SCHOOL OF OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Heat and Mass Transfer Laboratory Manual

VII Semester B.Tech ,ME-701

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 Heat and Mass Transfer Laboratory Manual

Contents:

Sl Experiment Page No.

No
1 Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod 3
2 Thermal Conductivity of Liquid 8
3 Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Material 12
4 Determination of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a 15
Composite wall.
5 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Natural Convection 19
6 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Forced Convention 23
7 Effectiveness on a Pin fin 27
8 Critical Heat Flux 30
9 Emissivity of Surface 35
10 Stefan Boltzman Constant 39

1
 EXPERIMENT NO.1

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of metal rod (Aluminium).

INTRODUCTION:

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids, liquids and gases. When the
temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is a transfer of heat
from high temperature region to the low temperature region. The heat transfer rate per unit is
proportional to the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow:

Q/A α (∆T/∆X)

Where „Q‟ is the heat transfer in (watts), „A‟ is the area of heat transfer (m2), ∆T/∆X is the
temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (⁰C/m). Where the proportionality constant
is a property of a material and is known as thermal conductivity.

Q/A = -k (∆T/∆X)

The positive constant „k‟ is called the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of material. The
negative sign indicates that heat transfer takes place in the direction of decreasing
temperature. Co-efficient of thermal conductivity has the units of W/m⁰C. Note that heat flow
rate is involved and the numerical value of the co-efficient of thermal conductivity indicates
how fast heat will flow in a given material.

Thermal conductivity co-efficient is a physical property of the material. Although it is

fairly constant in narrow temperature range, it varies over a wide temperature range. Metals,
which are good conductors of heat, have high values of co-efficient of thermal conductivity;
for example 385 W/m⁰C for copper. Insulating material have low values of co-efficient of
thermal conductivity for example 0.048 W/m⁰C for fibre insulating board. In any conduction
heat transfer problem, it is essential to have the knowledge of co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of the material involved in the heat transfer process. This setup has been
designed to measure the temperature gradient along the length of the aluminium rod and to
determine it‟s co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

3
APPARATUS:

Fig.1 shows the schematic representation of experimental setup. It consists of an

aluminium rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heater and other end projects insides
the cooling water jacket. The middle portion of the rod is thermally insulated from the
surroundings using asbestos rope. The temperature of the rod is measured at four different
locations along its length. Following are the important features of the experimental setup.

a. Aluminium rod length : 500 mm (effective)

Diameter : 40 mm
No. of thermocouples mounted
along the length : 6 (at the intervals of 50 mm)
b. Band heater
c. Thermal insulation covering the aluminum rod to reduce those losses to the
surroundings.
d. Cooling water jacket with water supply connections and thermocouples at both inlet
and outlet.
e. Heat controller or regulator to vary the input power to the heater
f. Rotameter to measure water flow rater in the cooling water jacket.
g. Thermocouples to measure the temperature at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 along the length of the
aluminum rod and 7 & 8 to measure temperature at inlet and outlet of water jacket.
h. Digital temperature indicator and channel selector.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a. Switch on the mains and the console.

b. Open the valve at the inlet of the cooling water jacket and maintain constant water
flow rate in the rotometer.
c. Switch on the heater.
d. Set the heat controller or regulator which adjusts power input to heater.
e. Wait till the temperatures T1 to T6 are constant with time that is steady state is
reached.
f. Read the temperatures T1 to T6 on the metal rod using the channel selector and digital
temperature indicator.

4
g. Read inlet and outlet water temperatures (T7 and T8) of the cooling water jacket.
h. Measure the cooling water flow rate in the rotometer.
i. Using the measured temperatures and water flow rate, the temperature gradient along
the length of the aluminium rod and co-efficient of thermal conductivity of aluminium
are calculated using the procedure given below.
j. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and mass flow rate of water.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

50 50 50 50 50
T7(water inlet)

50 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

T8(water outlet)

Heater Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the heat transfer process. The heat balance equation is
given by:
Qi = Q0 + Ql…………. (1)
Where
Qi = Input heat flow rate from the heater to the aluminum rod
Q0 = Output heat flow rate from the aluminum rod
= Heat flow rate absorbed by water in the cooling water jacket
Q1 = Heat loss from the rod to the surroundings through thermal insulation, assumed
to be zero.
We can assume the Q1=0, because of good thermal insulation.
Therefore, we get the heat flow rate through the rod as:
Qi = Q0=mCp ∆Tw …………….. (2)

∆Tw = Rise in temperature of the cooling water = (T7-T8) in ⁰C

5
 m = water flow rate in kg/s in the cooling water jacket from
rotometer.
Cp = specific heat of water, 4.2 kJ/kg K.

Determination of temperature gradient (t/x) along the length of aluminum

rod:
From the measured temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6, surface temperature
distributions along the length of the aluminium rod can be determined by plotting a
graph of distance along the rod on the x axis and temperature on the y axis as shown
in the Fig.2

Fig.2: Plot of temperature v/s distance

Thus, the temperature gradient t/x at the center of the aluminium rod in ⁰C/m can
be determined from the slope of the curve (by drawing a tangent).

Determination of co-efficient of thermal conductivity:

The heat conduction equation is given by

Q = -kA(t/x) …………. (3)
Where,
Q = Heat flow rate through the aluminium rod in watts
K = Co-efficient of thermal conductivity of aluminium, W/mK
A = d2 /4 = Area of heat transfer in m2
D =Diameter of the aluminium rod = 40 mm = 0.04 m
From eqs (2) & (3), we get
k = m Cp ∆Tw / [A (t/x)]
The co-efficient of thermal conductivity (k) can be obtained by substituting the
measured values of m, ∆Tw, ∆T/∆X, A and Cp.

