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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
DESIGN CONCEPTS
David A. Watt, University of Glasgow

with contributions by
William Findlay, University of Glasgow

DESIGN CONCEPTS
DESIGN CONCEPTS
David A. Watt, University of Glasgow

with contributions by
William Findlay, University of Glasgow

Copyright  2004 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England
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ADA is a registered trademark of the US Government Ada Joint Program Office.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Watt, David A. (David Anthony)

Programming language design concepts / David A. Watt ; with
contributions by William Findlay.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-470-85320-4 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Programming languages (Electronic computers) I. Findlay, William,
1947- II. Title.
QA76.7 .W388 2004

005.13 – dc22
2003026236
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-470-85320-4
Typeset in 10/12pt TimesTen by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry
in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.
To Carol
Contents
Preface xv
Part I: Introduction 1
1 Programming languages 3
1.1 Programming linguistics 3
1.1.1 Concepts and paradigms 3
1.1.2 Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics 5
1.1.3 Language processors 6
1.2 Historical development 6
Summary 10
Further reading 10
Exercises 10
Part II: Basic Concepts 13

2 Values and types 15
2.1 Types 15
2.2 Primitive types 16
2.2.1 Built-in primitive types 16
2.2.2 Defined primitive types 18
2.2.3 Discrete primitive types 19
2.3 Composite types 20
2.3.1 Cartesian products, structures, and records 21
2.3.2 Mappings, arrays, and functions 23
2.3.3 Disjoint unions, discriminated records, and objects 27
2.4 Recursive types 33
2.4.1 Lists 33
2.4.2 Strings 35
2.4.3 Recursive types in general 36
2.5 Type systems 37
2.5.1 Static vs dynamic typing 38
2.5.2 Type equivalence 40
2.5.3 The Type Completeness Principle 42
2.6 Expressions 43
2.6.1 Literals 43
2.6.2 Constructions 44
2.6.3 Function calls 46
2.6.4 Conditional expressions 47
2.6.5 Iterative expressions 48
2.6.6 Constant and variable accesses 49
vii
viii Contents
2.7 Implementation notes 49

2.7.1 Representation of primitive types 49
2.7.2 Representation of Cartesian products 50
2.7.3 Representation of arrays 50
2.7.4 Representation of disjoint unions 51
2.7.5 Representation of recursive types 51
Summary 52
Further reading 52
Exercises 52
3 Variables and storage 57

3.1 Variables and storage 57
3.2 Simple variables 58
3.3 Composite variables 59
3.3.1 Total vs selective update 60
3.3.2 Static vs dynamic vs flexible arrays 61
3.4 Copy semantics vs reference semantics 63
3.5 Lifetime 66
3.5.1 Global and local variables 66
3.5.2 Heap variables 68
3.5.3 Persistent variables 71
3.6 Pointers 73
3.6.1 Pointers and recursive types 74
3.6.2 Dangling pointers 75
3.7 Commands 77
3.7.1 Skips 77
3.7.2 Assignments 77
3.7.3 Proper procedure calls 78
3.7.4 Sequential commands 79
3.7.5 Collateral commands 79
3.7.6 Conditional commands 80
3.7.7 Iterative commands 82
3.8 Expressions with side effects 85
3.8.1 Command expressions 86
3.8.2 Expression-oriented languages 87
3.9.1 Storage for global and local variables 88
3.9.2 Storage for heap variables 89
3.9.3 Representation of dynamic and flexible arrays 90
Summary 91
Further reading 91
Exercises 92
4 Bindings and scope 95

4.1 Bindings and environments 95
4.2 Scope 97
Contents ix
4.2.1 Block structure 97

4.2.2 Scope and visibility 99
4.2.3 Static vs dynamic scoping 100
4.3 Declarations 102
4.3.1 Type declarations 102
4.3.2 Constant declarations 104
4.3.3 Variable declarations 104
4.3.4 Procedure definitions 105
4.3.5 Collateral declarations 105
4.3.6 Sequential declarations 106
4.3.7 Recursive declarations 107
4.3.8 Scopes of declarations 108
4.4 Blocks 108
4.4.1 Block commands 109
4.4.2 Block expressions 110
4.4.3 The Qualification Principle 110
Summary 111
Further reading 112
Exercises 112
5 Procedural abstraction 115

5.1 Function procedures and proper procedures 115
5.1.1 Function procedures 116
5.1.2 Proper procedures 118
5.1.3 The Abstraction Principle 120
5.2 Parameters and arguments 122
5.2.1 Copy parameter mechanisms 124
5.2.2 Reference parameter mechanisms 125
5.2.3 The Correspondence Principle 128
5.3.1 Implementation of procedure calls 130
5.3.2 Implementation of parameter mechanisms 130
Summary 131
Further reading 131
Exercises 131
Part III: Advanced Concepts 133

6 Data abstraction 135
6.1 Program units, packages, and encapsulation 135
6.1.1 Packages 136
6.1.2 Encapsulation 137
6.2 Abstract types 140
6.3 Objects and classes 145
6.3.1 Classes 146
6.3.2 Subclasses and inheritance 151
x Contents
6.3.3 Abstract classes 157

6.3.4 Single vs multiple inheritance 160
6.3.5 Interfaces 162
6.4.1 Representation of objects 164
6.4.2 Implementation of method calls 165
Summary 166
Further reading 167
Exercises 167
7 Generic abstraction 171

7.1 Generic units and instantiation 171
7.1.1 Generic packages in ADA 172
7.1.2 Generic classes in C++ 174
7.2 Type and class parameters 176
7.2.1 Type parameters in ADA 176
7.2.2 Type parameters in C++ 180
7.2.3 Class parameters in JAVA 183
7.3.1 Implementation of ADA generic units 186
7.3.2 Implementation of C++ generic units 187
7.3.3 Implementation of JAVA generic units 188
Summary 188
Further reading 189
Exercises 189
8 Type systems 191

