"Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants"

### **Introduction**
**Sexual reproduction in flowering plants** involves the formation of male
and female gametes, pollination, fertilization, and the development of
seeds and fruits. This chapter explores these processes and their
significance.

### **1. Structure of Flower**

**Key Concepts:**

- **Flower Anatomy:** The flower is the reproductive unit of angiosperms,

consisting of four main parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils.
- **Whorls of a Flower:**
- **Calyx:** Made up of sepals, protects the flower bud.
- **Corolla:** Composed of petals, often colorful to attract pollinators.
- **Androecium:** The male reproductive part, consists of stamens
(anther and filament).
- **Gynoecium:** The female reproductive part, consists of one or more
carpels (stigma, style, and ovary).

**Questions and Answers:**

1. What are the main parts of a flower, and what are their functions?
- Answer:The main parts of a flower are the sepals (protect the bud),
petals (attract pollinators), stamens (male reproductive organs producing
pollen), and pistils (female reproductive organs containing ovules).

2. How do the different whorls of a flower contribute to reproduction?

- Answer: The androecium produces pollen grains (male gametes), while
the gynoecium contains ovules (female gametes). Petals attract
pollinators, aiding in pollination, and sepals protect the flower during
development.

3. Explain the significance of the structure and function of the stamen in

flowering plants.
 - Answer: Stamens are crucial for pollen production and dispersal. The
anther produces pollen grains, which carry male gametes, and the
filament positions the anther for effective pollination.

4. Describe the structure of a typical pistil.

- Answer: A pistil consists of a stigma (receives pollen), style (a tube
that connects stigma and ovary), and ovary (contains ovules that develop
into seeds after fertilization).

5. What are the differences between a complete and incomplete flower?

- Answer: A complete flower has all four whorls (sepals, petals, stamens,
pistils), while an incomplete flower lacks one or more of these whorls.

### 2. Development of Male and Female Gametophytes

Key Concepts:

- Microsporogenesis: The formation of microspores from microspore

mother cells within the anther.
- Pollen Grain Structure: A pollen grain has a tough outer wall (exine) and
a delicate inner wall (intine) with a vegetative and a generative cell.
- Megasporogenesis:The process of megaspore formation from
megaspore mother cells in the ovule.
- Embryo Sac: The female gametophyte containing the egg cell,
synergids, antipodal cells, and polar nuclei.

Questions and Answers:

6. How does the process of microsporogenesis occur in flowering plants?

- Answer: Microsporogenesis involves the formation of microspores from
microspore mother cells through meiosis in the anther. Each microspore
develops into a pollen grain.

7. Describe the structure of a mature pollen grain.

- Answer: A mature pollen grain consists of an outer exine (thick and
protective), an inner intine (thin), and two cells: a vegetative cell (forms
the pollen tube) and a generative cell (divides to form two sperm cells).
8. What is pollen viability, and why is it important?
- Answer: Pollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to germinate and
fertilize an ovule. It is crucial for successful fertilization and seed
formation.

9. Explain the process of megasporogenesis.

- Answer: Megasporogenesis is the formation of megaspores from a
megaspore mother cell in the ovule through meiosis. Typically, one
megaspore survives and develops into the female gametophyte (embryo
sac).

10. Describe the structure of a mature embryo sac.

- Answer:A mature embryo sac contains seven cells: one egg cell, two
synergids, three antipodal cells, and one central cell with two polar nuclei.

11. What role do synergids play in fertilization?

- Answer: Synergids guide the pollen tube to the egg cell for
fertilization and release chemical attractants.

12. Explain the significance of the polar nuclei in the embryo sac.
- Answer: The polar nuclei fuse with one sperm cell to form the triploid
endosperm, providing nourishment to the developing embryo.

13. What are antipodal cells, and what function do they serve?
- Answer: Antipodal cells are three cells located at the opposite end of
the embryo sac, with no clear function, though they may play a role in
nutrient absorption.

### 3. Pollination

Key Concepts:

- Types of Pollination: Self-pollination (within the same flower or plant)

and cross-pollination (between different plants).
- Pollination Mechanisms:
-Abiotic: Wind and water.
- Biotic: Insects, birds, bats, and other animals.
- Pollen-Pistil Interaction: The interaction between pollen and pistil
leading to pollen tube formation.
Questions and Answers:

14. What is pollination, and what are its different types?

- Answer: Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the
stigma. It can be self-pollination (same flower/plant) or cross-pollination
(different plants).