6
 The above analysis assumes that the heat loss from the aluminium rod is negligible
due to thermal insulation.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl Heat input Thermocouple reading Cooling Mass flow Heat Temperatur Thermal
n in 0C water rate of carrie e gradient conductivit
o Temperatur water d y
e away
by
water
V A Q Lp Kg/ Qw dt/dx K (W/m
T T T T T T T7 T8 s
m k)
1 2 3 4 5 6

The typical value of the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of aluminium is 200-360

W/m K. The difference between the actual and measured values of „k‟ is due to the
heat losses through the thermal insulation and may be acceptable as in any heat
transfer experiment.
The experiment can be repeated for different water flow rate and heat input.
The values of „k‟ obtained are tabulated.

Result: Thermal conductivity of aluminum rod is W/m °C.

7
 EXPERIMENT NO.2

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of given liquid.

INTRODUCTION:

Heat is transferred or propagated by three different processes, viz., Conduction,

Convection and Radiation. The fact that heat can be conducted through a body is very well
known. For example when a metal rod is heated at one end, the heat gradually spreads along
the rod and the other end becomes hot after some time. The power of transmitting heat in this
manner is proposed by all substances solids, liquids, gases , to vary degree and the process is
called Conduction.

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids or liquids. For a given

temperature difference between surfaces , rate of heat transfer ( Q watts) depends upon the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of a substance ( K , W/moC) , area of the heat transfer
(A,m2) and temperature difference (Δt,0C) between the surfaces and thickness of the material
(ΔX , m) according to the equation,

Q = kA(ΔT/ΔX)

Substances such as metals conduct more heat and have a high value of thermal
conductivity, as high as 200 W/m0C. Insulating materials conduct less heat and have lower
values of thermal conductivity say about 0.1 to 1 W/m0C. In circumstances where the heat
loss from the system has to be minimized, such as power transmission lines, furnaces etc,. it
is essential to cover them with proper materials. This setup has been designed to study heat
transfer through liquids.

In determination of conductivity of liquids , the problem is to eliminate Convection which

will transmit more heat than conduction. By insulating on all sides and circulating cooling
water on one side this effect can be minimized.

SPECIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION:

The setup consists of the following items.

a) Aluminum Cylinder:

The aluminium cylinder is of size 100 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length. The
thermocouples are placed to measure the oil temperature at intervals of 25 mm. The outer
surface is properly insulated to avoid heat loss.

8
b) Heaters:

Provided to heat the liquid. There are two heaters, one is at the bottom of the
cylinder and other is at the outer surface of the cylinder.

* Capacity

Band Heater : 150 watts

Flat Heater : 150 watts

c) Cooling arrangement:

The top surface of the cylinder is cooled by water cooling as shown in the
figure. The water is continuously circulated through the water jacket with the fixed rate of
flow.

d) Thermocouples: K-type to measure temperature

1,2,3,4 : At a interval of 25mm , to measure liquid temperature at

different points.

6 : Water outlet temperature to the cooling jacket.

5 : Water inlet temperature to the cooling jacket.

e) Channel selectors and digital temperature indicators.

f) Heat control or Regulator : To vary input power of the heater.

g) Control Panel : To switch on/off the console and the heater.

h) Digital Voltmeter and Digital Ammeter to measure voltage and amperage.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE :

1. Switch - ON the Mains and the Console.

2. Switch - ON the Heater.

3. Set the heat control or regulator.

4. Allow water to flow through the cooling jacket. Wait for some time till the
temperature stabilizes with time, i.e, steady state is reached.

5. Read the temperatures T1 to T6 using channel selector and digital temperature

indicator.

6. Note down the Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings.

9
7. Using the temperatures, measure rate of heat transfer and the coefficient of the
thermal conductivity using given procedure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The heat balancing equation for one dimensional flow is given by, (neglecting the losses in
stable condition)

Heat lost from oil = Heat gained by water

i.e, QL = QW
QW = m x CP x (T6 - T5) in Watts
Where,
m = Mass flow rate in kg/s.
CP = Specific heat of water in J/Kg C

QL = K A (dT/dX) in Watts
Where,
K = Thermal conductivity of Liquid in W/m C
A = Area of the cylinder in m2
dT/dX = Temperature slope
From Eqn.1 QW = QL
m x CP x (T6 - T5) = K A (dT/dX)

OBSERVATIONS:

Diameter of cylinder containing liquid: 100 mm

Height of the cylinder: 100 mm

Distance between the thermocouples: 25 mm

10
Tabular Column

Water Water
Mass Flow inlet outlet
Qw QL K
SL. Rate Thermocouple Reading , temper tempera
V I Q Oil temperature ature ture
NO
(T5) W/moC
LPM Kg/s T1 T2 T3 T4 (T6)

CALCULATIONS:

1. Heat gained by water:

QW = m x CP x (T6 – T5)
where , m = Mass flow rate in Kg/s.
CP = Specific heat of water
= 4187 J/KgK
T6 = Water outlet temperature
T5 = Water inlet temperature
2. Heat Conducted through liquid
QL = K A (dT/dX)
Where, K = Thermal conductivity of Liquid in W/m2C
A = Area of the cylinder in m2
dT/dX = Temperature slope

On Equating
K = (Q/A)( dT/dX) W/m C

11
 EXPERIMENT NO.3

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING MATERIAL

AIM:

To determine the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

INTRODUCTION:

Materials that offer high resistance to the flow of heat are called as heat insulators. Heat
insulators find extensive application in the systems where heat losses are to be minimized
such as heat transmission lines in power plants, furnaces etc.

