2

General, Organic, and

Biochemistry, 8e
Bettelheim, Brown
Campbell, & Farrell

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2-1
2 Chapter 2
10-1 0 m
Nu cleus (protons an d neu trons)
Space occupied by electrons

Proton
Atoms
Neu tron
10-1 5 m

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2-2
2 Classification of Matter
Matter
anything that occupies
space and h as mas s

Phys ically
Pure su bstances separable into Mixtures
fixed comp osition; cannot a combin ation of tw o
be further purified or more p ure subs tances

Combine
Elements chemically Compound s Homogenous Heterogenou s
cannot be to form elements united matter matter
s ubdivided by in fixed ratios u niform nonu niform
ch emical or composition composition
p hysical means th roughout

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2 Classification of Matter
• Element: a substance (for example, carbon,
hydrogen, and iron) that consists of identical
atoms.
• There are 116 known elements.
• Of these, 88 occur in nature; the others have been
made by chemists and physicists.
• Their symbols consist of one or two letters.
• Names are derived from a variety of sources: the
English name of the element, people important in
atomic science, geographic locations, planets,
mythological sources, etc.

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2 Classification of Matter
• Compound: a pure substance made up of two or
more elements in a fixed ratio by mass.
• Formula of a compound: tells us the ratios of its
constituent elements and identifies each element
by its atomic symbol.
• NaCl: the ratio of sodium atoms to chlorine atoms in
sodium chloride is 1:1
• H2O: the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in
water is 2:1

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2 A Water Molecule
Show s there are
tw o H atoms
and one O atom
Each element is S pace-filling model
represen ted s how s the relative sizes
H2 O by a d ifferent of H an d O atoms
colored ball in a w ater molecule
Molecular
formula

Lin es repres ent

conn ection s
betw een atoms

O Ball-and-s tick model Space-filling mod el

H H
S tructural
formula
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2 Classification of Matter
• Mixture: a combination of two or more pure
substances
• The substances may be present in any mass ratio.
• Each substance has a different set of physical
properties.
• Mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• If we know the physical properties of the individual
components of the mixture, we can use appropriate
physical means to separate the mixture into its
component parts.

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2-7
2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All matter is composed of very tiny particles,
which Dalton called atoms.
• All atoms of the same element have the same
chemical properties. Atoms of different elements
have different chemical properties.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical
combination of two or more of the same or
different kinds of atoms.
• A molecule is a tightly bound combination of two
or more atoms that acts as a single unit.

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2 Evidence for Dalton’s Theory
• Law of Conservation of Mass
• Matter can be neither created or destroyed.
• As Dalton explained, if matter is made up of
indestructible atoms, then any chemical reaction just
changes the attachments among atoms, but does not
destroy the atoms themselves.

C O + Pb O O C O + Pb

Carbon Lead Carb on Lead

monoxide oxide dioxide

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2-9
2 Evidence for Dalton’s Theory
• Law of Conservation of Mass
• Monatomic elements: consist of single atoms; for
example, helium (He) and neon (Ne).
• Diatomic elements: there are seven elements that
occur as diatomic molecules:
• H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
• Polyatomic elements: some elements have three
or more atoms per molecule:
• O3, P4, S8
• diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded together
to form one gigantic cluster.
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2 Subatomic Particles
• Table 2.1 Properties and Location within Atoms of
Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
Mass (amu);
to one
Subatomic Mass Mass significant Location in
particle Charge (g) (amu) figure an atom
Proton +1 1.6726 x 10-24 1.0073 1 In the nucleus
Electron -1 9.1094 x 10-28 5.4859 x 10-4 0.0005 Outside the ucleus
Neutron 0 1.6749 x 10-24 1.0087 1 In the n ucleus

• The unit of mass is the atomic mass unit (amu)

• By definition, 1 amu 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom
with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
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1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g
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2 A Typical Atom
• Protons and 10-1 0 m
neutrons are Nu cleus (protons an d neu trons)
found in the Space occupied by electrons
nucleus, and
electrons are
found as a
cloud outside
the nucleus. Proton

Neu tron
10-1 5 m

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2 Mass and Atomic Numbers
• Mass number: the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• the mass of the electrons in an atom is so small
compared to that of its protons and neutrons that
electrons are not counted in determining mass number.
• Atomic number: the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Mass number (number of protons & neutrons) 12
Atomic number (number of protons) 6C

• a carbon atom of this composition is referred to

as carbon-12.
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2 Isotopes
• Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons.
• carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons; 126C
• carbon-13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons; 136C
• carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons; 146C
• Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of
isotopes:
• chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and
24.23% chlorine-37 (20 neutrons).