15. How do biotic and abiotic pollination mechanisms differ?

- Answer: Biotic pollination involves living organisms (e.g., insects,
birds), while abiotic pollination occurs through non-living agents like wind
and water.

16. Explain the process and significance of self-pollination and cross-

pollination.
- Answer: Self-pollination ensures reproduction in isolated conditions
but reduces genetic diversity. Cross-pollination promotes genetic
variation and adaptability.

17. What are the adaptations of wind-pollinated flowers?

- Answer: Wind-pollinated flowers produce large amounts of lightweight
pollen, have feathery stigmas to catch pollen, and often lack scent and
bright colors.

18. Describe the characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers.

- Answer: Insect-pollinated flowers are often brightly colored, scented,
and produce nectar to attract insects. They have sticky pollen for easy
attachment.

19. What is a pollen-pistil interaction, and why is it important in

fertilization?
- Answer: Pollen-pistil interaction is the recognition and
acceptance/rejection of pollen by the pistil, ensuring only compatible
pollen fertilizes the ovule.

20. How does a pollen tube form, and what is its role in fertilization?
- Answer: The pollen tube forms from the pollen grain upon landing on
the stigma, growing through the style to deliver sperm cells to the ovule
for fertilization.
### 4. Fertilization
Key Concepts:

- Double Fertilization: A unique process in angiosperms where one sperm

fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote, and the other fuses with polar nuclei
to form endosperm.
- Syngamy and Triple Fusion: Syngamy is the fusion of male and female
gametes, while triple fusion involves forming the triploid endosperm.

Questions and Answers:

21. What is double fertilization, and why is it unique to angiosperms?

- Answer: Double fertilization involves one sperm fertilizing the egg
(forming a diploid zygote) and another sperm fusing with polar nuclei
(forming triploid endosperm). It is unique to angiosperms, providing
efficient seed nourishment.

22. Describe the process of syngamy and its outcome.

- Answer: Syngamy is the fusion of a male gamete (sperm) with a
female gamete (egg), resulting in a diploid zygote that develops into an
embryo.

23. Explain triple fusion and its significance.

- Answer: Triple fusion is the fusion of the second sperm cell with two
polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm,
providing nutrients to the embryo.

24. What are the products of double fertilization?

- Answer:Double fertilization produces a diploid zygote and a triploid
endosperm.

### 5. Post-Fertilization: Structure and Events**

Key Concepts:

- Seed Development: The ovule develops into a seed, containing an

embryo and stored food.
- Fruit Formation: The ovary develops into a fruit, protecting seeds and
aiding in dispersal.
- Seed Types: Albuminous (with endosperm) and exalbuminous (without
endosperm).

Questions and Answers:

25. How does an ovule develop into a seed?

- Answer: After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo, the
ovule matures into a seed, and the integuments form the seed coat.

26. Describe the process of seed formation and maturation.

- Answer:Seed formation involves zygote development into an embryo,
endosperm formation, and integument hardening into a seed coat.
Maturation includes desiccation and dormancy preparation.

27. What are the differences between albuminous and exalbuminous

seeds?
- Answer: Albuminous seeds retain endosperm (e.g., wheat), while
exalbuminous seeds consume endosperm during development, leaving
none (e.g., peas).

28. How does fruit development occur from a fertilized ovary?

- Answer:The fertilized ovary undergoes cell division and
differentiation, forming fruit tissue that protects seeds and aids in their
dispersal.

29. What are the types of fruits based on their origin?

- Answer: Simple fruits develop from a single ovary, aggregate fruits
from multiple ovaries of one flower, and multiple fruits from ovaries of
multiple flowers.

30. Explain the structure of a typical dicot seed.

- Answer: A typical dicot seed has two cotyledons, an embryonic axis
(radicle and plumule), a seed coat, and often endosperm.

31. What are the functions of the seed coat?

- Answer: The seed coat protects the embryo from physical damage,
pathogens, and desiccation.

### 6. Apomixis and Polyembryony

Key Concepts:

- Apomixis: A form of asexual reproduction where seeds form without

fertilization, producing clones of the parent plant.
- Polyembryony: The occurrence of multiple embryos in one seed, leading
to the development of more than one seedling.

Questions and Answers:

32. What is apomixis, and how does it differ from sexual reproduction ?
- Answer: Apomixis is asexual seed formation without fertilization,
producing genetically identical offspring. It differs from sexual
reproduction, which involves gamete fusion and genetic variation.

33. Explain the significance of apomixis in plant breeding.

- Answer: Apomixis helps maintain desirable traits across generations,
facilitates hybrid seed production, and reduces breeding costs.