In many heat transfer equipment, heat loss to the surroundings is to be minimized to the
maximum economy. In such cases, they are lagged by materials of lower thermal
conductivity, which are referred to as insulators. Powders have the advantage of taking any
shape between any two conforming surfaces. In addition, its thermal conductivity will be
much lower than that of the solid from which it was made. This is because of the large air
space between the particles, which have very low values of thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity of such material is a complicated function of geometry of the particles, thermal
conductivity of the particles, the nature of heat transfer between the air particles which
depends of the magnitude of the air space and temperature etc. Thus, it is very difficult to
estimate the thermal conductivity in most practical cases. The set up provided is one such
apparatus to find thermal conductivity.

Rate of heat transfer through a material is given by,

Q = K A (ΔT/ΔX)

Where,

Q = Rate of heat transfer in Watt

K = Co-efficient of thermal conductivity in W/m0C

A = Area of heat transfer in m2

ΔT = Temperature between the walls in0C

ΔX = Thickness of the material in m

Insulators have low thermal conductivities say, about 0.1W/m0C to 1W/m0C whereas metals
which are good thermal conductors have co-efficient of thermal conductivity as high as
200W/m0C

This setup has been designed to study conduction heat transfer through insulating powder and
to determine it‟s co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

12
SPECIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

Figure shows the schematic of the experimental setup for thermal conductivity of insulating
material. The system consists of the following:

a) Insulating sphere:
It consists of two concentric spheres. The inner and outer sphere have 250mm and
300 mm diameters respectively. The space between the spheres is filled with
insulating powder. The inner sphere is filled with oil and a heater is provided in it to
heat the oil to the required high temperature. The arrangement is such that the heat
transfer from the inner sphere to the outer sphere can be studied.
b) Oil heater:
Capacity: 500W
c) Digital voltmeter and ammeter to measure power input.
d) Digital temperature indicator to measure temperature.
Temperature points:
T1, T2, T3 – temperatures on the upper hemisphere in 0C
T4, T5, T6 – temperatures on the lower hemisphere in0C
T7 – temperature of the oil in the sphere in 0C
e) Thermostat to set and control heater voltage at a particular temperature.
f) Electrical supply: 1Ph, 230V, 16A with ground.
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE :

1. Switch on the MCB, mains and console.

2. Switch on the heater.
3. Switch on the thermostat and set for a particular temperature.
4. Wait for some time till the oil temperature stabilizes.
5. After some time the surface temperatures will come to study state.
6. Note down the ammeter readings, voltmeter readings and the temperatures at all
points.

13
 7. Using the measured temperature, calculate the co-efficient of thermal conductivity
of the insulating powder using the procedure given.
WORKING PRICIPLE:

Figure shows the schematic of the heat transfer process through the insulating sphere. The co-
efficient of the thermal conductivity of the insulating sphere is given by,

K = Q/RΔT

K = Thermal conductivity of the powder in W/m0C

Q = Total heat transfer rate in Watt
R = Shape factor = 4π ro ri /(ro – ri)
ri = Radius of the inner sphere = 125mm
ro = Radius of outer sphere = 150mm
ΔT = Ti – To in 0C
Ti = Inside oil temperature in 0C
To = (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6)/6 in 0C
OBSERVATIONS:

ri = Radius of the inner sphere = 125mm

ro = Radius of outer sphere = 150mm
TABULAR COLUMN

Sl Heat input Temperature on Sphere Average Oil Shape Themal

NO Sphere Temperature Factor Conductivity
Temperature R K in W /m C
V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T0 T7 =Ti

14
 EXPERIMENT NO.4

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

AIM:

To determine the also overall heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer through composite
material consisting of Mild Steel, asbestos and brass.

INTRODUCTION:

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids. For a given temperature difference
between the surfaces, the rate of heat transfer (Q, watts) depends upon the coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the substance (k, W/m K), area of heat transfer (A, m2) and the
0
temperature difference (ΔT, C)between the surfaces and thickness of the material (Δ X, m)
according to the equation,

Q = - kA (Δ T/ Δ X)

Substances such as metals conduct more heat and have high values of co-efficient of thermal
conductivity, as high as about 200 watts/m „C, insulating materials conduct less heat and have
low values of co-efficient of thermal conductivity, say about 0.1 to 1 watts/m‟C. In
circumstances where heat loss from the system has to be minimized, such as in power plant
transmission lines, furnaces, etc. It is essential to cover heat carrying systems with proper
materials. This set-up has been designed to study heat through composite materials

APPARATUS:

The setup consists of the following important items:

a) Composite walls: It consists of a band heater at one end with mild steel, asbestos and
brass plates composited to form heat flow path. The plates are covered with insulation
to prevent heat loss.
b) Band heater: provided to heat one end of the composite wall
Capacity: 400 watts, diameters of mild steel, asbestos and brass plates: 150 mm
Thickness of each plate: 6 mm
c) Rotometer: provided to measure water flow rate
d) Thermocouples: k – type to measure temperature
a) Channel selector and digital temperature display
b) Heat control or regulator: to vary input power to the heater.

15
c) Thermostat: to set and control heater temperature range.
d) Control panel: to switch on/off the console and the heater.