8.1 Inclusion polymorphism 191
8.1.1 Types and subtypes 191
8.1.2 Classes and subclasses 195
8.2 Parametric polymorphism 198
8.2.1 Polymorphic procedures 198
8.2.2 Parameterized types 200
8.2.3 Type inference 202
8.3 Overloading 204
8.4 Type conversions 207
8.5.1 Implementation of parametric polymorphism 208
Summary 210
Further reading 210
Exercises 211
9 Control flow 215

9.1 Sequencers 215
9.2 Jumps 216
9.3 Escapes 218
Contents xi
9.4 Exceptions 221

9.5.1 Implementation of jumps and escapes 226
9.5.2 Implementation of exceptions 227
Summary 227
Further reading 228
Exercises 228
10 Concurrency 231
10.1 Why concurrency? 231
10.2 Programs and processes 233
10.3 Problems with concurrency 234
10.3.1 Nondeterminism 234
10.3.2 Speed dependence 234
10.3.3 Deadlock 236
10.3.4 Starvation 237
10.4 Process interactions 238
10.4.1 Independent processes 238
10.4.2 Competing processes 238
10.4.3 Communicating processes 239
10.5 Concurrency primitives 240
10.5.1 Process creation and control 241
10.5.2 Interrupts 243
10.5.3 Spin locks and wait-free algorithms 243
10.5.4 Events 248
10.5.5 Semaphores 249
10.5.6 Messages 251
10.5.7 Remote procedure calls 252
10.6 Concurrent control abstractions 253
10.6.1 Conditional critical regions 253
10.6.2 Monitors 255
10.6.3 Rendezvous 256
Summary 258
Further reading 258
Exercises 259
Part IV: Paradigms 263
11 Imperative programming 265

11.1 Key concepts 265
11.2 Pragmatics 266
11.2.1 A simple spellchecker 268
11.3 Case study: C 269
11.3.1 Values and types 269
11.3.2 Variables, storage, and control 272
xii Contents
11.3.3 Bindings and scope 274

11.3.4 Procedural abstraction 274
11.3.5 Independent compilation 275
11.3.6 Preprocessor directives 276
11.3.7 Function library 277
11.4 Case study: ADA 281
11.4.5 Data abstraction 283
11.4.6 Generic abstraction 285
11.4.7 Separate compilation 288
11.4.8 Package library 289
Summary 292
Further reading 293
Exercises 293
12 Object-oriented programming 297

12.2 Pragmatics 298
12.3 Case study: C++ 299
12.3.7 Independent compilation and preprocessor directives 307
12.3.8 Class and template library 307
12.4 Case study: JAVA 311
12.4.7 Separate compilation and dynamic linking 318
12.4.8 Class library 319
12.5 Case study: ADA95 322
12.5.1 Types 322
Contents xiii
Summary 328
Further reading 328
Exercises 329
13 Concurrent programming 333

13.2 Pragmatics 334
13.3 Case study: ADA95 336
13.3.1 Process creation and termination 336
13.3.2 Mutual exclusion 338
13.3.3 Admission control 339
13.3.4 Scheduling away deadlock 347
13.4 Case study: JAVA 355
13.4.1 Process creation and termination 356
13.4.2 Mutual exclusion 358
13.4.3 Admission control 359
Summary 363
Further reading 363
Exercises 363
14 Functional programming 367

14.1.1 Eager vs normal-order vs lazy evaluation 368
14.2 Pragmatics 370
14.3 Case study: HASKELL 370
14.3.4 Lazy evaluation 379
14.3.7 Modeling state 384
Summary 387
Further reading 388
Exercises 389
15 Logic programming 393

15.2 Pragmatics 396
15.3 Case study: PROLOG 396
15.3.1 Values, variables, and terms 396
15.3.2 Assertions and clauses 398
15.3.3 Relations 398
15.3.4 The closed-world assumption 402
xiv Contents
15.3.6 Control 404

15.3.7 Input/output 406
Summary 409
Further reading 410
Exercises 410
16 Scripting 413
16.1 Pragmatics 413
16.2.1 Regular expressions 415
16.3 Case study: PYTHON 417
16.3.6 Separate compilation 424
16.3.7 Module library 425
Summary 427
Further reading 427
Exercises 427
Part V: Conclusion 429

17 Language selection 431
17.1 Criteria 431
17.2 Evaluation 433
Summary 436
Exercises 436
18 Language design 437
18.1 Selection of concepts 437
18.2 Regularity 438
18.3 Simplicity 438
18.4 Efficiency 441
18.5 Syntax 442
18.6 Language life cycles 444
18.7 The future 445
Summary 446
Further reading 446
Exercises 447
Bibliography 449
Glossary 453
Index 465
Preface
The first programming language I ever learned was ALGOL60. This language was
notable for its elegance and its regularity; for all its imperfections, it stood head and
shoulders above its contemporaries. My interest in languages was awakened, and
I began to perceive the benefits of simplicity and consistency in language design.
Since then I have learned and programmed in about a dozen other languages,
and I have struck a nodding acquaintance with many more. Like many pro-
grammers, I have found that certain languages make programming distasteful, a
drudgery; others make programming enjoyable, even esthetically pleasing. A good
language, like a good mathematical notation, helps us to formulate and communi-
cate ideas clearly. My personal favorites have been PASCAL, ADA, ML, and JAVA.
Each of these languages has sharpened my understanding of what programming
is (or should be) all about. PASCAL taught me structured programming and data
types. ADA taught me data abstraction, exception handling, and large-scale pro-
gramming. ML taught me functional programming and parametric polymorphism.
JAVA taught me object-oriented programming and inclusion polymorphism. I had
previously met all of these concepts, and understood them in principle, but I did
not truly understand them until I had the opportunity to program in languages
that exposed them clearly.
Contents
This book consists of five parts.
Chapter 1 introduces the book with an overview of programming linguistics
(the study of programming languages) and a brief history of programming and
scripting languages.
Chapters 2–5 explain the basic concepts that underlie almost all programming
languages: values and types, variables and storage, bindings and scope, procedures
and parameters. The emphasis in these chapters is on identifying the basic
concepts and studying them individually. These basic concepts are found in almost
all languages.
Chapters 6–10 continue this theme by examining some more advanced con-
cepts: data abstraction (packages, abstract types, and classes), generic abstraction
(or templates), type systems (inclusion polymorphism, parametric polymor-
phism, overloading, and type conversions), sequencers (including exceptions), and
concurrency (primitives, conditional critical regions, monitors, and rendezvous).
These more advanced concepts are found in the more modern languages.
Chapters 11–16 survey the most important programming paradigms, compar-
ing and contrasting the long-established paradigm of imperative programming
with the increasingly important paradigms of object-oriented and concurrent pro-
gramming, the more specialized paradigms of functional and logic programming,
and the paradigm of scripting. These different paradigms are based on different
xv
xvi Preface
selections of key concepts, and give rise to sharply contrasting styles of language
and of programming. Each chapter identifies the key concepts of the subject
paradigm, and presents an overview of one or more major languages, showing
how concepts were selected and combined when the language was designed.
Several designs and implementations of a simple spellchecker are presented to
illustrate the pragmatics of programming in all of the major languages.
Chapters 17 and 18 conclude the book by looking at two issues: how to select
a suitable language for a software development project, and how to design a
new language.
The book need not be read sequentially. Chapters 1–5 should certainly be
read first, but the remaining chapters could be read in many different orders.
Chapters 11–15 are largely self-contained; my recommendation is to read at least
some of them after Chapters 1–5, in order to gain some insight into how major
languages have been designed. Figure P.1 summarizes the dependencies between
the chapters.
Examples and case studies