34. What is polyembryony, and how does it occur in flowering plants?

- Answer: Polyembryony is the formation of multiple embryos in one
seed, occurring through multiple fertilizations or cleavage of a single
zygote.

35. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of polyembryony.

- Answer:Advantages include increased seedling survival and vigor.
Disadvantages are potential competition among embryos and limited
resources.

### 7. Special Modes of Reproduction

Key Concepts:

- Vegetative Propagation: Asexual reproduction through plant parts like

stems, leaves, and roots, producing clones.
- Artificial Methods: Grafting, cutting, layering, and tissue culture.

Questions and Answers:

36. What are the different types of vegetative propagation in flowering
plants?
- Answer: Types include natural methods (runners, rhizomes, tubers,
bulbs) and artificial methods (cutting, grafting, layering).

37. How do natural vegetative propagation methods differ from artificial

methods?
- Answer: Natural methods occur without human intervention using
specialized structures, while artificial methods involve human techniques
to propagate plants.

38. Explain the process and significance of tissue culture in plant

propagation.
- Answer: Tissue culture involves growing plant cells or tissues in a
controlled environment, allowing rapid propagation, disease-free plants,
and genetic engineering.

### 8. Important Concepts and Terms**

**Key Concepts:**

- Anthesis: The period during which a flower is fully open and functional.
- Pollen-Pistil Incompatibility:A mechanism preventing self-fertilization and
promoting cross-pollination.
- Chasmogamous and Cleistogamous Flowers: Chasmogamous flowers
open for pollination, while cleistogamous flowers self-pollinate without
opening.

Questions and Answers:

39. Define and explain the term 'anthesis.'

- Answer: Anthesis is the period when a flower is open and functional,
ready for pollination, crucial for reproductive success.

40. What is meant by pollen-pistil incompatibility?

- Answer: Pollen-pistil incompatibility is a mechanism preventing self-
pollination by rejecting incompatible pollen, promoting genetic diversity.

41. How is self-incompatibility overcome in some plants?

 - Answer: Self-incompatibility can be overcome through genetic
modifications, environmental manipulation, or using compatible pollen
donors.

42. What are chasmogamous and cleistogamous flowers?

- Answer: Chasmogamous flowers open and allow cross-pollination,
while cleistogamous flowers self-pollinate without opening.

43. Describe the process and significance of emasculation in plant

breeding.
- Answer: Emasculation involves removing stamens from a flower to
prevent self-pollination, allowing controlled cross-pollination for hybrid
production.

44. What is the role of pollinators in maintaining biodiversity?

- Answer: Pollinators facilitate cross-pollination, enhancing genetic
diversity, ecosystem stability, and food production.

45. Explain the concept of 'pollen banks' and their importance.

- Answer: Pollen banks store viable pollen for future use in breeding
programs, conservation, and research, ensuring genetic diversity and
crop improvement.

## Important Questions on Sexual Reproduction in Flowering

Plants

### **Section A: Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark Each)**

1. **What is pollination?**

- **Answer:** Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the

anther to the stigma of a flower.

2. **Name the two types of pollination.**

- **Answer:** The two types of pollination are **self-pollination** and

**cross-pollination**.
3. **What is double fertilization?**

- **Answer:** Double fertilization is a unique process in angiosperms

where one sperm fertilizes the egg to form a zygote, and the other sperm
fuses with two polar nuclei to form the triploid endosperm.

4. **Define apomixis.**

- **Answer:** Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics

sexual reproduction by forming seeds without fertilization.

5. **What is the role of the endosperm in seed development?**

- **Answer:** The endosperm provides nutrition to the developing

embryo in the seed.

### **Section B: Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks Each)**

1. **Describe the structure of a pollen grain.**

- **Answer:** A pollen grain has a tough outer layer called the exine, a
thin inner layer called the intine, and contains two cells: the generative
cell, which divides to form two male gametes, and the vegetative cell,
which forms the pollen tube.

2. **Explain the significance of seed dispersal.**

- **Answer:** Seed dispersal is significant because it allows plants to

spread their offspring over a wide area, reducing competition for
resources among seedlings and increasing the chances of colonization in
new environments.

3. **What are the advantages of cross-pollination?**

- **Answer:** Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity, which can

lead to greater resilience to environmental changes, diseases, and pests,
and can result in more vigorous offspring.
4. **Differentiate between self-pollination and cross-pollination.**

- **Answer:** Self-pollination occurs when pollen from the same flower

or another flower on the same plant fertilizes the ovule, while cross-
pollination occurs when pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovule of a
flower on a different plant of the same species.