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2 Atomic Weight
• Atomic weight: the weighted average of the
masses (in amu) of the naturally occurring
isotopes of an element.
• example: chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 and 24.23%
chlorine-37
ch lorine-35 ch lorine-37 17
Cl
75.77 x 34.97 amu + 24.23 x 36.97 amu = 35.45 amu 35.4527
100 100
atomic w eight in
the Periodic Tab le
is given to four
four decimal places

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2 Mass and Size of an Atom
• Consider an atom of lead-208:
• it has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 126 neutrons
• it has a mass of 3.5 x 10-22 g
• It requires 1.3 x 1024 atoms to make 1 lb of lead-208.
• The diameter of the nucleus is about 1.6 x 10-14 m.
• The diameter of the atom is 3.5 x 10-10 m.
• The density of the atom is 11.3 g/cm3.
• The density of the nucleus is 1.8 x 1014 g/cm3.

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2 Periodic Table
• Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
• arranged the known elements in order of increasing
atomic weight beginning with hydrogen.
• He observed that when elements are arranged in this
manner, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
• He then arranged elements with recurring sets of
properties in the same column (vertical row); Li, Na,
and K, for example, fall in the same column and start
new periods (horizontal rows).

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2 Periodic Table
• Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine fall in the
same column
9
F
18.998
17
7A
Cl
35.453
35
Br
79.904
53
I
126.90

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2 Classification of elements
• Figure 2.9 Classification of the elements.

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2

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2

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2

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• Reactivity Series
2

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2 Classification of Elements
• Metals
• are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is
a liquid), shiny, conduct electricity, and are ductile and
malleable.
• form alloys (solutions of one metal dissolved in
another); brass, for example, is an alloy of copper and
zinc.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to give up electrons.
• Nonmetals
• Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the
Periodic Table.
• Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity.
• In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons.
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2 Classification of Elements
• Metalloids
• They have some of the properties of metals and some
of nonmetals; for example, they are shiny like metals
but do not conduct electricity.
• Six elements are classified as metalloids: boron,
silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium.
• One of the metalloids, silicon, is a semiconductor; it
does not conduct electricity under certain applied
voltages, but becomes a conductor at higher applied
voltages.

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2 Examples of Periodicity
• Table 2.2 The halogens (Group 7A elements)
9
F
18.998
17 Melting Boiling
Cl Point Point
7A 35.453 Elemen t (°C) (°C)
35 Fluorine -220 -188
Br
79.904 Chlorine -101 -35
53 Bromin e -7 59
I Iodine 114 184
126.90
Astatine 302 337
85
At
(210)

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2 Examples of Periodicity
• Table 2.3 The alkali metals (Group 1A elements)
3
Li
Melting Boilin g 6.941
Point Point 11 1A
Element (°C) (°C) Na
22.990
Lith iu m 180 1342
19
Sodiu m 98 883 K
Potass iu m 63 760 39.098
Rubid iu m 39 686 37
Rb
Cesium 28 669 85.468
55
Cs
132.91

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2-27
2 Examples of Periodicity
• The noble gases, Group 8A elements
2
He
4.003
10 Melting Boiling
Ne Poin t Poin t
8A 20.18 Element (°C) (°C)
18
Ar Helium -272 -269
39.95 N eon -249 -246
36 Argon -189 -186
Kr
83.80 Kryp ton -157 -152
54 Xenon -112 -107
Xe Rad on -71 -62
131.3
86
Rn
(222)

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2 Electron Configuration
• Electron configuration: the arrangement of
electrons in the extranuclear space
• The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized,
which means that an electron in an atom can
have only certain allowed energies.
• Ground-State electron configuration: the electron
configuration of the lowest energy state of an
atom

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2 Electron Configuration
• Table 2.5 Distribution of Electrons in Shells
nucleus Relative
4th shell Number of energies
electrons shell of electrons
Shell can hold in each shell
3rd shell
. 4 32 higher
2nd shell 3 18
1st shell 2 8
1 2 lower

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2 Electron Configuration
• Table 2.6 Distribution of Orbitals within Shells
Maximum Number
of Electrons Shell
Shell Orbitals Contained in Each Shell Can hold
4 One 4s , three 4p, five 4 d, and seven 4 f orbitals 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
3 One 3s, three 3p, and five 3 d orbitals 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
2 One 2 s and three 2 p orbitals 2+6=8
1 One 1s orbital 2

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2 Electron Configuration
• Orbitals have definite shapes and orientations in
space

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2 Electron Configuration
• Electron configurations are governed by three
rules:
• Rule 1: orbitals fill in the order of increasing
energy from lowest to highest:
• elements in the first, second, and third periods fill in
the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p.

