Rock Excavation

Engineering
MND400

Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad

 Initiation System
An initiation system provides the initial
energy required to detonate an explosive used
for rock blasting. Initiation systems require:
• An initial energy source,
• A distribution network to deliver the energy
to each blast hole, and
• An in-hole component to initiate a
detonator-sensitive explosive.

• The systems are broadly classified as either

electric or non-electric and may contain
various combinations of cords and initiators
either as separate components or integrated.
• Initiators a term used in the explosive industry to describe any device
that may be used to start a detonation or a deflagration. There are four
general classifications of initiators currently being used in surface coal-
mine blasting:
• Non-electric systems,
• Electric systems,
• Electronic systems, and
• Blasting-cap and safety-fuse systems.
Developments in Initiation System
• Initially rock blasting was done with black powder, initiation was started by
the flame slowly propagating through a black powder fuse.
• In 1831, William Bickford invented the safety fuse, the use of black powder
became safer and reliable.
• In 1865 Nobel’s Patented, the detonator - made use of a small quantity of
primary explosive, mercury fulminate, pressed into a copper capsule which
was crimped to the end of the black powder fuse.
• About 1900, the electrically igniting fuse head was used to connect to a
short length of black powder fuse, in its turn connected to an ordinary
detonator. This constituted the first electric delay detonator.
Developments in Initiation System
• Later, in about 1920, came the instantaneous electric detonator
• In 1927, second delay electric detonators came under the foundation of
instantaneous electric detonator and then the millisecond delay electric
detonator was followed in 1946.
• In 1973, the Nonel non-electric initiation system (it is also called shock
tube initiating system) was invented by Nitro Nobel AB of Sweden.
• In 1993, Nitro Nobel AB introduced the new detonators into the
marketplace, the non-primary explosive detonators (NPED)
Plain Detonators and Safety Fuses
• The use of plain detonator (also called ordinary detonator) and safety
fuse is the oldest explosive initiation system.
• The plain detonator and fuse system was the dominant initiation method
for small-diameter holes - After the detonating explosives were
introduced, and until electric methods became widespread, .
• Due to economics, this method remains in wide use in many areas of the
world.
• But at present, this system has fallen into disfavor due to its high
accident potential and the fact that better breakage and higher
productivity are possible with modern electric and non-electric methods.
Safety Fuse
• The safety fuse, or black powder fuse, consists of a black powder core
wrapped in textile and covered with waterproof materials, traditionally
bitumen, wax and plastics.
• The black powder core used in safety fuses is the mixture of
• potassium nitrate (63–75 %),
• sulfur (15–27 %), and
• charcoal (10–13 %)
properly balanced to get a uniform and reliable rate of burning.
• Normal unconfined state a propagation velocity of 8–10 cm/s. The tolerance
allowed generally is about ±10 %.
Plain Detonators
• Plain or ordinary detonator is the earliest of modern blasting detonators which
provide non-electric method of initiating explosive charges, when used in
conjunction with safety fuse.
• The detonator contains two types of charges (sometimes three types):
• Primary charge and
• Base charge.
• The primary charge (mercury fulminate or lead azide) ensures flame pickup from
the safety fuse, which in turn detonates the base charge (PETN, or RDX/TNT)
and thus detonates the explosive charge being primed with the detonator.
• Plain detonators store well for long periods
• A small quantity of primary explosive such as lead styphnate or lead azide is
initially initiated by safety fuse.
• The primary explosive/prime charge detonate, initiating detonation in the base
charge—usually about half gram (No. 8 detonator) of a relatively sensitive
secondary explosives such as PETN, or RDX/TNT.
• Based on the quantity of base charge and primary charge quantity, the
detonators are designed as detonator No. 1 to No. 8 or more.
• No. 6 and No. 8 are usually available in the market, but No. 8 is much more
widely used for rock blasting as it produces much stronger detonation power
than No. 6 cap.
• No. 6 strength detonator 1 gram mixture containing 80% of mercury
fulminate and 20% of potassium chlorate
• No. 8 strength detonator 2-gram mixture containing 80% of prime charge
(lead azide, lead styphnate and Aluminum powder- A.S.A) and 20% of base
charge (PETN)
Electric Detonators
• Electric detonators are such kind of detonators which are
ignited with an electrical igniting element.
• Electrical current is its initial energy source.
• The electrical energy is converted into heat energy on
passing the firing current through bridge wire. The heat
energy ignites the pyrotechnic that surrounds the bridge wire
on the fuse head
• The resulting flash or flame ignites the primary charge and
in turn set off base charge.
• Electric detonators are classified as instantaneous and delay
detonators
Instantaneous Detonators
• In instantaneous detonators, the fusehead directly ignites
