PHY 102 Part B, Lecture 2

PHY 102 Part B
Lecture II
DR. ADEWUSI O. MUSTAPHA
Department of Physics,
LASU, Ojo Campus
D.C. Electric Circuits and Analysis
1.1 Introduction
An electric circuit is a closed path of current flow from positive terminal of a source of e.m.f
through conductor and circuit elements, back to its negative terminal, having performed a
work or defined function.
The following is a circuit model:
Cct Elements
- Source(s) +
Figure 1: Showing basic electric circuit model

Where there may be more than one source and the circuit element(s) may be one, two or
many resistor(s) (R), capacitor(s) (C), inductor(s) (L), and/or added logic device(s). Electric
circuit elements are often coded for example the following are codes for positive and negative
regulators.
REGULATORS
S/N Positive Negative
1. 7805 7905
2. 7812 7912
3. 7815 7915
Where the first two code numbers indicate their polarity while the last two code numbers
indicate output voltage value. For example 7912 imply the component is a negative regulator
that delivers 12v stability.
Generally, circuit elements or components are determined by the objective for which the
circuit need be constructed. This required learning progressively the function of every
existing circuit component, for example: resistors resist the flow of electric current in a
circuit and hence can be used to protect sensitive or fragile component from been damaged
by needed current (I) amount in a circuit; capacitors are used to store some amount of electric
charge (q) and may be used to control amount of current flow in a circuit; also inductor or
wire coil are used to store changing current in its magnetic field by electromagnetic
induction.
Thus, flow of electric current down a conducting wire causes an energy change from the
electrical energy of the circuit source to heat energy by resistor, magnetic energy by inductor
and stored electrical energy by capacitor for later use. Generally, potential rises from negative
terminal through components to positive terminal of the source, emf E; and its potential fall
from positive terminal to negative terminal of the source. Primarily,
I = q/t (1)
Hence, by definition a current of 1A is flowing in a circuit when a charge amount of one
coulomb (1.0 C) flow across any point in the circuit in one second.
Resistivity ( ρ ¿ of a piece of resistor depend on its dimension and constituent material.
[ resistance ( R ) x cros s sectional area ( A ) ]
ρ= (2)
length of the resistor (l)
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) and that of resistivity is ohm meters (Ω m). The reciprocal
of resistivity of a piece of wire gives us its conductivity (σ ¿ . Thus:
1
σ = (3)
ρ
In a d.c. circuit the current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference (p.d.) between its ends if the temperature and physical conditions are
constant,
i.e. I ∝V , hence,
V = IR (4)
Equation 4 is the Ohm’s law, where R, the constant of proportionality is resistance value of
the resistor present virtually as inherent part of the conductor material or as real resistor
component. Conductors that does not obey this rule are called non-ohmic conductors.
Exercise 1: Draw a circuit having d.c. source of total emf E from two batteries and three
resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series. The reciprocal of resistance R of a conductor is
called its conductance (S). The unit of conductivity is (Ω m)-1 i.e. ‘per ohm meters ‘and the
unit of conductance is Siemens.
Exercise 2: Draw another circuit having d.c. source of emf E from two batteries and three
resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.
1.2.1 Resistors in Series Circuits

Considering flow of current from the source emf E through each of the three resistors R1 R2
and R3 in example 1, the p.d. across each resistor can be evaluated by Ohm’s law as follow:
V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 (5)
The sum of the potential differences across the individual resistors in the exercise 1, add or
sum to the total emf of the source batteries, hence:
E = V1 + V2 +V3 (6)
Substituting Equation (5) into Equation (6):
E = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 + R3) (7)
If the sum of the three resistors R1 R2 and R3 is RT, then the equivalent circuit of Exercise 1
circuit result can be represented as:
E = I RT (8)
Exercise 3: Draw the equivalent circuit of the exercise 1 circuit result.
Exercise 4: Compare circuit results in Exercise 1 with that obtained in Exercise 3.
Consequently, the above analysis mean the total resistance value of a series circuit is the sum
of the resistance values of the component resistors in the circuit. Generalizing this result, we
have:
R T = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 … + Rn Ohms (9)
Thus, if a series circuit consists of N elements, each having equal resistance R, then the total
resistance is given by:
RT = NR Ohms (10)
Note if the components are not equal in the series circuit, then Equation 9 applies. Also, if
Equation (9) is multiplied through by I2, then:
I2RT = I2R1 + I2R2 + I2R3 + I2R4, implying
EI = I2R1 + I2R2 + I2R3 + I2R4 (11)
Hence, the total power supplied by the battery, EI is the sum of the heating losses of R 1, R2, R3
and R4. Equation (11) illustrates the law of conservation of energy.
Example 1: Consider the calculation of the resistor (R) required to reduce the line voltage
from 120 volts to 70 volts for operation of a soldering iron (S), given the iron is rated 120
volts and 100 watts.
Solution: The resistance, Rs of the soldering iron can be obtained thus:
P = V2 / Rs
100 = 1202 / Rs
Therefore, Rs = 1202 / 100 = 144 Ω
Thus, the current in the soldering iron at reduced voltage is:
I = V/ Rs = 70/144 = 0.486 A
Also, the total resistance of the external resistor and that of the soldering iron in the circuit is:
RT = V / I = 120/0.486 = 247 Ω
Hence, the needed external resistor must have resistance value Rext obtained as follow:
RT = Rext + Rs
Rext = (247 - 144) = 103 Ω
The power dissipated through Rext can be calculated thus:
P = ¿V) 2 / Rext = (120 – 70)2 volts / 103 Ω =24.3 watts.
Exercise 5: Comment on the relevance of the operational voltage of the soldering iron.
Example 2: Consider a motor located 151 m from the 220 V d.c. source of energy in circuit
with forward inherent resistance R Lf of the line or cable connecting it to the positive terminal
of the source and the return inherent resistance R Lr of the same cable type connecting its other
terminal to the negative terminal of the source.
Analysis: If the load on the motor is 4 hp, the efficiency of the motor is 82%, while the
maximum allowable voltage drop of the motor’s feeder lines is 3%, which correspond to
resistivity of 10.37 x 10-5 Ω m on conduction wire table. Then, we can evaluate the cross-
sectional area A and thickness or diameter D of the cable that will effectively deliver required
power to the motor.
(i) The 3% of supply voltage = 0.03 x 220 V = 6.6 V
(ii) Then, voltage received by the motor = 220 V – 6.6 V = 213.4 V
(iii) Thus, the motor current Im = (4 x 746) VA / (0.82 x 213.4) = 17.1 A
(iv) The maximum allowable total resistance RL = total allowable voltage drop / Im
= 6.60 V / 17.1 A = 0.39 Ω
(v) The total length of the conductor required = 2 x 151 m = 302 m
(vi) The cross-sections area A of cable required is = ρl /¿ RL = 0.000103 x 302/0.39
= 0.079759 m2
(vii) The diameter D = 2 x radius (r). From (vi) πr2 = 0.079759 m2
r = (0.079759 m2 / π) ½
= 0.0254 m
= 2.54 cm
Hence, D = 5.08 cm
Thus, the specification of the required cable is 302 m length of 10.37 x 10 -5 Ω m conduction
wire of cross-sectional area and diameter 0.079759 m2 and 0.0254 m respectively.
Lecture 3
1.2.2 Resistors in Parallel Circuits

PHY 102 Part B, Lecture 2

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PHY 102 Part B

Figure 1: Showing basic electric circuit model

1.2.1 Resistors in Series Circuits

1.2.2 Resistors in Parallel Circuits

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