The concepts studied in Chapters 2–10 are freely illustrated by examples. These
examples are drawn primarily from C, C++, JAVA, and ADA. I have chosen these
languages because they are well known, they contrast well, and even their flaws
are instructive!
1
Introduction
2 3 4 5
Values and Variables and Bindings and Procedural
Types Storage Scope Abstraction
6 7 8 9 10
Data Generic Type Control Concurrency
Abstraction Abstraction Systems Flow
11 12 13 14 15 16
Imperative OO Concurrent Functional Logic Scripting
Programming Programming Programming Programming Programming
17 18
Language Language
Selection Design
Figure P.1 Dependencies between chapters of this book.

Preface xvii
The paradigms studied in Chapters 11–16 are illustrated by case studies of

major languages: ADA, C, C++, HASKELL, JAVA, PROLOG, and PYTHON. These
languages are studied only impressionistically. It would certainly be valuable for
readers to learn to program in all of these languages, in order to gain deeper insight,
but this book makes no attempt to teach programming per se. The bibliography
contains suggested reading on all of these languages.
Exercises
Each chapter is followed by a number of relevant exercises. These vary from
short exercises, through longer ones (marked *), up to truly demanding ones
(marked **) that could be treated as projects.
A typical exercise is to analyze some aspect of a favorite language, in the
same way that various languages are analyzed in the text. Exercises like this are
designed to deepen readers’ understanding of languages that they already know,
and to reinforce understanding of particular concepts by studying how they are
supported by different languages.
A typical project is to design some extension or modification to an existing
language. I should emphasize that language design should not be undertaken
lightly! These projects are aimed particularly at the most ambitious readers, but
all readers would benefit by at least thinking about the issues raised.
Readership
All programmers, not just language specialists, need a thorough understanding
of language concepts. This is because programming languages are our most
fundamental tools. They influence the very way we think about software design
and implementation, about algorithms and data structures.
This book is aimed at junior, senior, and graduate students of computer
science and information technology, all of whom need some understanding of
the fundamentals of programming languages. The book should also be of inter-
est to professional software engineers, especially project leaders responsible
for language evaluation and selection, designers and implementers of language
processors, and designers of new languages and of extensions to existing languages.
To derive maximum benefit from this book, the reader should be able to
program in at least two contrasting high-level languages. Language concepts can
best be understood by comparing how they are supported by different languages. A
reader who knows only a language like C, C++, or JAVA should learn a contrasting
language such as ADA (or vice versa) at the same time as studying this book.
The reader will also need to be comfortable with some elementary concepts
from discrete mathematics – sets, functions, relations, and predicate logic – as
these are used to explain a variety of language concepts. The relevant mathematical
concepts are briefly reviewed in Chapters 2 and 15, in order to keep this book
reasonably self-contained.
This book attempts to cover all the most important aspects of a large subject.
Where necessary, depth has been sacrificed for breadth. Thus the really serious
xviii Preface
student will need to follow up with more advanced studies. The book has an
extensive bibliography, and each chapter closes with suggestions for further
reading on the topics covered by the chapter.
Acknowledgments
Bob Tennent’s classic book Programming Language Principles has profoundly
influenced the way I have organized this book. Many books on programming
languages have tended to be syntax-oriented, examining several popular languages
feature by feature, without offering much insight into the underlying concepts
or how future languages might be designed. Some books are implementation-
oriented, attempting to explain concepts by showing how they are implemented
on computers. By contrast, Tennent’s book is semantics-oriented, first identifying
and explaining powerful and general semantic concepts, and only then analyzing
particular languages in terms of these concepts. In this book I have adopted Ten-
nent’s semantics-oriented approach, but placing far more emphasis on concepts
that have become more prominent in the intervening two decades.
I have also been strongly influenced, in many different ways, by the work
of Malcolm Atkinson, Peter Buneman, Luca Cardelli, Frank DeRemer, Edsger
Dijkstra, Tony Hoare, Jean Ichbiah, John Hughes, Mehdi Jazayeri, Bill Joy, Robin
Milner, Peter Mosses, Simon Peyton Jones, Phil Wadler, and Niklaus Wirth.
I wish to thank Bill Findlay for the two chapters (Chapters 10 and 13) he has
contributed to this book. His expertise on concurrent programming has made this
book broader in scope than I could have made it myself. His numerous suggestions
for my own chapters have been challenging and insightful.
Last but not least, I would like to thank the Wiley reviewers for their
constructive criticisms, and to acknowledge the assistance of the Wiley editorial
staff led by Gaynor Redvers-Mutton.
David A. Watt
Brisbane
March 2004
PART I
INTRODUCTION
Part I introduces the book with an overview of programming linguistics and a

brief history of programming and scripting languages.
1
Chapter 1
Programming languages
In this chapter we shall:

• outline the discipline of programming linguistics, which is the study of program-
ming languages, encompassing concepts and paradigms, syntax, semantics, and
pragmatics, and language processors such as compilers and interpreters;
• briefly survey the historical development of programming languages, covering the
major programming languages and paradigms.
1.1 Programming linguistics

The first high-level programming languages were designed during the 1950s. Ever
since then, programming languages have been a fascinating and productive area
of study. Programmers endlessly debate the relative merits of their favorite pro-
gramming languages, sometimes with almost religious zeal. On a more academic
level, computer scientists search for ways to design programming languages that
combine expressive power with simplicity and efficiency.
We sometimes use the term programming linguistics to mean the study of
programming languages. This is by analogy with the older discipline of linguistics,
which is the study of natural languages. Both programming languages and natural
languages have syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). However, we cannot take
the analogy too far. Natural languages are far broader, more expressive, and
subtler than programming languages. A natural language is just what a human
population speaks and writes, so linguists are restricted to analyzing existing (and
dead) natural languages. On the other hand, programming linguists can not only
analyze existing programming languages; they can also design and specify new
programming languages, and they can implement these languages on computers.
Programming linguistics therefore has several aspects, which we discuss briefly
in the following subsections.
1.1.1 Concepts and paradigms

Every programming language is an artifact, and as such has been consciously
designed. Some programming languages have been designed by a single person
(such as C++), others by small groups (such as C and JAVA), and still others by
large groups (such as ADA).
A programming language, to be worthy of the name, must satisfy certain
fundamental requirements.
3
4 Chapter 1 Programming languages
A programming language must be universal. That is to say, every problem

must have a solution that can be programmed in the language, if that problem can
be solved at all by a computer. This might seem to be a very strong requirement,
but even a very small programming language can meet it. Any language in which
we can define recursive functions is universal. On the other hand, a language with
neither recursion nor iteration cannot be universal. Certain application languages
are not universal, but we do not generally classify them as programming languages.
A programming language should also be reasonably natural for solving prob-
lems, at least problems within its intended application area. For example, a
programming language whose only data types are numbers and arrays might be
natural for solving numerical problems, but would be less natural for solving prob-
lems in commerce or artificial intelligence. Conversely, a programming language
whose only data types are strings and lists would be an unnatural choice for solving
numerical problems.
A programming language must also be implementable on a computer. That is
to say, it must be possible to execute every well-formed program in the language.
Mathematical notation (in its full generality) is not implementable, because in
this notation it is possible to formulate problems that cannot be solved by any
computer. Natural languages also are not implementable, because they are impre-
cise and ambiguous. Therefore, mathematical notation and natural languages, for
entirely different reasons, cannot be classified as programming languages.
In practice, a programming language should be capable of an acceptably
efficient implementation. There is plenty of room for debate over what is acceptably
efficient, especially as the efficiency of a programming language implementation
is strongly influenced by the computer architecture. FORTRAN, C, and PASCAL
programmers might expect their programs to be almost as efficient (within a factor
of 2–4) as the corresponding assembly-language programs. PROLOG programmers
have to accept an order of magnitude lower efficiency, but would justify this on
the grounds that the language is far more natural within its own application area;
besides, they hope that new computer architectures will eventually appear that
are more suited for executing PROLOG programs than conventional architectures.
In Parts II and III of this book we shall study the concepts that underlie
the design of programming languages: data and types, variables and storage,
bindings and scope, procedural abstraction, data abstraction, generic abstraction,
type systems, control, and concurrency. Although few of us will ever design a
programming language (which is extremely difficult to do well), as programmers
we can all benefit by studying these concepts. Programming languages are our
most basic tools, and we must thoroughly master them to use them effectively.
Whenever we have to learn a new programming language and discover how it
can be effectively exploited to construct reliable and maintainable programs, and
whenever we have to decide which programming language is most suitable for
solving a given problem, we find that a good understanding of programming
language concepts is indispensable. We can master a new programming language
most effectively if we understand the underlying concepts that it shares with other
programming languages.
1.1 Programming linguistics 5
Just as important as the individual concepts are the ways in which they may
be put together to design complete programming languages. Different selections
of key concepts support radically different styles of programming, which are
called paradigms. There are six major paradigms. Imperative programming is
characterized by the use of variables, commands, and procedures; object-oriented
programming by the use of objects, classes, and inheritance; concurrent pro-
gramming by the use of concurrent processes, and various control abstractions;
functional programming by the use of functions; logic programming by the use of
relations; and scripting languages by the presence of very high-level features. We
shall study all of these paradigms in Part IV of this book.
1.1.2 Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

Every programming language has syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. We have
seen that natural languages also have syntax and semantics, but pragmatics is
unique to programming languages.
• A programming language’s syntax is concerned with the form of programs:
how expressions, commands, declarations, and other constructs must be
arranged to make a well-formed program.
• A programming language’s semantics is concerned with the meaning of
programs: how a well-formed program may be expected to behave when
executed on a computer.
• A programming language’s pragmatics is concerned with the way in which
the language is intended to be used in practice.
Syntax influences how programs are written by the programmer, read by
other programmers, and parsed by the computer. Semantics determines how
programs are composed by the programmer, understood by other programmers,
and interpreted by the computer. Pragmatics influences how programmers are
expected to design and implement programs in practice. Syntax is important, but
semantics and pragmatics are more important still.
To underline this point, consider how an expert programmer thinks, given a
programming problem to solve. Firstly, the programmer decomposes the prob-
lem, identifying suitable program units (procedures, packages, abstract types,
or classes). Secondly, the programmer conceives a suitable implementation of
each program unit, deploying language concepts such as types, control structures,
exceptions, and so on. Lastly, the programmer codes each program unit. Only at
this last stage does the programming language’s syntax become relevant.
In this book we shall pay most attention to semantic and pragmatic issues. A
given construct might be provided in several programming languages, with varia-
tions in syntax that are essentially superficial. Semantic issues are more important.
We need to appreciate subtle differences in meaning between apparently similar
constructs. We need to see whether a given programming language confuses dis-
tinct concepts, or supports an important concept inadequately, or fails to support
it at all. In this book we study those concepts that are so important that they are
supported by a variety of programming languages.
In order to avoid distracting syntactic variations, wherever possible we shall