PROCEDURE

a) Switch on the mains and the console

b) Switch on the heater
c) Set the temperature setting(thermostat) to the safe value
d) Set the heat control/regulator and adjust the water flow rate
e) Wait till the temperatures stabilize with time, that is, steady state is reached.
f) Read the temperatures measured, rate of heat transfer and co-efficient through
composite walls are calculated.
g) Measure water flow rate from the Rotometer.
h) Using the temperatures measured, rate of heat transfer and co-efficient through
composite walls are calculated using procedure given below.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The heat balance equation for dimensional flow is given by (neglecting losses in
stable condition).

Q = Qi = Qms = Qas = Qb

Where Qms, Qas, Qb are the same heat flowing across mild steel, asbestos and brass
respectively.

Qi is the overall heat flow across composite material. Considering individual material,
the heat transmitted across each of the material is equal to the heat carried away by
cooling water jacket measured on Rota meter.

16
 Tabular column:

Heat Temperature of composite wall

input
V I Q Bottom of MS Top of MS plate Top of Asbestos Top of brass plate
plate plate
T1 T2 T3 Tmb T4 T6 T7 Tmt T7 T8 T9 Tat T10 T11 T12 Tbt

Mass flow rate Water inlet Water outlet Heat carried Overall heat
of water in Kg/s temperature temperature away by water transfer co-
in W efficient
T13 T14 Qw Uexp Uth

That is, Qi = m Cp ΔTw

Here m = water flow rate in kg/sec = flow rate in LPM * (1/60)

Cp = specific heat of water 4.2 kJ/kg K

ΔTw = Rise in temperature of cooling water (T14-T13).

Qi = m Cp Δ Tw = Kms A (ΔTms /Lms) = Kas A (Δ Tas /Las) = Kb A (Δ Tb /Lb)

Δ T = Temperature difference, k = thermal conductivity, A = area of the heat flow.

L = length of the heat flow.

Uth = 1/[Lms/Kms + Las/Kas + Lb/Kb] …….W/m°C

Calculations:

Q0 = m Cp Δ Tw = W

A = (/4)*D2 = m2

Kms = (Q/A) * Lms/(Tmb-Tmt) = W/m°C

17
Kas = (Q/A) * Las/(Tmt-Tat) = W/m°C

Kb= (Q/A) * Lb/(Tat-Tbt) = W/m°C

Overall heat transfer coefficient,

Uex = 1/[Lms/Kms + Las/Kas + Lb/Kb]

U= …. W/m°C

Result: Overall heat transfer coefficient of the given composite wall is ……….
W/m°C.

18
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:

To determine the heat transfer co-efficient in natural convection for vertical tube

INTRODUCTION:

Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy form one region another as a result
of temperature difference between them .There are three different modes of heat transfer;
namely conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction: The property which allows passage for heat energy, even though their parts are
not in motion relative to one another.

Convection: is the transfer of heat within the fluid by mixing one portion of fluid with
another.

Heat Radiation: The property of emit or to absorb different kind of ratio of electromagnetic
waves.

Out of these type of heat transfer the convective heat transfer which of concern, divides into
two categories viz.,

Natural Convection: If the motion of fluid caused only due to difference in density resulting
from temperature gradients without the use of pump or fan, then the mechanism of heat
transfer is known as “natural or free convection”.

Forced convection: If the motion of fluid is induced by some external means such as a pump
or blower.

The Newton‟s law of cooling in convective heat transfer is given by

Q=h A ∆ T, where Q=heat transfer rate in watts

A=surface area of heat flow in m2

∆T=over all temperature difference between the wall and fluid

h= convection heat transfer co-efficient in watts

This setup has been designed to study heat transfer by natural or free convection

19
Apparatus:

1. A metallic tube of diameter (d) 45 mm and length (L) 450mm with a

electrical heater coil along the axis of the tube.

2. Seven thermocouple are fixed on the tube surface.

3.Control panel instrumentation consists of multichannel digital display

a)Temperature indicator to measure surface temperature T1 to T7 of the tube and

ambient temperature T8.
b) Digital ammeter and voltmeter to measure power input to the heater.

c) Regulator to control the power input to the heater.

5. Front transparent acrylic enclosure for safety of the tube when not in use.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1. Keep the tube in vertical position.

2. Switch ON the mains and the control.

3. Set the regulator to set the heat input.

4. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.

5. Note down temperatures T1 to T8 using channel selector and digital temperature indicator.

6. Note down the Ammeter and Voltmeter readings.

7. Tabulate the heat input and transfer co-efficient using the procedure.

8. Calculate the convection heat transfer co-efficient using the procedure given below.

9. Repeat the experiment by changing the heat input.

Sl.NO Heat Input Temperature along the tube Average Ambient Convective
tube Temperature heat transfer
Temperature coefficient

V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Tav T8 hth hex

20
Calculations:

Determination of experimental heat transfer co-efficient: For steady state condition, heat
given to heater = Heat lost from the tube surface by natural convection.

Therefore, Q= h As (Ts-T∞)

Where,

Q = (Ammeter reading) x (Voltmeter reading), in watts

D D= Diameter of tube= 45 mm
L= length of the tube = 450 mm

As=Tube surface area = π D L = m2

Ts= (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6+T7)/7 = °C
T∞= T8 = Ambient air temperature=T8= °C

Therefore,
Heat transfer co-efficient, hexpt= Q/As (Ts-T∞) = W/m2K

Determination of Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient:

The theoretical value of the natural heat transfer co-efficient is calculated given by:

Note down the properties of air t from data hand book

Tm = (Ts+ T∞)/2 = °C

At mean temperature properties of air should be noted down from the HMT data hand book.

