges.

Modern horizontally shafted buhrstone mills are the conventional domestic mills used to grind

tomatoes and foodstuffs.

Crushing of crop residues is on the increase with the global quest for sourcing of renewable

energy through pre-processing of bio-masses. Physical and mechanical properties of biomasses

species and varieties are very important when considering the energy requirements for particle

size reduction of agricultural residues. Of the various types of grinding equipment available,

hammer mills are the best known equipment used for the shredding/grinding, in which the

material fragment are subjected to complex forces and then the resulted particles are used in the

following operations from the pellet obtaining technology (Moiceanu et al., 2012).

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Hoque et al. 2007, in an ASABE paper number 076164 on Review and Analysis of Performance

and Productivity of Size Reduction Equipments for Fibrous Materials, recommends the hammer

mill; and to accept whole stalks without the need for manual chopping, the large size hammer

mill called Tub mill. Various size reduction equipments are available in the market based on the

classification of the size reduction equipment done by Scubert et al. (2004) and Woldt et al.

(2004), Miu et al. (2006) added an extended layout of this classification and suggested hammer

mill, knife mill and disc mill as the proper equipment for biomass pulverization. Due to high size

reduction ratio, good control of particle size range with relatively good cubic shape of particles,

hammer mills are wildly used and numbers of literature on grinding of different materials are

available. Knife mills (or choppers). work successfully for shredding forages under various crops

and machine conditions. Disc (or roller) mills produce very small particles if input feed is

provided by knife mills or hammer mills. (Hoque et al. 2007).

A grain is a small, hard, dry seed, with or without an attached hull or fruit layer,

harvested for human or animal consumption (Babcock, 1976). A grain crop is a grain-producing

plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.

Because grains are small, hard and dry, they can be stored, measured, and transported more

readily than can other kinds of food crops such as fresh fruits, roots and tubers. The development

of grain agriculture allowed excess food to be produced and stored easily which could have led

to the creation of the first permanent settlements and the division of society into classes (Wessel,

1984).

Grains can be divided into three groups; cereals (maize, wheat, millet, rice, etc.), pulses (beans,

peas, cowpeas, etc.), and oil seeds (soyabeans, sunflower, linseed, etc.).

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2.2. Cereal grains

All cereal crops are members of the grass family (Poaceae) (Vaughan et al., 1997). Cereal grains

contain a substantial amount of starch (Serna-Saldivar, 2012), a carbohydrate that provides

dietary energy.

Warm-season cereals

 kodo millet

 maize (corn)

 millet

 sorghum

Cool-season cereals

 barley

 oats

 rice

 wheat

2.4.2 Pulses

Pulses or grain legumes, members of the pea family, have a higher protein content than most

other plant foods, at around 20%, while soybeans have as much as 35%. As is the case with all

other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate and fat. Common pulses include:

 common beans
 fava beans
 lima beans
 lupins
 peanuts
 soyabeans

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2.3 Overview of some grains commonly used in Africa as well as Nigeria:

2.3.1 Maize

Maize is the most widely-grown staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) occupying more

than 33 million ha each year (FAOSTAT, 2015). The crop covers nearly 17% of the estimated

200 million ha cultivated land in SSA, and is produced in diverse production environments and

consumed by people with varying food preferences and socio-economic backgrounds. More than

300 million people in SSA depend on maize as source of food and livelihood

(http://dtma.cimmyt.org/index.php/background). The top 20 countries, namely South Africa,

Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi, Kenya, Zambia, Uganda, Ghana, Mozambique, Cameroon,

Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, DRC, Angola, Zimbabwe, Togo, and Cote d’Ivoire, account for 96%

of the total maize production in SSA. (FAOSTAT, 2015).

2.3.2 Rice

Agriculture is the predominant economic sector in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with 70% of rural

households depending on it as a source of their livelihood. Rice consumption is increasing faster

than that of any other food staple in Africa at about 5.5% per year (2000–2010 average). This

increase is driven by urbanization and related changes in eating habits, and population growth

(Seck et al.., 2012). Rice consumption was approximately 24 million tonnes (Mt) per year in

SSA in 2012. With only about 60% of rice consumption being satisfied by domestic production,

rice imports stand at 10–12 Mt. This is equivalent to one-third of the rice traded on the world

market.

2.3.3 Wheat

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In all African countries, wheat consumption has been steadily increasing during the past 20 years

as a result of growing population, changing food preferences and a strong urbanization trend

which has led to a growing ‘food gap’ in all regions, largely met by imports. In 2013 alone,

African countries spent over $12 billion dollars to import more than 40 million metric tons of

wheat, equating to about a third of the continent’s food imports.