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2 Electron Configuration
• Figure 2.13 Energy levels for orbitals through the
third shell.

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2 Electron Configuration
• Rule 2: each orbital can hold up to two electrons
with spins paired.
• with four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and
are written 1s2 2s2.
• with an additional six electrons, the three 2p orbitals
are filled and are written either 2px2 2py2 2pz2, or they
may be written 2p6.

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2 Electron Configuration
• Figure 2.14 The 1 A s pinnin g electron
generates a tiny
pairing of electron magn etic field
spins.

N S

S N

2 When their tin y magnetic

fields are align ed N -S, the
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electron spin s are paired
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2-36
2 Electron Configuration
• Rule 3: when there is a set of orbitals of equal
energy, each orbital becomes half filled before
any of them becomes completely filled.
• example: after the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled, a 5th
electron is put into the 2px, a 6th into the 2py, and a 7th
into the 2pz. Only after each 2p orbital has one electron
is a second added to any 2p orbital.

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2 Electron Configuration
• Orbital box diagrams
• a box represents an orbital.
• an arrow represents an electron.
• a pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions
represents a pair of electrons with paired spins.
• Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Electron configuration
Exp anded : 1s2 2s2 2p x1 2py 1
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Con dens ed: 1s2 2s2 2p 2

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2 Electron Configuration
• Noble gas notation
• the symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the
particular atom indicates the electron configuration of
all filled shells
• Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Electron
Configuration N oble Gas
Orbital box diagram (conden sed) N otation
2 2 2 2 2
1s 2s 2p [He]2s 2p

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2 Electron Configuration
• Valence shell: the outermost incomplete shell.
• Valence electron: an electron in the valence shell.
• Lewis dot structure:
• the symbol of the element represents the nucleus and
filled shells.
• dots represent valence electrons.
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
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2 Main group elemen ts;
s block (2 elemen ts ) Main group elemen ts;
p block (6 elemen ts )
Heliu m is
als o an s block
element

1A 8A
Tran sition elemen ts;
1 1s 2A d block (10 elemen ts ) 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 1s 1
2 2s 2p 2
3 3s 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B 3p 3
4 4s 3d 5p 4
5 5s 4d 4p 5
6 6s 5d 6p 6
7 7s 6d 7p 7

Inn er transition 6 4f
elements; f block
(14 elemen ts) 7 5f
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2 Electron Configuration
• Table 2.9 Noble Gas Notation and Lewis dot
structures for the Alkali Metals (Group 1A
Elements) 3
N ob le Lew is Li
6.941
Gas dot
Element N otation Structure 11
1A
Na
Li [He]2s1 Li• 22.990
1 19
Na [N e]3s N a• K
K [A r]4s1 K• 39.098
1 37
Rb [Kr]5s Rb• Rb
Cs [Xe]6s1 Cs • 85.468
55
Cs
132.91

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2 Periodic Property
• As we have seen, the Periodic Table was
constructed on the basis of trends (periodicity) in
chemical properties.
• With an understanding of electron configuration,
chemists realized that the periodicity of chemical
properties could be understood in terms of
periodicity in electron configuration.
• The Periodic Table works because elements in
the same column (group) have the same
configuration in their outer shells.
• We look at two periodic properties: atomic size
and ionization energy
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2 Atomic Size
• The size of an atom is determined by the size of
its outermost occupied orbital.
• Example: the size of a chlorine atom is
determined by the size of its three 3p orbitals, the
size of a carbon atom is determined by the size of
if its three 2p orbitals.

Cl Cl C C

1.54 pm
198 pm

The radius of a chlorine The radius of a carbon

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atom is 99 pm atom is 77 pm
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2-44
2 Atomic Size
• Figure 2.16 Atomic radii of the main-group
elements (in pm).

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2 Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy: the energy required to remove
the most loosely held electron from an atom in
the gaseous state.
• example: when lithium loses one electron, it becomes a
lithium ion; it still has three protons in its nucleus, but
now only two electrons outside the nucleus.
Li + en ergy Li+ + e
-

Lith iu m Ionization Lithiu m Electron

energy ion

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2 Ionization Energy
• Figure 2.17 Ionization energy versus atomic
energy for elements 1-37.

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2 Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy is a periodic property:
Ionization energy

• in general, it increases across a row; valence electrons

are in the same shell and subject to increasing
attraction as the number of protons in the nucleus
increases.
• it increases going up a column; the valence electrons
are in lower principle energy levels, which are closer to
the nucleus and feel the nuclear charge more strongly.
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2 Atoms
10-1 0 m
Nu cleus (protons an d neu trons)
Space occupied by electrons

Proton

Neu tron
End
10-1 5 m Chapter 2
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