ν= m2/s

k= W/mK

Pr=

β = 1/(Tm +273) = K-1

T = (Ts-T∞) = °C

g= 9.81 m/s2

Gr (Groshoff No.) = (g β L3T )/ ν 2 =

Nu = choose the equation from data book based on Gr.Pr

21
Nu = hL/k,

h th = W/m2K

RESULTS

hexp= W/m2K

hth = W/m2K

22
 EXPERIMENT NO.6

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN FORCED CONVENTION

AIM:
To determine the heat transfer co-efficient in forced convection for hot air flowing through
horizontal tube

INTRODUCTION:

It is well know that a hot plate of metal will cool faster in from a fan than when exposed to
still air. We say that the heat is convected away and we call the process as convective heat
transfer. The velocity at which air blows over the hot plate obviously influences the heat
transfer rate.

The Newton‟s law of cooling in convective heat transfer is given by

Q=h A ∆T

Where, Q=heat transfer rate, watt

A=surface area of heat flow, m2
∆T=overall temperature difference between the wall and fluid in ⁰C
h= convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2⁰C).
The convective heat transfer coefficient depends upon the viscosity of the fluid in addition to
its dependence on the thermal properties of the fluid (thermal conductivity, specific heat,
density, etc). If a heated plate is exposed to ambient room air without all external source of
motion, movement of air would be experienced as a result of the density gradient heat near
plate. We call this natural or free convection. If the convection is experienced the case of the
fan blowing air over a plate, we call this forced convection. The approximate ranges of
convection heat transfer coefficient are given in table below

Mode „h‟ W/m2 ⁰C

Free convection 5-25
Forced convection: air , water 10-500, 100-15000
Boiling water 2500-25000
Condensation and water vapor 5000-100000
This setup has been designed to study forced convection heat transfer.

23
APPARATUS:

The important components of the set up are:

a. Heat exchanger tube-the tube is thermally insulated outside to prevent heat transfer
losses to the atmosphere.
b. Heater, wattage :500 watts (approx.)
c. Regulator to control the power input to the heater
d. Volt and Ampere Meters to measure power input to the heater
e. ThermocouplesT1 and T7 to measure air temperature at the inlet and outlet of the
duct. T2 - T6 to measure test specimen temperatures.
f. Channel selector
g. Digital temperature indicator
h. Blower: to blow air through the heat exchanger.
i. Orifice meter with manometer to air flow rate from the blower.
j. Control panel to house the whole instrumentation.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the mains and the console

2. Start the blower first
3. Control blower flow rate toss suitable value
4. Measure the pressure drop across the orifice meter and calculated air mass flow
rate.
5. Switch on the heater and adjust the power input to the heater to a suitable value
using the regulator.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The air flows through the heat exchanger because of the blower action. In steady state, power
input to the heater is equal to the heat transferred to the air. This used as the base for
calculation of heat transfer co efficient.

Where,

Q=heat transfer rate, W

Qa = Volume flow rate of air m3/s

P=power input to the heater

24
 A1=cross sectional area of the main pipe, (D2)/4 m2

A2=cross sectional area of orifice (d2)/4

L= length of the tube 0.5 m

D = diameter of the tube 40 mm

d = orifice diameter 20 mm

∆T=average temperature between the tube and the air ⁰C

h=convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

Cd =

Volume flow rate of air, Qa= (Cd A1 A2√2g ha)/(A12 – A22)1/2 m3/s

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS:

Sl.No Heat Manomete Head Temperatures of tube, Air Water Convectiv

. Input r readings of °C Temperature Temperature e heat
water transfer
hw coefficient
V I Q h1 h2 T T T T T Inle Outle Inle Outle hth hex
h1h 2 3 4 5 6 t T1 t T2 t T1 t T2
2

Calculations:

Determination of experimental heat transfer co-efficient calculations

Ts = [T2+T3+T4+T5+T6]/5 = °C
T∞ = [T1+T7] / 2 = °C
∆T = (Ts - T∞) = °C
Q= h A (Ts - T∞)
hexp= Q/( A (Ts - T∞)) = W/m2K
Determination of Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient calculations
Tm = (Ts + T∞)/2 = °C
Following properties of air from heat transfer data hand book at mean temperature are noted
down
Kinematic viscosity of air, ν = m2/s

25
Thermal conductivity of air, k W/m k
Pr =
Calculation of velocity of air (V):

A1 = /4*D2= m2 , A2 = /4*d2= m2

a = P/RT = kg/m3

whw = aha, ha = m

Qa=[Cd A1 A2 √2gha]/(A12 – A22) 1/2 = m3/s

V = Qa/ A1 = m/s

Re = (VD)/ν =

If Reynolds No. value is more than 2300, flow is Turbulent otherwise flow is Laminar.
Usually for forced convection heat transfer experiment the value of Reynolds No. is more
than 2300, hence flow is turbulent.

Choose the equation from data book based on Reynods number.

hD/k = Nu,

hth = (Nu x k)/D = W/m2K

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 EXPERIMENT NO.7

EFFECTIVENESS ON A PIN FIN

AIM:

Determine the rate of heat transfer, effectiveness and efficiency of the pin-fin.