During 2010-2013, the average quantity of wheat import in SSA was about 17.5 Million metric

tons per annum, which is close to 80% of the total domestic wheat consumption in these

countries (USDA, 2014). Each year, less than 30% of wheat consumption in the region is

covered from domestic production. In addition to the increasing trend in volume of wheat import

in SSA, wheat prices (both producers’ and world market prices) have increased substantially over

the last half-decade. Domestic price volatility is very high. Both price and volume of wheat

imports already impose substantial challenges to many SSA countries on their foreign currency

reserve and annual trade balance. Thus, for SSA countries, it is essential and timely to look into

the exiting wheat production and productivity potentials and exploit these potentials through

putting proper policies, institutions and market arrangements in place and create incentives to all

actors in the wheat value chain.

2.4 Technological Advancements in Grain Grinding

Grain grinding technology has evolved significantly with recent innovations pushing the

boundaries of efficiency, sustainability and product quality. The modern grain grinding machines

focuses on optimizing traditional processes and integrates advanced technology to meet the

demands of contemporary agriculture and food production. The 20th and 21st centuries have

witnessed substantial technological advancements in grain grinding machines while focusing on

16
efficiency, durability, and automation. Several key innovations have been documented in the

literature (Guo, Li, & Zhou, 2019).

2.4.1 Electric Grain Mills

Electric grain mills have revolutionized the grain processing industry by offering significant

advantages over traditional manual methods. These machines employ high-speed motors to

power grinding mechanisms, resulting in substantially increased throughput and reduced labor

requirements. Moreover, electric mills often feature adjustable settings for particle size, enabling

greater control over the final product. This precision is crucial for various applications, from fine

flour for baking to coarser textures for animal feed.

2.4.2 Al powered grain sorting system

Grain grinding has seen a significant transformation with the introduction of innovative

technology. These advanced system can efficiently separate impurities from grain ensuring

higher quality and end product. This system analyze vast amount of data from various sensors

and instruments to optimizing milling parameters and predict potential issues. Al algorithm can

adjust real time process variables to maintain optimal performance and product quality. The level

of precision helps reduce wastes, improve yield and ensure consistent flour quality.

2.4.3 CNC Technology

The integration of Computer Numerical Control (CNC) technology has ushered in a new era of

precision and customization in grain grinding. CNC-equipped machines utilize computer

programs to regulate grinding parameters such as feed rate, rotor speed, and screen size. This

level of control allows for the production of highly consistent and uniform products.

Furthermore, CNC technology facilitates rapid adjustments to grinding settings, enabling optimal

17
performance for different grain types and desired product characteristics. Chen et al.. (2020)

pioneered research on a Novel CNC Worm Grinding Machine, demonstrating enhanced control

over grinding parameters and further emphasized the positive impact of CNC technology on

product quality, reporting a substantial improvement in product uniformity

2.4.4 Advanced Materials

The durability and longevity of grain grinding machines have been significantly enhanced

through the incorporation of advanced materials. Traditional materials, such as cast iron and

steel, have been supplemented or replaced by wear-resistant alloys and ceramics. These materials

exhibit superior hardness, abrasion resistance, and corrosion resistance, resulting in extended

component lifespan and reduced maintenance costs. Consequently, the overall efficiency and

reliability of grain grinding operations have been improved. Zhang et al. (2018) studied the

impact of these materials on the lifespan of grinding components, finding that ceramics, in

particular, significantly reduced wear and maintenance needs. Parveez et al., (2022) conducted a

comparative analysis, revealing that components made from advanced materials had a lifespan of

up to two years, compared to less than one year for traditional materials.

2.4.5 Mechanics of Chip Formation During Grinding

For grinding of a workpiece surface, ideal cutting can be obtained by many process combinations

like ploughing due to lateral displacement, workpiece movement, grinding wheel movement,

elasticity of the workpiece and vibration. Many parameters have effects on grinding process.

Some of these parameters can be controlled while the others not (Srivastava, et al., 1992; Chen&

Brian,1996). Kinematic relation between grinding wheel and workpiece in grinding process is

applied to each grain of the grinding wheel. Previous work in this area was based on mechanics

18
of mean single grain. Some faces of grain during grinding can be illustrated the geometrical

relation between a single grain and workpiece.

Chip formation in grinding process can be divided into three successive stages: friction,

ploughing and cutting. In up-cut grinding, grinding wheel grains rub on the workpiece surface

rather than cutting due to the elastic deformation of the system. This is called friction stage. And

then, plastic deformation takes place as the elastic limit is exceeded between the abrasive grain

and workpiece. This is called ploughing stage. Workpiece material flows plastically through

forward and sideward ahead ofthe abrasive grain and forms a groove. When the workpiece

material cannot resist the flow stress, chip is formed. The chip formation is called cutting stage.