illustrate each concept using the following programming languages: C, C++, JAVA,
and ADA. C is now middle-aged, and its design defects are numerous; however, it is
very widely known and used, and even its defects are instructive. C++ and JAVA are
modern and popular object-oriented languages. ADA is a programming language
that supports imperative, object-oriented, and concurrent programming. None of
these programming languages is by any means perfect. The ideal programming
language has not yet been designed, and is never likely to be!
1.1.3 Language processors

This book is concerned only with high-level languages, i.e., programming languages
that are (more or less) independent of the machines on which programs are
executed. High-level languages are implemented by compiling programs into
machine language, by interpreting them directly, or by some combination of
compilation and interpretation.
Any system for processing programs – executing programs, or preparing them
for execution – is called a language processor. Language processors include com-
pilers, interpreters, and auxiliary tools like source-code editors and debuggers.
We have seen that a programming language must be implementable. However,
this does not mean that programmers need to know in detail how a programming
language is implemented in order to understand it thoroughly. Accordingly,
implementation issues will receive limited attention in this book, except for a
short section (‘‘Implementation notes’’) at the end of each chapter.
1.2 Historical development

Today’s programming languages are the product of developments that started in
the 1950s. Numerous concepts have been invented, tested, and improved by being
incorporated in successive programming languages. With very few exceptions, the
design of each programming language has been strongly influenced by experience
with earlier languages. The following brief historical survey summarizes the
ancestry of the major programming languages and sketches the development of
the concepts introduced in this book. It also reminds us that today’s programming
languages are not the end product of developments in programming language
design; exciting new concepts, languages, and paradigms are still being developed,
and the programming language scene ten years from now will probably be rather
different from today’s.
Figure 1.1 summarizes the dates and ancestry of several important program-
ming languages. This is not the place for a comprehensive survey, so only the
major programming languages are mentioned.
FORTRAN was the earliest major high-level language. It introduced symbolic
expressions and arrays, and also procedures (‘‘subroutines’’) with parameters. In
other respects FORTRAN (in its original form) was fairly low-level; for example, con-
trol flow was largely effected by conditional and unconditional jumps. FORTRAN has
developed a long way from its original design; the latest version was standardized
as recently as 1997.
object-oriented imperative concurrent functional logic

languages languages languages languages languages
1950
FORTRAN
LISP
ALGOL60 COBOL 1960
PL/I
SIMULA
ALGOL68
PASCAL 1970
SMALLTALK PROLOG
C
MODULA
ML
1980
ADA83
C++
HASKELL 1990
JAVA ADA95
Key:
C# major minor 2000
influence influence
Figure 1.1 Dates and ancestry of major programming languages.
COBOL was another early major high-level language. Its most important
contribution was the concept of data descriptions, a forerunner of today’s data
types. Like FORTRAN, COBOL’s control flow was fairly low-level. Also like FORTRAN,
COBOL has developed a long way from its original design, the latest version being
standardized in 2002.
ALGOL60 was the first major programming language to be designed for
communicating algorithms, not just for programming a computer. ALGOL60 intro-
duced the concept of block structure, whereby variables and procedures could
be declared wherever in the program they were needed. It was also the first
major programming language to support recursive procedures. ALGOL60 influ-
enced numerous successor languages so strongly that they are collectively called
ALGOL-like languages.
FORTRAN and ALGOL60 were most useful for numerical computation, and
COBOL for commercial data processing. PL/I was an attempt to design a
general-purpose programming language by merging features from all three. On
top of these it introduced many new features, including low-level forms of excep-
tions and concurrency. The resulting language was huge, complex, incoherent,
and difficult to implement. The PL/I experience showed that simply piling feature
upon feature is a bad way to make a programming language more powerful and
general-purpose.
A better way to gain expressive power is to choose an adequate set of concepts
and allow them to be combined systematically. This was the design philosophy
of ALGOL68. For instance, starting with concepts such as integers, arrays, and
procedures, the ALGOL68 programmer can declare an array of integers, an array of
arrays, or an array of procedures; likewise, the programmer can define a procedure
whose parameter or result is an integer, an array, or another procedure.
PASCAL, however, turned out to be the most popular of the ALGOL-like
languages. It is simple, systematic, and efficiently implementable. PASCAL and
ALGOL68 were among the first major programming languages with both a rich
variety of control structures (conditional and iterative commands) and a rich
variety of data types (such as arrays, records, and recursive types).
C was originally designed to be the system programming language of the UNIX
operating system. The symbiotic relationship between C and UNIX has proved very
good for both of them. C is suitable for writing both low-level code (such as the
UNIX system kernel) and higher-level applications. However, its low-level features
are easily misused, resulting in code that is unportable and unmaintainable.
PASCAL’s powerful successor, ADA, introduced packages and generic units –
designed to aid the construction of large modular programs – as well as high-level
forms of exceptions and concurrency. Like PL/I, ADA was intended by its designers
to become the standard general-purpose programming language. Such a stated
ambition is perhaps very rash, and ADA also attracted a lot of criticism. (For
example, Tony Hoare quipped that PASCAL, like ALGOL60 before it, was a marked
advance on its successors!) The critics were wrong: ADA was very well designed,
is particularly suitable for developing high-quality (reliable, robust, maintainable,
efficient) software, and is the language of choice for mission-critical applications
in fields such as aerospace.
We can discern certain trends in the history of programming languages. One
has been a trend towards higher levels of abstraction. The mnemonics and symbolic
labels of assembly languages abstract away from operation codes and machine
addresses. Variables and assignment abstract away from inspection and updating
of storage locations. Data types abstract away from storage structures. Control
structures abstract away from jumps. Procedures abstract away from subroutines.
Packages achieve encapsulation, and thus improve modularity. Generic units
abstract procedures and packages away from the types of data on which they
operate, and thus improve reusability.
Another trend has been a proliferation of paradigms. Nearly all the languages
mentioned so far have supported imperative programming, which is characterized
by the use of commands and procedures that update variables. PL/I and ADA sup-
port concurrent programming, characterized by the use of concurrent processes.
However, other paradigms have also become popular and important.
Object-oriented programming is based on classes of objects. An object has