the primary charge of the detonator.
• Instantaneous detonators fire within a few milliseconds
(<5 ms) after they receive the current. Instantaneous
detonators are used when all the holes are to be fired
simultaneously.
• At present, instantaneous electric detonators are usually
used as a starter to ignite some non-electrical initiation
systems, detonating cord system and Nonel (shock tube)
system.
• Dyno Nobel—an instant electric detonator housed in a
plastic bunch block, facilitating easy connection to both
shock tube and detonating cord.
Delay Detonators
• For most blasting operations, it is an advantage to have the
various holes fired in a predetermined sequence with specific
time intervals between detonators.
• The most notable advantages of delay detonators are as
follows:
• Reduced vibration, airblast, and flyrock;
• More predictable throw (amount and direction);
• Reduced backbreak and overbreak, with working faces left in
an improved condition;
• Improved the excavation results for tunneling due to the fresh
free faces for the subsequently firing holes are offered by the
holes previously fired in a proper time interval.
Delay Detonators
• In delay detonators, a delay element is inserted between the
electrical fuse head and the primary charge.
• This delay element consists of a column of slow-burning
composition contained in a thick-wall metal tube.
• The length and composition determine the amount of delay
time introduced into the detonator.
• There are three basic delay series:
• Millisecond delay detonators;
• Long-period delay detonators.
• There are also different delay series:
• 200 ms delay,
• half second delay, and
• second delay
• Coal mines delay detonators which are specially manufactured for
underground coal mines.
Delay Detonators
• For the delay detonators, there is always an unavoidable scatter
in the firing times of different detonators with the same
nominal firing time.
• This can be due to
• Small variations in the length,
• The packing density, and
• The composition of the pyrotechnic delay charges, or
• Change in the burning rate occurring from aging during storage.
• The burning rate may change due to slow oxidation reactions
within the pyrotechnic charge itself.
Shock Tube Detonators (Nonel System)
• A shock tube detonator is a non-electric
detonator in the form of small-diameter hollow
plastic tubing used to transport an initiating
signal to initiate the primary explosive or delay
element in a detonator by means of a shock wave
traveling the length of the tube.
• It was invented by Nitro Nobel AB under the
leadership of Per Anders Persson, patented in
1971, and registered trademark Nonel (the
contraction of Non-electric)
• The plastic shock tube is composed of one or
more layers of plastic which are designed to
enhance the physical properties (tensile strength,
flexibility, and abrasion resistance).
Nonel Detonators
• The inner wall of the tube is covered with a fine
dust of explosives (usually composed of HMX
and aluminum powder) which reacts chemically
to support the air shock wave by heating and by
the explosion of the gaseous reaction products.
• The explosive load of the shock tube is <20 mg/m
of tubing, sufficient to propagate the shock wave
indefinitely through the tube, or until the
conventional cap delay element is reached.
• The propagation velocity of the shock wave is
about 2000 m/s (1980–2130 m/s), and the shock
wave travels through the tube without affecting
the outside surface of the tube.
Types of Shock Tube Detonators
• Usually, there are three configurations that are widely used
in rock blasting:
• Millisecond delay system;
• Long-period delay system; and
• A combination of high-precision long-period in-hole
detonators and a number of short-delay surface connector
units (Unidet system).
• Millisecond delay system is used for bench blasting and
underground blasting,
• Long-period delay system is used for underground blasting,
and shock tube
• Downlines with shock tube trunkline delay units (Unidet
system) is used for bench blasting.
Types of Shock Tube Detonators
• Millisecond delay system
• Millisecond delay system of shock tube detonators is a conventional initiation system with a
delay time of 25 ms between each interval.
• Long-period delay system
• Long-period delay system is an initiation system intended for underground use. The delay
times between intervals in the system are generally longer in order to give enough time for
blasted rock to be properly displaced in the confined space and single free face typical in
tunneling.
• Combination of high-precision long-period in-hole detonators and a number of
short-delay surface connector units (Unidet system).
• This system (Unidet) is an initiation system that employs a uniform delay time in the in-hole
detonators and variable delay times in the connector units on the surface. The delay time in the
drillhole usually has a longer delay time which normally enables most of the in-hole
detonators to be initiated on the surface before any rock displacement begins. This is then
supplemented by delay times in the surface connector units, which give the desired initiation
sequence.
Initiation Methods for Shock Tube Detonator System
• Initiation using an electric detonator
• A shock tube detonator round can be initiated with an electric detonator. The electric detonator