In this chip formation stage, energy is used most efficiently (Chen & Brian 1996; Ramseh et al.,

1980; Rajmohan & Radhakrishan, 1994; Srihari & Lal, 1994).

Grinding forces not only affect chip formation mechanics, grain wear and temperature

distribution but also efficiency of the grinding operation. Therefore, grinding forces are among

the most important factors affecting grinding quality.

2.5 Types of Grain Grinding Machines

Grain grinding machines can be categorized based on their design and functionality, with each

type offering unique advantages and challenges:

2.5.1 Hammer Mills

Hammer mills are widely used for their simplicity and efficiency in grinding various grains.

Mugabiet al. (2019) analyzed the performance of hammer mills, noting their effectiveness in

breaking down tough grains such as corn, noting their effectiveness in breaking down tough

grains such as corn and sorghum. Miller et al. (2017) provided a detailed performance

19
comparison, showing that hammer mills could achieve higher throughput but at the cost of

increased energy consumption.

2.5.2 Burr Mills

Burr mills are known for producing consistent and fine flour, making them popular in small-scale

and artisanal settings. According to Alhendia et al. (2022), burr mills produce higher-quality

flour compared to other milling methods. A study by Bressiani, et al. (2017) demonstrated that

burr mills provided better control over particle size compared to hammer mills.

2.5.3 Roller Mills

Roller mills are predominantly used in large-scale commercial operations due to their high

throughput and energy efficiency. As noted by Campbell et al. (2020), advancements in roller

mill technology have led to significant reductions in energy consumption. Research by Fang et

al. (2018) found that roller mills consumed 30% less energy than hammer mills, making them

more cost-effective for large-scale operations.

2.6 Challenges and Issues in Grain Grinding

Despite technological advancements, several challenges persist in the design and operation of

grain grinding machines:

2.6.2 Energy Consumption

High energy consumption is a critical issue, particularly in regions with limited access to

electricity. Also, the energy demands of different grain grinding machines, noting that traditional

methods remain energy-intensive. Recent findings show that energy costs could account for up to

40% of the total operational costs in small-scale milling operations. This study emphasized the

need for energy-efficient solutions, especially in developing countries.

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2.7 Maintenance and Durability
Frequent maintenance and wear of grinding components increase operational costs and

downtime. Kishore et al. (2022) explored the factors affecting the durability of grinding

components, identifying wear resistance as a critical factor. The average lifespan of grinding

components was less than one year, necessitating frequent replacements. Their research

suggested that the adoption of advanced materials could significantly extend the lifespan of these

components, reducing maintenance costs and improving machine reliability.

2.8 Consistency and Quality

Achieving consistent particle size and quality of the ground product is a significant challenges

particularly in multi-grain applications. Chen et al. (2019) investigated the impact of grinding

parameters on particle size distribution, finding that variations could lead to inconsistent product

quality. Their findings underscored the importance of precise control and optimization of

grinding parameters to ensure uniformity and quality.

2.9 Case Studies and Real-World Applications

Rural Applications

Solar-powered grain grinders have significantly improved food security and economic stability in

rural African communities. These machines increase grain processing capacity and reduce

manual labor, enhancing overall productivity (Chen et al., 2022).

Industrial Applications

Large-scale grain processing plants have adopted advanced roller mills and automated control

systems to meet high demand. These integrations have led to increased production efficiency,

cost savings, and improved product quality.

21
2.10 Problem Statement

Despite the progress in grain grinding technology, several gaps remain. This project aims to

address the following issues: Developing a more energy-efficient grinding machine suitable for

rural areas with limited power supply. Designing an affordable machine for small-scale farmers

and cooperatives. Enhancing the durability and lifespan of grinding components to reduce

maintenance costs. Improving the consistency and quality of the ground product to meet diverse

consumer needs.

2.11 Energy Consumption

Energy Consumption in Grain Grinding Machines

Energy consumption remains a critical concern in the operation of grain grinding machines.

Traditional hammer mills are particularly energy-intensive, and optimizing the grinding process,

including the use of advanced materials and innovative designs, can reduce energy consumption

significantly.

2.12 Wear and Durability of Grinding Components

The durability of grinding components influences operational costs and machine reliability.

Advanced materials such as high-performance ceramics and composites exhibit lower wear rates

and longer service lives, reducing maintenance costs and improving machine reliability.

22
Consistency and Quality of Ground Products
Achieving consistent particle size and high-quality ground products is crucial for both consumer

satisfaction and product performance. Precise control and optimization of grinding parameters

ensure uniformity and high-quality output.