INTRODUCTION:

Fins are widely used to enhance the heat transfer (usually convective, but it could also be
radiative) from a surface. This is particularly true when the surface is in contact with a gas.
Fins are used on air cooled engines, electronic cooling forms, as well as for a number of other
applications. Since the heat transfer coefficient tends to be low in gas convection, area is
added in the form of fins to the surface to decrease the convective thermal resistance.

APPARATUS:
A metallic fin of circular cross section of length 'L' is fitted in the rectangular duct. The base
of the fin is fixed to a heater plate for heating the fin. Thermocouples are provided on the
surface of the fin. The duct is provided with a fan to contact the air flow with the help of
regulator.

A multi-channel temperature indicator has been provided to monitor different temperature

points. Measure the velocity of air flow over fin. Power input to the heater is given by
regulating the ammeter and voltmeter.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1) Switch on the mains and console

2) Switch on the heater and adjust the power input.

3) Wait till steady state is reached and note down all the temperature indication by

the temperature indicator.

4) After conducting experiment in natural convection mode, start the blower and adjust the
flow as required for forced convection.

27
5) Increase the power supplied to the heater as to maintain the same temperature before
starting the blower.

6) Wait till steady state condition is reached and note down the temperature as well as
velocity of flow.

7) Repeat the procedure for different heat inputs.

Tabular Column:

Sl.No Heat Input Test specimen temperature Chamber Velocity of air,

temperature V in (m/s)

V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
o o o o o
( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C)

Calculations:

1) Surface Temperature, Ts= (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5)/5

2) Atmospheric temperature, T∞ = T6=
3) Tmean = (T∞+Ts)/2
At mean temperature note down the values of thermo physical properties of air from
heat transfer data hand book thermo physical properties of air are () kinematic
viscosity, (Kair) thermal conductivity of air and Prandtl No.
4) Reynolds no(Red) =( vd)/() ,where „v‟ is velocity of air flowing over the fin
Based on the Reynolds no choose the value of constants C and m from the heat
transfer data hand book
5) h=Kair [C. Redm (Pr)0.33]/d
6) Q=√(ℎ𝑃𝐾𝐴) (Ts-T∞) tanh(mL)
7) Efficiency, = tanh(mL)/(mL)
8) Effectiveness, ε= tanh(mL)/[√(hA/PK)]

where, Ts=Surface temperature of fin

T∞=surrounding temperature (0C)

L=length of fin = m

28
 d=diameter of the fin = m

hP
m=√(KA ), P=perimeter of fin=πd m

A= πd2/4 m2

K=thermal conductivity of Al

= W/m°C

Result:

The rate of heat transfer of PIN-FIN apparatus is W.

Efficiency of the fin () is %.

Effectiveness of the fin (ε) is

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 EXPERIMENT NO.8

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

AIM:

To study boiling heat transfer phenomenon across the given wire and determine critical heat
flux.

INTRODUCTION:

When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at

temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is for a part of the liquid to
change phase. This change of phase is called boiling. Boiling is of various types, the types
depending on the temperature difference between the surface and liquid. The different types
are indicated by fig(1) in which typical experimental boiling curve obtaining in a saturated
pool of liquid is drawn.

Fig1: Boiling curve

The heat supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw-Ts), the difference between the
temperature of the surface and the saturation temperature of the liquid. It is seen that boiling
curve can be divided into three regions; 1. Natural convection region, 2. Nuclear boiling
region,3) Film boiling region. The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature

30
differences. Heat transferred from the heat surface to the liquid in the vicinity causes the
liquid to super heated. This super heated liquid rises to the free liquid surfaces by natural
convection, where is produced by the evaporation.

As the temperature difference (Tw-Ts) is increased, nucleate boiling starts. In this

region, it is observed that, bubbles start to from at certain location on the heated surface.
Region 2 consists of a two parts. In the first part 2a, the bubbles are formed are very few in
number of locations where they are formed increase. Some of the bubbles now rise all the
way to the free surface.

With increasing temperature difference, a stage is finally reached when rate of

formation of bubbles is so high, that they start to collapse, and blanked the surface with a
vapour film. This is the beginning of the region 3, viz., film boiling, in the first part of this
region, 3a the vapour film is unstable. So that film boiling may be occurred a portion of the
heated surface area, nucleate boiling may be occurring on the remaining area. In the second
part 3b, a stable film covers the entire surface. The temperature difference in this region is of
the order of 1000⁰C and consequently radiative heat transfer the across the vapor film is also
significant.

It is observed from fig(1) that the heat flux do not increase in the regular manner with
the temperature difference. In region 1, the heat flux is proportional to (Tw-Ts) where in is
slightly greater than unity. When transition from natural convection to nucleate boiling
occurs, the heat flux start increase more rapidly with temperature difference, the value of an
increasing to about 3.at the end of the region 2,the boiling curve reached a peak(point a).
Beyond this, in region 3a inspite of increasing the temperature difference, the heat flux
decreases because of thermal resistance to heat flow increases with the formation of vapour
film. The heat flux passes through a minimum (point b) at the end of the region 3a,. it starts
increasing again with (Tw-Ts) only when stable film boiling and radiation becomes
increasingly important.

The discussion so far has been concerned with the various types of boiling which
occur in saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is below the saturation temperature we say that
sub cooled pool boiling is taking place. Also in many practical situation eg,. Steam generator;
one is interested in boiling in a liquid flowing through tubes. This is called forced convection
31
boiling. It is obvious that forced convection boiling may also be saturated or sub – cooled of
the nucleate of film type.