is taped to the shock tube with the detonator bottom pointing opposite to the direction of the
shock wave starting propagation in the tube.
• The electric detonator should be well covered with earth, drill cuttings, etc., as the strength of
this detonator is considerably greater than that of the surface connection unit.
• Shock tube detonator system can also be initiated by plain detonator with safety fuse, and the
length should be long enough to ensure shot firer evacuating to a safe place after igniting the
fuse and detonating cord..
• Initiation using a special blasting machine or shock tube starting device
• The simplest and safest way of initiating shock tube detonator rounds is using a long shock
tube is, when the round is ready to be blasted, connect the long shock tube to the blasting
machine, by inserting the tube into the chuck as far as possible, then starting the machine, and
firing the round
 Initiation System
Detonating Cord
• Detonating cord is round, flexible cord
containing a core of pentaerythritoltetra-nitrate
(PETN) high explosive. The exterior sheathing
is waterproof material surrounded by a
reinforcing textile/plastic wrapper.
• The purpose of detonating cord is to:
• Detonate other high explosives with which it comes
in contact and
• Transmit a detonation wave from one detonating
cord to another or to a non-electric detonator.
• Detonating cord is available for a wide range of core loads, and many
variables must be considered when determining the proper core-load
detonating cord to use. These variables include:
• The detonation velocity of detonating cord is 7000 meters per second
• A general rule when selecting detonating cord is to use the lowest cord
load possible consistent with conditions at hand
• Low cord loads will carry the same signal with much less air blast and
disruption of the explosive column.
• If the detonating cord is in contact with ANFO or ammonium nitrate-
based products, a lower core load will have less disruptive effects on the
explosive column and will result in greater blast efficiency
• When determining the core load to use at your
blasting operation, consider
• Cord Initiator
• Initiation system to which cord is initiating
• The weather
• The explosives used for the main blasting charge
• The use of detonator-sensitive or nitroglycerin-based
explosives and
• The diameter of the hole
• Detonating cord can be used as down lines or trunk
lines. As down line, detonating cord is used to
initiate cord-sensitive boosters or ms-delay
detonators.
• Initiating Detonating Cord – Even though modern detonators are very
dependable, it is a good idea to use two detonators at the point of initiation,
especially when delay detonators are used for surface initiation of multiple
hole shots.
• Most detonating cord is designed to be initiated with an electric detonator,
a non-electric detonator, or two cap-and-fuse assemblies.
• Advantages of Using Detonating Cord
• Detonating cord is easy to use, rugged, and insensitive; it is not susceptible to
electric hazards; and it is reasonably accurate.
• Disadvantages of Using Detonating Cord
• Detonating cord misfires and cut-offs can occur from fly-rock or sub-surface rock
shifting; downward initiation through the charge column can both cause low-order
deflagration and render the charge more dense, even to the point of “dead press”
and detonating cord can disrupt stemming material.
• In order to provide for delay timing between holes and between rows of
holes, the surface detonating cord can be interrupted and a surface delay
unit, detonating relay, introduced.
• A wide range of millisecond delay times are available.
• serious concern when using detonating cord as the down-the-hole line is
the desensitization of some explosives
Electronic Initiation System
• In 1983 Worsley & Tyler introduced the
concept of electronic detonators for mining
applications.
• An integrated circuit chip and a capacitor
internal to each detonator control the
initiation time.
• A specially designed blasting machine
transmits a selectable signal that is identified
by each detonator and determines the
detonation timing sequence.
Electronic Initiation System
• Although the cost of electronic detonator is higher
than electric and shock tube detonators, the electronic
detonator system has the following advantages:
• Delay range of 1 up to 20,000 ms with an increment of 1
ms.
• Precision of 0.01 % of nominal delay time and up to 1000
times more accurate than pyrotechnics.
• Safe and reliable initiation of up to 20,000 units in one
blast.
• It cannot be initiated by foreign energy, i.e., thunder, static
electricity, and stray current, only by the specified blasting
machine.
• There is a unique ID in each detonator. The ID number is
not removable and is readable by the specified logger.
Non-Primary Explosive Detonator
• The basic concept is replacing primary explosive with secondary
explosive.
• Primary explosive is replaced with initiating element
• Initiating element consists of steel shell, sealing cap and PETN charge
• With the design of density and quality variation in PETN, the
combustion front accelerates along the initiation element
• When reaction front reach to base charge, the initial deflagration
changes to full detonation.
• DDT (Deflagration to Detonation Transition)
• It has significant safety and environmental advantages in all
operations
• Manufacturing
• Transportation
• Storage
• Use