variable components and is equipped with certain operations. Only these opera-
tions can access the object’s variable components. A class is a family of objects with
similar variable components and operations. Classes turn out to be convenient
reusable program units, and all the major object-oriented languages are equipped
with rich class libraries.
The concepts of object and class had their origins in SIMULA, yet another
ALGOL-like language. SMALLTALK was the earliest pure object-oriented language,
in which entire programs are constructed from classes.
C++ was designed by adding object-oriented concepts to C. C++ brought
together the C and object-oriented programming communities, and thus became
very popular. Nevertheless, its design is clumsy; it inherited all C’s shortcomings,
and it added some more of its own.
JAVA was designed by drastically simplifying C++, removing nearly all its
shortcomings. Although primarily a simple object-oriented language, JAVA can
also be used for distributed and concurrent programming. JAVA is well suited for
writing applets (small portable application programs embedded in Web pages), as
a consequence of a highly portable implementation (the Java Virtual Machine) that
has been incorporated into all the major Web browsers. Thus JAVA has enjoyed a
symbiotic relationship with the Web, and both have experienced enormous growth
in popularity. C# is very similar to JAVA, apart from some relatively minor design
improvements, but its more efficient implementation makes it more suitable for
ordinary application programming.
Functional programming is based on functions over types such as lists and
trees. The ancestral functional language was LISP, which demonstrated at a
remarkably early date that significant programs can be written without resorting
to variables and assignment.
ML and HASKELL are modern functional languages. They treat functions as
ordinary values, which can be passed as parameters and returned as results from
other functions. Moreover, they incorporate advanced type systems, allowing us to
write polymorphic functions (functions that operate on data of a variety of types).
ML (like LISP) is an impure functional language, since it does support variables
and assignment. HASKELL is a pure functional language.
As noted in Section 1.1.1, mathematical notation in its full generality is
not implementable. Nevertheless, many programming language designers have
sought to exploit subsets of mathematical notation in programming languages.
Logic programming is based on a subset of predicate logic. Logic programs infer
relationships between values, as opposed to computing output values from input
values. PROLOG was the ancestral logic language, and is still the most popular.
In its pure logical form, however, PROLOG is rather weak and inefficient, so
it has been extended with extra-logical features to make it more usable as a
programming language.
Programming languages are intended for writing application programs and
systems programs. However, there are other niches in the ecology of computing.
An operating system such as UNIX provides a language in which a user or system
administrator can issue commands from the keyboard, or store a command
script that will later be called whenever required. An office system (such as a word
processor or spreadsheet system) might enable the user to store a script (‘‘macro’’)
embodying a common sequence of commands, typically written in VISUAL BASIC.
The Internet has created a variety of new niches for scripting. For example, the
results of a database query might be converted to a dynamic Web page by a script,
typically written in PERL. All these applications are examples of scripting. Scripts
(‘‘programs’’ written in scripting languages) typically are short and high-level, are
developed very quickly, and are used to glue together subsystems written in other
languages. So scripting languages, while having much in common with imperative
programming languages, have different design constraints. The most modern and
best-designed of these scripting languages is PYTHON.
Summary
In this introductory chapter:
• We have seen what is meant by programming linguistics, and the topics encompassed
by this term: concepts and paradigms; syntax, semantics, and pragmatics; and
language processors.
• We have briefly surveyed the history of programming languages. We saw how new
languages inherited successful concepts from their ancestors, and sometimes intro-
duced new concepts of their own. We also saw how the major paradigms evolved:
imperative programming, object-oriented programming, concurrent programming,
functional programming, logic programming, and scripting.
Further reading
Programming language concepts and paradigms are cov- in WEXELBLAT (1980). Comparative studies of program-
ered not only in this book, but also in TENNENT (1981), ming languages may be found in HOROWITZ (1995), PRATT
GHEZZI and JAZAYERI (1997), SEBESTA (2001), and SETHI and ZELCOWITZ (2001), and SEBESTA (2001). A survey
(1996). Programming language syntax and semantics are of scripting languages may be found in BARRON
covered in WATT (1991). Programming language proces- (2000).
sors are covered in AHO et al. (1986), APPEL (1998), and
WATT and BROWN (2000). More detailed information on the programming languages
The early history of programming languages (up to the mentioned in this chapter may be found in the references
1970s) was the theme of a major conference, reported cited in Table 1.1.
Exercises
Note: Harder exercises are marked *.
Exercises for Section 1.1

1.1.1 Here is a whimsical exercise to get you started. For each programming language
that you know, write down the shortest program that does nothing at all.
How long is this program? This is quite a good measure of the programming
language’s verbosity!
Exercises 11
Table 1.1 Descriptions of major programming and scripting languages.
Programming
language Description
ADA ISO/IEC (1995); www.ada-auth.org/∼acats/arm.html