Automation and Control Systems

The integration of automation and control systems in grain grinding machines offers significant

benefits in terms of efficiency, precision, and adaptability. Automated systems can dynamically

adjust grinding parameters based on real-time data, improving processing efficiency and

reducing operational errors.

The practical applications and case studies of optimized grain grinding machines provide

valuable insights into their real-world impact. Deploying solar-powered grain grinders in rural

communities significantly improves food security and economic stability, while advanced roller

mills in industrial settings enhance production capacity and reduce operational costs.

The findings of this review underscore the need for continued research and innovation to address

the gaps identified and contribute to the advancement of grain grinding technology. The project

aims to build upon these insights to develop a more efficient, cost-effective, and durable grain

grinding machine that meets the needs of both rural and industrial applications.

23
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The construction of the machine was carried out at Port Harcourt Engineering workshop. All

materials were sourced locally except the Electric motor which was bought from the market. The

Materials used are:

i. Stainless Steel (Food Grade)

ii. Hardened Steel

iii. Ceramic-Coated Metals
iv. Grinding Chamber
v. Stainless Steel
vi. Food-Grade Polymer Lining
vii. Housing/Casing
viii. Mild Steel with Powder Coating
ix. Aluminum
x. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
xi. Drive Mechanism (Motor, Gears, and Shafts):
xii. Carbon Steel or Alloy Steel.
xiii. Copper Windings:
xiv. Bearings and Seals:
xv. Screens and Filters:
xvi. Fasteners and Connectors:
xvii. Stainless Steel Bolts and Screws

24
The machine was designed with the following considerations:

 Simplicity in design of the machine

 Ease of operation

 Easily replaceable parts

 Durability

 Ease of inspection

 Safety of operation

3.1 Discussion

The grain hammer mill was designed and fabricated based on factors considered which

processes for the improved and optimized hammer mills in Nigeria, it involved an analytical and

adaptive approach. The initial step was to conduct an observatory study of all existing hammer

mills, examining their design and operation. Additionally, relevant research works on hammer

mill designs were reviewed to gather insights and identify areas for improvement. By adopting

an analytical and adaptive method, the design team was able to leverage existing knowledge

while incorporating new ideas and solutions that are innovative to optimize the performance and

functionality of the hammer mill . This process allowed for the development and functionality of

the hammer mill. This process allowed for the development of a locally suitable and affordable

design that specifically addressed the needs and challenges faced by farmers in Nigeria. Overall

the analytical and adaptive design approach ensured that the improved hammer mill took into

consideration the practical realities and constraints of the local context, utilizing available

materials and refining alternatives where necessary. The goal was to create a cost-effective and

efficient solution that could enhance grain milling processes for Nigerian farmers.

25
3.2 The Machine Operation

The appropriate quantity of grains is introduced into the hopper. The grain material is metered

into the grinding chamber by gravity through the control feed gate. As the Electric motor is

started, the beaters which are attached directly to the out let shaft of the electric motor starts to

rotate. The rotating beaters (operating on the vertical plane) hit the materials by centrifugal force

to the rings, and the materials are subsequently grinded by impact force. The agitation caused by

the operation of the engine ensures that the milled grains are sieved by the screen and is

discharged through the outlet chute. Performance evaluations of the machine will be presented

after this paper

3.2 Material Component

The machine is made up of the following major components: frame, grinding compartment and

hopper. They are briefly described below:

Tool Frame

An angle iron made up of mild steel was used due to its strength and good working quality.

When properly coated or painted, it has high corrosive resistance. It acts as a main support that

carries all other units of the machine. It has a dimension of 370mm × 370mm in base, a height

of 700mm and a rectangular top of 280mm × 300mm.

Grinding Compartment

The grinding compartment consists of a cylindrical drum having a diameter of 430 mm, width

of 2.5 mm and height of 100 mm, made from a mild steel material. It consists of 3 flat bars

carefully constructed around the drum to serve as stationery stones for grinding, having a

26
clearance of 28 mm from the rotating beaters. The beaters each have a length of 360 mm and a

breadth of 40 mm. The beaters are four in number. The screen which sieves the grain particles

after grinding, located at the bottom section of the cylindrical drum has a length of 420 mm and

a width 1.5 mm. The screen can be replaced based on the texture of the flour required.

The grinding chamber is cylindrical in shape. It has a drum with diameter of 430 mm, radius of

21.5 mm and effective height of 100 mm. The volume may be deducted as:

Where :

VT = the total volume of the cylinder (cm3), r= effective radius of the cylinder (cm), l = lenght of

the cylinder (cm)

Therefore, VT = 3.142 × 21.52 × 10 = 14523.9 cm3

For the design consideration, however the total volume of the cylinder should not be filled up to

the brim in order to keep little allowance for the grinding and beating.