It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surfaces changes as the heat
flux is steadily increased from zero. Up to the point A, natural convection boiling and then
nucleate boiling occur and the temperature of the heating surface is obtained by reading the
value of (Tw-Ts) from the boiling curve and adding to it the value of A.the temperature of the
surface will shoot up to the value corresponding to the point C. it is apperent from the fig1
that the surface temperature corresponding to the point C is high. For most surfaces, it is
enough to cause the metal to melt. Thus in most practical situations, it is undesirable to
exceed the value of heat flux corresponding to point A. this value is therefore of considerable
engineering significance and called the critical or peak heat flux. The pool-boiling curve as
described above is known as Nucleate Pool Boiling Curve.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a container housing the test heater and heater coil for initial heating
of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains and the test heater is
connected also to the main through dimmer stat and an ammeter is connected in series while a
voltmeter across it to read the current and voltage. A micro controlled based peak detector
has been provided to measure the maximum current during the process. The heater wire can
be viewed through a poly carbonate glass window.

Specification:

32
  Heater for initial heating – heater coil -1.5 kW
 Test heater (R-1) nichrome wire = mm (to be measured according to wire
used
 Length of wire = mm,

EXPERIMENT:

The experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to

critical heat flux point. The pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualized in the
different regions up to the critical heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat flux
from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied convection to the
nucleate boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and
number cam be visualized followed by vigorous bubble formation and their immediate
carrying over to surface.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the sufficient quantity of distilled water in the container.

2. See that both heaters are completely submerged.
3. Connect the test wire across the studs.
4. Switch on the auxiliary heater and maintain the bulk temperature of the water in
the container
5. Switch on test heater W2.
6. Very gradually increases the voltage across it by slowly changing the variac from
one position to the other and stop a while at each position to observe the boiling
phenomenon on wire.
7. Record the voltage and current at various intermediate stages. This can be used to
find the resistance of wire, at varying temperature. Note down the resistance at
room temperature can be calculated.
8. Go to increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note the voltage and
current at this point.
9. Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

Precautions:

33
 1. Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the experiment take
sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that both the heaters are
immersed completely.
2. Connect the test heater wire across the studs.
1. Do not touch the water or terminal points after putting the switch is in ON
position.
2. Very gradually operate the variac in steps and allow sufficient time
between.
3. After attaining the critical heat flux condition, decrease slowly the voltage
and bring it to zero.

Observations:

 Diameter of test heater wire, d = mm

 Length of the test heater wire, L = mm

Note: The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be noted down for each bulk temperature.

Tabular Column:

Heat Input Critical Heat Flux,

Voltage, V Current, I q = Q/dL (W/m2)
Q = VxI qc (W/m2)

34
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

EMISSIVITY OF SURFACE

AIM:

To determine the emissivity of the radiating surface

INTRODUCTION:

Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which does not require any material
medium for its propagation. The mechanism is assumed to be electromagnetic in nature is the
result of temperature difference. Thermodynamic considerations show that an ideal radiator
or black and will emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the body. When two bodies will exchange heat by radiation, the net heat
exchange is given by,

Q=  AT4

Where, „Q‟ is the heat transfer rate in watts, “” is called Stefan Boltzman‟s Constant having
the value of 5.669x104 W/m2K4,‟A‟ is the surface area (m2)

All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from surroundings. The
rate of thermal radiation depends upon the temperature of body. Thermal radiations are
electromagnetic waves and they do not require any medium for propagation. When thermal
radiation strikes a body, part of it is reflected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is
transmitted through body. The fraction of incident energy, reflected by the surface is called
reflectivity (ρ). The fraction of incident energy, absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity
(α) and the fraction of incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (τ).
The surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface. For a black
surface, ρ+ α + τ = 1. The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).
The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that of black surface at
the same temperature. Thus, ε = E / Eb

fig(1) shows the schematic of the test setup. It consists of the following:

35
 Fig:1 Scheme diagram for emissivity apparatus

Black Body made of circular steel plate with the surface black anodized. Grey body or test
steel plate made of circular steel plate of same size as the black body with polished surface.

Heaters are provided to heat the black body and grey body to identical temperature.

Voltmeter and ammeter provided to measure the input power to the heaters.

Thermocouples to measure surface temperature of the black body (T1), test plate (T2).

Channel selector and digital temperature display.

Heat control or regulator to vary input power to the heaters. Controls panel to switch on/off
the console and the heater.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a. Switch on the mains and console

b. Switch on the heater to the black body and adjust the power input to the heater to a
suitable value using regulator.
c. Switch on the heater to the test plate and keep the power input to a value less than that
input to the black body.

36
 d. Observe the temperature of the black body and test surface in close time intervals and
adjust power input to the test plate heater such that both black body and test surface
temperature are same. This procedure requires trial and error method and one has to
wait sufficiently long to reach the steady state.
e. After attaining steady state, record input powers to heaters and temperatures of the
black body, test plate and the enclosure. Using the above measurements calculate the
emissivity of the test surface using the procedure given below.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Fig. (1) shows the schematic of the apparatus used to determine the emissivity of the
test surface. The experimental setup is designed in such a way that under steady state
conditions, the heat dissipation by the conduction and convection, although small, are same
or both plates: the difference in power input to the heaters of black surface and test plate
which are at the same temperature is due to the different in the radiation characteristics
because of different emissivity by the relationship,

Where W1=heat input to the black surface =V1 I1 watts

W2=heat input to the test plate =V2 I2 watts

V1=voltage across heater to black surface (volts)

I1=current to the black surface (amps)

V2=voltage across heater to test plate (volts)

I2=current to the test plate heater (amps)

A=area of the test plate [(d2)]/4 m2

d= diameter of the test plate m

T1=temperature of the black plate ,K

T2=temperature of the test plate , K

εb =emissivity of the black plate (assumed equal to 1)

ε =emissivity of the test plate

 = Stefan boltman‟s constants

=5.67x10-8 W/m2 K4

37
The constant in the denominator (0.86) takes into account various factors such as radiation
shape factor, effect of conduction and free convention losses and other factors (such as non-
uniformities in enclosures temperatures), which cause deviation from the typical radiation
heat transfer, experiment. The above analysis requires that the temperature of black surface
and test plate are same (T1=T2).