ALGOL60 Naur (1963)
ALGOL68 van Wijngaarden et al. (1976)
C Kernighan and Ritchie (1989); ISO/IEC (1999)
C++ Stroustrup (1997); ISO/IEC (1998)
C# Drayton et al. (2002)
COBOL ISO/IEC (2002)
FORTRAN ISO/IEC (1997)
JAVA Joy et al. (2000); Flanagan (2002)
LISP McCarthy et al. (1965); ANSI (1994)
HASKELL Thompson (1999)
ML Milner et al. (1997)
MODULA Wirth (1977)
PASCAL ISO (1990)
PERL Wall et al. (2000)
PL/I ISO (1979)
PROLOG Bratko (1990)
PYTHON Beazley (2001); www.python.org/doc/current/ref/
SIMULA Birtwhistle et al. (1979)
SMALLTALK Goldberg and Robson (1989)
Exercises for Section 1.2

*1.2.1 The brief historical survey of Section 1.2 does not mention all major pro-
gramming languages (only those that have been particularly influential, in the
author’s opinion). If a favorite language of yours has been omitted, explain
why you think that it is important enough to be included, and show where your
language fits into Figure 1.1.
*1.2.2 FORTRAN and COBOL are very old programming languages, but still widely used
today. How would you explain this paradox?
*1.2.3 Imperative programming was the dominant paradigm from the dawn of com-
puting until about 1990, after which if was overtaken by object-oriented
programming. How would you explain this development? Why has functional
or logic programming never become dominant?
PART II
BASIC CONCEPTS
Part II explains the more elementary programming language concepts, which are
supported by almost all programming languages:
• values and types
• variables and storage
• bindings and scope
• procedural abstraction (procedures and parameters).
13
Chapter 2
Values and types
Data are the raw material of computation, and are just as important (and valuable) as the
programs that manipulate the data. In computer science, therefore, the study of data is
considered as an important topic in its own right.
In this chapter we shall study:
• types of values that may be used as data in programming languages;
• primitive, composite, and recursive types;
• type systems, which group values into types and constrain the operations that may
be performed on these values;
• expressions, which are program constructs that compute new values;
• how values of primitive, composite, and recursive types are represented.
(In Chapter 3 we shall go on to study how values may be stored, and in Chapter 4 how
values may be bound to identifiers.)
2.1 Types
A value is any entity that can be manipulated by a program. Values can be
evaluated, stored, passed as arguments, returned as function results, and so on.
Different programming languages support different types of values:
• C supports integers, real numbers, structures, arrays, unions, pointers to
variables, and pointers to functions. (Integers, real numbers, and pointers
are primitive values; structures, arrays, and unions are composite values.)
• C++, which is a superset of C, supports all the above types of values plus
objects. (Objects are composite values.)
• JAVA supports booleans, integers, real numbers, arrays, and objects.
(Booleans, integers, and real numbers are primitive values; arrays and
objects are composite values.)
• ADA supports booleans, characters, enumerands, integers, real numbers,
records, arrays, discriminated records, objects (tagged records), strings,
pointers to data, and pointers to procedures. (Booleans, characters, enu-
merands, integers, real numbers, and pointers are primitive values; records,
arrays, discriminated records, objects, and strings are composite values.)
Most programming languages group values into types. For instance, nearly
all languages make a clear distinction between integer and real numbers. Most
15
16 Chapter 2 Values and types
languages also make a clear distinction between booleans and integers: integers
can be added and multiplied, while booleans can be subjected to operations like
not, and, and or.
What exactly is a type? The most obvious answer, perhaps, is that a type is a
set of values. When we say that v is a value of type T, we mean simply that v ∈ T.
When we say that an expression E is of type T, we are asserting that the result of
evaluating E will be a value of type T.
However, not every set of values is suitable to be regarded as a type. We insist
that each operation associated with the type behaves uniformly when applied to all
values of the type. Thus {false, true} is a type because the operations not, and, and or
operate uniformly over the values false and true. Also, {. . . , −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, . . .}
is a type because operations such as addition and multiplication operate uniformly
over all these values. But {13, true, Monday} is not a type, since there are no useful
operations over this set of values. Thus we see that a type is characterized not only
by its set of values, but also by the operations over that set of values.
Therefore we define a type to be a set of values, equipped with one or more
operations that can be applied uniformly to all these values.
Every programming language supports both primitive types, whose values are
primitive, and composite types, whose values are composed from simpler values.
Some languages also have recursive types, a recursive type being one whose
values are composed from other values of the same type. We examine primitive,
composite, and recursive types in the next three sections.
2.2 Primitive types

A primitive value is one that cannot be decomposed into simpler values. A
primitive type is one whose values are primitive.
Every programming language provides built-in primitive types. Some lan-
guages also allow programs to define new primitive types.
2.2.1 Built-in primitive types