 HOPPER: It was constructed in such a way that the grains aren’t fed directly into the

hammers. It was ensured that they pass through a horizontal flat tray on which the grains are

pushed through a tunnel distance before falling through an opening via a long throat to the

milling chamber. This aim of this was to avoid any form of fly back or rebound of grain

particles and powders from the milling chamber. The hopper is of trapezoidal shape made from

2.5 mm thick high steel material. It has a length of 360 mm, sides 120 mm and 260 mm. The

hopper was tilted to some angle from the horizontal. This is to give free flow of grains in to the

grinding chamber. The volume of the hopper was determined as follows:

27
Figure showing the Hooper

Area of the trapezium = ½ sum of sides × length

A = ½ (120 + 260) × 360 = 190 × 360 = 68400 mm2 = 68.4 m2

Volume of hopper = ⅓ × Area × height

V = ⅓ × 68400 × 360 = 8208000mm3 = 820.8 m3

Electric motor

Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction between the magnetic

fields set up in the stator and rotor windings. The electric motor in a grain grinding machine

functions as the primary actuator that drives the grinding mechanism. It produces rotary force

(torque) that powers the belt and pulley system to ultimately grind the grains into flour or meal.

28
Specifically, The Electric motor was selected based on the speed and required power output for

the smooth and efficient operation of the machine.

Figure showing the electric motor components

Synchronous Speed (RPM) = 120×frequency/ No. of Poles

The power factor of the motor is given as: W Power Factor = Cos φ = kW/Kva

Slip(%)=Synchronous Speed – Full Load Rated Speed Slip (%) = × 100 Synchronous Speed

Machine Assembly

Various parts and components of the machine were fabricated and assembled together to

function as a unit. The frame is the base where the grinding chamber, hopper, electric motor and

29
other components are mounted. The coupling of this machine was achieved by involving

different operations such as welding, tightening, screw fastening, bolting. The total height of the

machine is 1080 mm which makes it comfortable for operation. The major components of the

machine are shown in Figure 1. The complete component drawing of the machine is shown in

Figure 2.The final process that was carried on the machine was painting. This was to ensure a

good look to the machine.

Figure 1: Major component

30
Figure 2: Complete component

Determination of the Shaft Speed:

To calculate the shaft speed, the following parameters are

D1 N 1
= ……………………………..1
D2 N 2

Where N1 = revolution of the smaller pulley rpm

N2 = revolution of the larger pulley, rpm.
This shaft speed is only obtained when there is no slip condition of the belt over the pulley.
When slip and creep condition is present, the value (700 rpm) is reduced by 4% (Spolt 1988)

31
Determination of Length of the Belt:
Assume the center distance between the larger pulley and the smaller pulley = 600 mm, the pitch
length of the belt is given by (John and Stephens 1984)
( D 1 + D 2)
L=2C+1.57( D2+ D1) + ……………………………….2
4C

Where L = length of the belt, mm

C = center distance between larger pulley and the smaller one, mm From the standard table, a
belt designated as A60 was selected.

Determination of the Belt Contact Angle:

Rr
The belt contact angle is given by equation 3sin−1 β=¿ ¿ ……………………….3
C
Where
R = radius of the large pulley, mm
R = radius of the smaller pulley, mm
The angles of wrap for the pulleys are given by:
rc
a 1= 180 - sin−1 ❑( ) …………………………………4
R
r−c
a 1= 180 + sin−1 ❑ ( ) …………………………………5
R

Where
α1 = angle of wrap for the smaller pulley, deg
α2 = angle of wrap for the larger pulley, deg
Comparing the capacities, eµ a/sin ½ θ of the pulley,
Using µ = 0.25; Θ = 40o
For the smaller pulley e0.25 x 3.04/sin20 = 9.22
For the larger pulley e0.25 x 3.04/sin20 = 10.68
Since that of smaller pulley is smaller, the smaller pulley governs the design.

32
Determination of the Torque and Power Transmitted to the Shaft:
Power transmitted to the shaft is given by
P = (T1 − T2) V ………………………6
Torque at the main shaft is given by Spolt (1988).

T= ( T 1−T 2 ) R …………………………7

Determination of the Hammer:

W h =mhg …………………………….8
It can be seen that the action of the weight of hammer shaft on the main shaft is negligible.