5. **What is the function of the stigma in a flower?**

- **Answer:** The stigma is the part of the pistil where pollen lands and
germinates. It is sticky or feathery to capture and hold pollen grains
effectively.

### **Section C: Long Answer Questions (4-5 Marks Each)**

1. **Describe the process of double fertilization in flowering plants with

the help of a diagram.**

- **Answer:**
- **Explanation:** Double fertilization involves two main steps:
1. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote.
2. The other sperm cell fuses with the two polar nuclei in the central
cell of the ovule, forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm.
- **Diagram:** *(A diagram should be drawn showing the pollen tube
entering the ovule, one sperm fertilizing the egg, and another sperm
fusing with polar nuclei.)*

2. **Explain the development of male and female gametophytes in

angiosperms.**

- **Answer:**
- **Male Gametophyte Development:**
- The male gametophyte develops inside the pollen grain. Microspore
mother cells undergo meiosis to form microspores, which develop into
pollen grains containing two cells: the generative cell and the vegetative
cell.
- **Female Gametophyte Development:**
- The female gametophyte, or embryo sac, develops within the ovule.
The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores, of which one survives and develops into the embryo sac
containing the egg cell, two synergids, three antipodal cells, and one
central cell with two polar nuclei.

3. **Discuss various adaptations in flowers that enhance pollination.**

- **Answer:**
- **Brightly Colored Petals:** Attract visual pollinators like bees,
butterflies, and birds.
- **Nectar Production:** Provides food for pollinators, encouraging
visits.
- **Fragrance:** Attracts pollinators such as bees and moths that rely
on scent.
- **Flower Shape:** Adapted to specific pollinators (e.g., tubular
flowers for hummingbirds).
- **Timing of Flower Opening:** Synchronization with pollinator activity
periods.

4. **What are outbreeding devices? Explain their significance in flowering

plants.**

- **Answer:**
- **Definition:** Outbreeding devices are mechanisms that prevent
self-pollination and promote cross-pollination, ensuring genetic diversity.
- **Examples:**
- **Dichogamy:** Temporal separation of male and female flower
maturation.
- **Herkogamy:** Spatial separation of anthers and stigmas within a
flower.
- **Self-Incompatibility:** Genetic mechanisms preventing pollen
from fertilizing ovules of the same plant.
- **Significance:** These devices enhance genetic variability, improve
plant fitness, and adaptability to changing environments.

### **Section D: Diagram-Based Questions (5 Marks Each)**

1. **Draw a labeled diagram of a typical flower and explain the functions

of each part.**
 - **Diagram:**
- *The diagram should include: sepals, petals, stamens (anther,
filament), and carpels (stigma, style, ovary).*
- **Functions:**
- **Sepals:** Protect the developing bud.
- **Petals:** Attract pollinators with color and scent.
- **Stamens:** Male reproductive organs producing pollen.
- **Carpels:** Female reproductive organs where ovules are produced.

2. **Label the parts of the ovule and describe its role in reproduction.**

- **Diagram:**
- *The diagram should include: integuments, micropyle, nucellus,
embryo sac.*
- **Description:**
- **Integuments:** Protective layers around the ovule.
- **Micropyle:** Opening for pollen tube entry.
- **Nucellus:** Nutritive tissue supporting the embryo sac.
- **Embryo Sac:** Contains the egg cell and other cells crucial for
fertilization and seed development.

### **Section E: Application-Based Questions (5-6 Marks Each)**

1. **How would the presence of self-incompatibility affect plant breeding

and agriculture?**

- **Answer:*- Explanation:** Self-incompatibility prevents self-

fertilization and encourages cross-pollination, which can enhance genetic
diversity. In agriculture, this can be both advantageous and challenging.
While it ensures crop diversity and resilience, it may require managing
pollinator populations or planting strategies to ensure successful cross-
pollination. Breeders may also need to use techniques like grafting or
controlled cross-pollination to produce desired traits.

2. **Analyze the impact of apomixis on plant breeding and crop

production.**

- **Answer:**
- **Advantages of Apomixis:**
 - Produces genetically uniform offspring, maintaining desirable traits.
- Can quickly produce large numbers of plants with desired
characteristics.
- **Impact on Plant Breeding:**
- Simplifies the production of hybrid seeds, as traits are preserved
without genetic segregation.
- Reduces the cost of seed production and eliminates the need for
repeated hybridization.
- **Challenges:**
- May limit genetic diversity, potentially reducing adaptability to
changing environment