Tabular Column:

Sl. Heat input to heaters T1=T2 T3

No. (°C) (°C)
Vb Ib Qb= Vb x Ib Vg Ig Qg= Vg x Ig
(V) (A) (W) (V) (A) (W)
1 47 0.46 21.62 34 0.31 10.54 100 54.5

Sample calculation:

A = 0.7854*d2 = m2

0.86[𝑄𝑏 − 𝑄𝑔]
ε=1−
 × 𝐴[𝑇 4 1 − 𝑇 4 3
Result:
Emissivity of the surface is

38
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

STEFAN BOLTZMAN CONSTANT

AIM:

To determine the Stefan boltzman‟s constant.

INTRODUCTION:

The most commonly used relationship in the radiation heat transfer is the Stefan
boltzman‟s law, which relates the heat transfer rate to the temperature of the hot and cold
surfaces,

Q= σA (Th4 - Tc4)

Q=rate of the heat transfer , watts

σ=Stefan boltzman‟s constant=5.669x10-8 watts/m2K4

A=surface area , m2.

The above equation is only applicable for black bodies (for ex, a piece of metal
covered with carbon black approximates this behaviour) and is valid only for thermal
radiation. Other types of bodies (like a glossy painted surface or a polished metal plate) do
not radiate as much as energy as the black body but still the radiation emitted follows T4
proportionality.

This setup has been designed to determine the values of the Stefan boltzman‟s constant.

APPARATUS:

The setup consists of the following important parts,

a. Copper hemispherical enclosure.

b. Non-conducting base plate made of asbestos.
c. Thermocouples, iron – constantan type to measures temperature on the copper
hemisphere T1 and T2 on the disc and T3 on specimen and T4 of hot water
d. Disc mounted in insulated bakelite sleeve, made of aluminium.
Disc dia(D): mm, mass (m) = grams,
Specific heat = kJ/kgK.

39
 e. Channel selector and temperature display.
f. Heater coil to heat the enclosure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The enclosure is maintained at the higher temperature using heater. The disk or the
test piece is inserted in to its place along with variation in its temperature (T3) with time is
recorded.

The radiation energy falling on the disc (D) from the enclosure is given by

Qe = σ ADTe 4……… (1)

Where,

Qe= rate of radiation emitted on the enclosure falling on the disc(watts)

AD=area of the disc,m2

Te4 =average temperature of the enclosure recorded by thermocouples (K)

The emissivity of the enclosure and the disc are assumed unity because of black
surface characteristics. The radiation energy emitted by the disc to the enclosure is
given by,

mCp(dT/dt)t=0 = σAD(Ts4 – TD4) ……… (2)

Where, (dT/dt),is the rate of increase in temperature (⁰C/sec) at the instant when the disc
is inserted in to the setup. The stefan boltzman constant is obtained using the relationship,

σ = mCp(dT/dt)t=0 ………………. (3)

AD(Ts4 – TD4)

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a. Switch on the mains and the console.

b. Remove the disc (D) or test piece.
c. Switch – on the heater.
d. Allow the water to reach some prescribed temperature.

40
 e. Allow the heated water enters into the hemispherical enclosure to attain uniform high
temperature –the enclosure will soon reach thermal equilibrium.
f. Measure the enclosure temperature with the thermocouple (T1 and T2) using channel
selector and digital temperature indicator.
g. Insert disk (D) with sleeve into its position and record temperature of the disc (T3) at
different instant of time using stop watch.
h. Plot the variation of disc temperature (T3) with time sec as shown in fig(2) and get the
slope of temperature versus time variation (⁰C/sec) at the time t=0 sec.
i. Using eq(3) calculate the Stefan boltzman‟s constants.
j. Repeat the experiments 3 to 4 and calculate the average value to obtain the better
value of the Stefan boltzman‟s constant.

Tabular Column:

Sl.No. Time „t‟ (s) Specimen Temperature „T3‟ (°C)

Calculations:

1. Temperature of the enclosure = Tsphere ⁰C

2. Mass of the test disc (m)= gm
3. Specific heat of the disc material Cp= J/kg ⁰C
4. Obtain (dT3/dt) using the plot of the T3 vs t and determine the slope.

5. Calculate Stefan boltzman‟s constant using the relationship.

T3

t
Fig 2: Plot of temperature T3 v/s t

41
 = mCp(dT2/dt) W/m2K4
AD(Ts4 – Td t=04)

Sample calculations:

AD= (/4)*D2 = m2

dT2 / dt = ⁰C/s by plotting graph and taking slope.

Ts = Average temperature of hemispherical cup T1+T2/2 = K

T3 t=0 = K

Result: stefan boltzman constant σ = W/m2K4

42