Determination of the Centrifugal Force Exerted by the Hammer:

Centrifugal force exerted by the hammer can be calculated from equation 11 as given by:
mv
Fc …………………………….9
r
The angular velocity of the hammer is given by
2 πrN
ω= ……………………………..10
60
Determination of the Hammer Shaft Diameter:
The bending moment on the shaft is given by (Ryder 1996)
2
M b ¿¿ = W l ……………………………11
8
Since the bending moment that can be carried by a beam is a measure of the strength of the beam
and this depend upon, I/yµ a θ (Ryder 1996).
M bYmax
ό s (allowable )= …………………………12
1
I Mb
= Z » ό s (allowable ) = .…………………………………13
Ymax❑ Z

33
Where:
Ymax= distance from neutral axis to outer fiber
I = moment of inertia
Z = Section modulus
For a solid round bar:
4
πd
I= ……………………………….14
64
3
πd
Z= ……………………………..15
32
Determination of the Maximum Bending Moment:
The position of the electric motor in relation to the main shaft is such that T1 and T2 act
vertically downward and T1+ T2 = 148N
Determination of the Shaft Diameter:
The ASME code equation for a solid shaft having little or no axial loading is:
16
3
d =
πό
√(K 2 M 2)2❑+ K 1 M ¿ 2¿1
…………………………………….16

AU J.T. 8(3): 124-130 (Jan. 2005)

Table 1. Results of the calculated parameters
PARAMETERS SYMBOLS VALUES UNITS
Shaft speed N2 672 Rpm

Length of belt L 1484.10 Mm

Belt contact angle B 2.87 Degree
Angle of wrap for a1 174 Degree
smaller pulley
Angle of wrap for a1 184.74 Degree
larger pulley
Tension in the slack T1 16.23 N
side of belt

34
Tension in the tight T2 132.01 N
side of belt
Torque transmitted to T 7 Nm
the shaft
Power transmitted to P 490 W
the shaft
Weight of the W h ammer 0.47 N
hammer
Centrifugal forces C.F 244.04 W
exerted by the
hammer
Diameter of hammer D 8.7 mm
shaft
Weight of hammer Ws 0.243 N
shaft
Maximum bending M b (max ❑) 20.54 Nm
moment
Diameter of main D 16 Mm
shaft

35
 Figure
This image3:depict
Rotoracomponent
finite element analysis (FEA) result of a structural component, labeled as

"Rotor." This analysis visualizes von Mises stress distribution across the component under a

static load. To analyze the system, the following steps are typically performed in an FEA

workflow:

Material Properties: The material used for the rotor has a yield strength of 1.7×10 8 N/m 21.7 X

108 , {N/m} 21.7×108N/m2. This value is critical to check if the component remains in the elastic

region.

Load Application: Forces are applied to specific points or surfaces of the rotor (likely

corresponding to the pink arrows). Boundary conditions are set to constrain the movement in

certain regions.

Mesh Discretization: The geometry of the rotor is divided into smaller elements (finite

elements) for numerical calculations.

Stress Distribution: Using numerical methods (e.g., solving linear equations), the von Mises

stress is calculated at each node or element of the mesh.

Von Mises stress is computed as:

σ
√
2 2 2
(σ 1−σ 2) +(σ2−σ 3) +(σ 3 −σ1)
V =¿ ¿
2

36
Figure showing the design of a rotor

The Grinding Chamber

This image shows a static structural analysis of a grinding chamber using a Finite Element

Analysis (FEA) simulation tool.

Model Representation: The blue component is the grinding chamber. It is analyzed under a

static load condition, meaning the applied forces or pressures are constant over time.

This image shows a static structural analysis of a grinding chamber using a Finite Element

Analysis (FEA) simulation tool. Let me break it down:

37
Key Components of the Image: Model Representation: The blue component is the grinding

chamber. It is analyzed under a static load condition, meaning the applied forces or pressures are

constant over time.

Stress Visualization: The color scale (rainbow gradient) represents the von Mises stress

distribution in the component.

Blue regions indicate low stress, while red regions show high stress areas approaching the yield

strength

Yielding strength marker

Figure 4: Showing the component of the grinding chamber

A red arrow marks the yield strength of the material, which in this case is 1.7e+08 N/m² (170

MPa). If von Mises stress exceeds this value, the material may deform permanently

Deformation Scale:

The deformation is exaggerated (scaled up by a factor of 5.83991e+06) to visualize how the

structure responds under load. Actual deformations are much smaller.

38
Calculations and Analysis:

Von Mises Stress Formula: Von Mises stress (σv\sigma_vσv) is calculated as:

σ
√
2 2 2
(σ 1−σ 2) +(σ2−σ 3) +(σ 3 −σ1)
V =¿ ¿
2

Figure showing the design of a dry grain grinding chamber

39
The technical drawing seems to represent a belt-driven pulley system. Pulley systems are

fundamental in mechanics and power transmission, where the goal is typically to transmit

rotational motion between shafts or redirect forces.

Principle of a Pulley with a Belt

Basic Working:

 A pulley-belt system works by using friction between the belt and the pulley surface to

transfer torque and rotational speed.

 The belt loops over the pulleys, transmitting mechanical energy from the driving pulley

(connected to a motor or power source) to the driven pulley.

 It can also adjust speed (via different pulley diameters) or direction of motion.

40
Applications:

 Speed reduction or amplification.

 Power transmission in mechanical systems.

 Connecting components in machinery, such as engines, conveyors, or fans.

Pulley Ratios:

 The speed ratio is determined by the diameters of the pulleys.

 Speed Ratio=Diameter of Driven PulleyDiameter of Driving Pulley\text{Speed Ratio} = \

frac{\text{Diameter of Driven Pulley}}{\text{Diameter of Driving

Pulley}}Speed Ratio=Diameter of Driving PulleyDiameter of Driven Pulley

 This means a larger driven pulley will reduce rotational speed while increasing torque,

and vice versa.

Required Calculations:

To proceed with calculations, we need to know:

 The pulley diameters (or radii).

 The belt length.

 The power input or torque applied to the driving pulley.

 The rotational speed (RPM) of the driving pulley.

41
Step-by-Step Pulley Calculations

1. Speed Ratio: Using the formula above, we can calculate the relationship between the

speeds of the driving pulley (N1N_1N1) and driven pulley (N2N_2N2):

N1 D1
=
N2 D2

where:

 N1,N2N_1, N_2N1,N2: Rotational speeds (RPM) of the driving and driven pulleys.

 D1,D2D_1, D_2D1,D2: Diameters of the driving and driven pulleys.

Belt Length: For a flat belt drive, assuming a center distance (CCC) between the pulleys and

radii r1r_1r1 and r2r_2r2:

2
L =2C +π(r1+r2) +
( r 1−r 2 )
C

Bearings are a critical component in dry grain grinding machines, as they ensure smooth and efficient
rotation of the grinding components, minimize friction, and support the shafts that transmit torque. The
choice and proper maintenance of bearings significantly influence the machine's performance, longevity,
and energy efficiency.

Bearing Functions in Dry Grain Grinding

 Support Rotational Motion: Allows the grinding wheels or burrs to rotate efficiently under load.

42
  Reduce Friction: Minimizes energy losses due to resistance between moving parts.
 Withstand Load: Handles both radial and axial loads generated during grinding.
 Heat Dissipation: Helps manage heat produced by friction, especially in continuous operations.

Bearing Calculations for a Dry Grain Grinding Machine

1. Radial Load Calculation: The radial load on a bearing depends on the weight of the
rotating components and the grain material being ground.

Fr=W+Fg

Where:

 Fr = Radial Load (N)

 W = Weight of rotating parts (N)
 Fg = Force due to grain weight and grinding

Axial Load Calculation: Axial load arises from the thrust produced by the grinding process.

Fa=μ⋅P

Where:

 Fa = Axial Load (N)

 μ = Coefficient of friction in the grinding interface
 P = Pressure exerted by grinding force (N)

43
Figure showing the bearing

44
Screen plate
The screen plate is an essential component of a grinding machine. It controls the size of the
output particles by allowing only grains of a specific size to pass through, while larger particles
remain for further grinding. The efficiency of the grinding process and the quality of the output
depend heavily on the screen plate design and its proper functioning.
Functions of the Screen Plate

1. Particle Size Control:

o Determines the size of the ground grain based on the hole dimensions in the
screen plate.
o Finer screens produce finer outputs, while coarser screens allow larger particles.

2. Separation:
o Separates ground material from unground or oversized particles, ensuring
uniformity in the final product.

3. Efficiency Maximization: Ensures that properly ground grains exit the grinding chamber
quickly, reducing energy consumption.

45
 4. Protection: Prevents overloading of downstream processes by controlling particle size.

Screen Plate Design

1. Hole Size (Diameter or Slot Size):

o Determines the particle size of the output.
o Typical sizes range from 0.5 mm to 5 mm, depending on the grinding
requirements.

2. Open Area Ratio:

o The proportion of the screen area occupied by holes.
o A higher open area ratio increases throughput but may reduce strength.

Open Area Ratio = Total Area of the Screen Plate ×100

Total Area of Holes

CHAPTER FOUR

46
 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

TESTS
After making proper connections of the constructed dry grain grinding machine. Then now

when we start the dry grain grinding machine through the power source, electric motor, Grains

are loaded into the machine through a hopper or feeding chute, these ensures a controlled flow

of grains into the grinding chamber to prevent overloading. Grains are crushed, cut, or

pulverized by the grinding components. The rotors with High-speed impact shatter the grains

into smaller particles. With the Burrs, the Grains are ground by abrasion as they pass between

rotating and stationary surfaces. Then the screen helps to control the size of the final

product by filtering out particles that are too large. These ensures uniformity for the desired

application, such as coarse grits for animal feed or fine flour for baking. Ground grain exits the

grinding chamber through an outlet or collection system. Cyclone separators in some machines

to collect fine particles and reduce dust. These machines include fans, vents, or cyclone

systems to manage dust and prevent overheating.

TESTING:
Testing is a vital step in the process of machine development. After the design and construction,
testing is necessary in order to:
(a) Determine the performance of the machine.
(b). Expose defect and area of possible improvement.
(c). Appreciate the level of success in the research. Thus, it is important to test run a machine to
determine its work ability and efficiency.

Testing Using Dry Cassava Tuber:

47
A 5 kg of dry cassava was fed into the hopper and the hammer mill was switched on. The
grinding tin was noted. This was repeated for four times and averages used for calculation.
Test Using Dry Maize:
The same procedure was reported using 5 kg of dry maize
Results and Discussion
Hammer mill test results using cassava
TRIAL MASS OF MASS OF TIME TAKEN
CASSAVA BEFORE CASSAVA AFTER
(Mins)
GRINDING(Kg) GRINDING(Kg)
1 5 4.8 15
2 5 4.7 14
3 5 4.8 15
4 5 4.9 16
Aver 5 4.9 15

Average mass of the cassava before grinding = 5 kg Average mass of the cassava after grinding =
4.8 kg Average time taken =15 min
mass of output material
Crushing efficiency= ×100
mass of input material
M b+¿ M
Losses= a
¿
Mb

Where
Mb = Mass before grinding
Ma = Mass after grinding

48
Hammer mill test results using maize:
TRIALS MASS OF MAIZE MASS OF MAIZE TIME TAKEN
BEFORE AFTER
(Mins)
GRINDING(Kg) GRINDING(Kg)
1 5 4.7 15
2 5 4.6 14
3 5 4.8 16
4 5 4.7 15
Aver 5 4.775 15

Average mass of the maize before grinding = 5 kg Average mass of the maize after grinding = 7
kg Average time taken = l5 min
Crushing capacity is defined as the mass of material ground in kg/hr (Mott 1980).

49
RESULTS OF FINDINGS
Various tests were carried out on this project. The machine’s capacity to process a specific

quantity of grain per hour (e.g., 50 kg/hour). Findings may indicate the machine's ability to

produce consistent particle sizes, ranging from coarse grits to fine flour, meeting industry or user

requirements, Performance results often demonstrate how well the machine handles various grain

types (e.g., maize, wheat, rice) and moisture levels

DISCUSSION

The machine demonstrated consistent and efficient grinding capabilities, successfully processing

grains like cassava and maize. For instance, the average time to grind 5 kg of cassava and maize

was 15 minutes. Crushing efficiency and capacity were determined based on these tests, showing

the machine's reliability in producing a range of grain particle sizes, from coarse grits to fine

flour, depending on user needs. The use of durable materials such as stainless steel and ceramic-

coated metals improved the machine's longevity and maintained hygiene, crucial for food

processing. The hopper design ensured smooth grain flow while preventing flyback or rebound

of particles, improving safety and operational efficiency. The machine's design prioritized user-

friendliness, with considerations for simplicity, ease of maintenance, and safety. The integration

of features like adjustable screens for particle size and an efficient feed mechanism ensures

adaptability for various grain types and user requirements. Minor losses were observed during

grinding, such as slight reductions in grain mass post-processing, attributed to handling or

particle dispersion.

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion

A dry grain grinding machine was designed and constructed from locally sourced materials. The

machine consists principally of the hopper, grinding chamber, prime mover, shaft, electric motor

and discharge unit (chute). The assembled machine is presented in the appendix. The total cost

of producing this machine is about N450, 000. This shows that the machine can be easily

obtained by an individual when compared to the conventional grinding and sieving machine that

costs between N200, 000 to N250, 000 installed.

4.2 Recommendations

For further improvement of this machine, the following are recommendations;

1. The gap between the grinding chamber and its cover carrying the hopper should be

fitted properly with a rubber material to reduce flour escape during grinding.

2. A lining should be provided in the grinding chamber to preserve the eating quality of

the milled product.

3. The machine should be tested to determine its performance efficiencies.

51
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