One or more primitive types are built-in to every programming language. The
choice of built-in primitive types tells us much about the programming language’s
intended application area. Languages intended for commercial data processing
(such as COBOL) are likely to have primitive types whose values are fixed-length
strings and fixed-point numbers. Languages intended for numerical computation
(such as FORTRAN) are likely to have primitive types whose values are real
numbers (with a choice of precisions) and perhaps also complex numbers. A
language intended for string processing (such as SNOBOL) is likely to have a
primitive type whose values are strings of arbitrary length.
Nevertheless, certain primitive types crop up in a variety of languages, often
under different names. For example, JAVA has boolean, char, int, and float,
whereas ADA has Boolean, Character, Integer, and Float. These name
differences are of no significance. For the sake of consistency, we shall use Boolean,
Character, Integer, and Float as names for the most common primitive types:
Boolean = {false, true} (2.1)
Character = {. . . , ‘a’, . . . , ‘z’, . . . , ‘0’, . . . , ‘9’, . . . , ‘?’, . . .} (2.2)
Integer = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, . . .} (2.3)
Float = {. . . , −1.0, . . . , 0.0, . . . , +1.0, . . .} (2.4)
(Here we are focusing on the set of values of each type.)
The Boolean type has exactly two values, false and true. In some languages
these two values are denoted by the literals false and true, in others by
predefined identifiers false and true.
The Character type is a language-defined or implementation-defined set of
characters. The chosen character set is usually ASCII (128 characters), ISO LATIN
(256 characters), or UNICODE (65 536 characters).
The Integer type is a language-defined or implementation-defined range of
whole numbers. The range is influenced by the computer’s word size and integer
arithmetic. For instance, on a 32-bit computer with two’s complement arithmetic,
Integer will be {−2 147 483 648, . . . , +2 147 483 647}.
The Float type is a language-defined or implementation-defined subset of the
(rational) real numbers. The range and precision are determined by the computer’s
word size and floating-point arithmetic.
The Character, Integer, and Float types are usually implementation-defined,
i.e., the set of values is chosen by the compiler. Sometimes, however, these
types are language-defined, i.e., the set of values is defined by the programming
language. In particular, JAVA defines all its types precisely.
The cardinality of a type T, written #T, is the number of distinct values in T.
For example:
#Boolean = 2 (2.5)
#Character = 256 (ISO LATIN character set) (2.6a)
#Character = 65 536 (UNICODE character set) (2.6b)
Although nearly all programming languages support the Boolean, Character,
Integer, and Float types in one way or another, there are many complications:
• Not all languages have a distinct type corresponding to Boolean. For
example, C++ has a type named bool, but its values are just small integers;
there is a convention that zero represents false and any other integer
represents true. This convention originated in C.
• Not all languages have a distinct type corresponding to Character. For
example, C, C++, and JAVA all have a type char, but its values are just
small integers; no distinction is made between a character and its internal
representation.
• Some languages provide not one but several integer types.
For example, JAVA provides byte {−128, . . . , +127}, short
{−32 768, . . . , +32 767}, int {−2 147 483 648, . . . , +2 147 483 647}, and
long {−9 223 372 036 854 775 808, . . . , +9 223 372 036 854 775 807}. C and
C++ also provide a variety of integer types, but they are implementation-
defined.
• Some languages provide not one but several floating-point types. For
example, C, C++, and JAVA provide both float and double, of which the
latter provides greater range and precision.
EXAMPLE 2.1 JAVA and C++ integer types

Consider the following JAVA declarations:
int countryPop;
long worldPop;
The variable countryPop could be used to contain the current population of any country
(since no country yet has a population exceeding 2 billion). The variable worldPop could
be used to contain the world’s total population. But note that the program would fail if
worldPop’s type were int rather than long (since the world’s total population now
exceeds 6 billion).
A C++ program with the same declarations would be unportable: a C++ compiler may
choose {−65 536, . . . , +65 535} as the set of int values!
If some types are implementation-defined, the behavior of programs may vary

from one computer to another, even programs written in high-level languages.
This gives rise to portability problems: a program that works well on one computer
might fail when moved to a different computer.
One way to avoid such portability problems is for the programming language
to define all its primitive types precisely. As we have seen, this approach is taken
by JAVA.
2.2.2 Defined primitive types

Another way to avoid portability problems is to allow programs to define their
own integer and floating-point types, stating explicitly the desired range and/or
precision for each type. This approach is taken by ADA.
EXAMPLE 2.2 ADA integer types

Consider the following ADA declarations:
type Population is range 0 .. 1e10;
countryPop: Population;
worldPop: Population;
The integer type defined here has the following set of values:
Population = {0, . . . , 1010 }
and its cardinality is:

#Population = 1010 + 1
This code is completely portable – provided only that the computer is capable of
supporting the specified range of integers.
In ADA we can define a completely new primitive type by enumerating its

values (more precisely, by enumerating identifiers that will denote its values).
Such a type is called an enumeration type, and its values are called enumerands.
C and C++ also support enumerations, but in these languages an enumeration
type is actually an integer type, and each enumerand denotes a small integer.
EXAMPLE 2.3 ADA and C++ enumeration types

The following ADA type definition:
type Month is (jan, feb, mar, apr, may, jun,

jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec);
defines a completely new type, whose values are twelve enumerands:

Month = {jan, feb, mar, apr, may, jun, jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec}
The cardinality of this type is:
#Month = 12
The enumerands of type Month are distinct from the values of any other type. Note
that we must carefully distinguish between these enumerands (which for convenience we
have written as jan, feb, etc.) and the identifiers that denote them in the program (jan,
feb, etc.). This distinction is necessary because the identifiers might later be redeclared.
(For example, we might later redeclare dec as a procedure that decrements an integer; but
the enumerand dec still exists and can be computed.)
By contrast, the C++ type definition:
enum Month {jan, feb, mar, apr, may, jun,

jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec};
defines Month to be an integer type, and binds jan to 0, feb to 1, and so on. Thus:
Month = {0, 1, 2, . . . , 11}
2.2.3 Discrete primitive types

A discrete primitive type is a primitive type whose values have a one-to-one
relationship with a range of integers.
This is an important concept in ADA, in which values of any discrete primitive
type may be used for array indexing, counting, and so on. The discrete primitive
types in ADA are Boolean, Character, integer types, and enumeration types.
EXAMPLE 2.4 ADA discrete primitive types

Consider the following ADA code:
freq: array (Character) of Natural;

...
for ch in Character loop
freq(ch) := 0;
end loop;
The indices of the array freq are values of type Character. Likewise, the loop control
variable ch takes a sequence of values of type Character.
Also consider the following ADA code:

length: array (Month) of Natural :=
(31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31);
...
for mth in Month loop
put(length(mth));
end loop;
The indices of the array length are values of type Month. Likewise, the loop control
variable mth takes a sequence of values of type Month.
Most programming languages allow only integers to be used for counting and
array indexing. C and C++ allow enumerands also to be used for counting and
array indexing, since they classify enumeration types as integer types.
2.3 Composite types

A composite value (or data structure) is a value that is composed from simpler
values. A composite type is a type whose values are composite.
Programming languages support a huge variety of composite values: tuples,
structures, records, arrays, algebraic types, discriminated records, objects, unions,
strings, lists, trees, sequential files, direct files, relations, etc. The variety might
seem bewildering, but in fact nearly all these composite values can be understood
in terms of a small number of structuring concepts, which are:
• Cartesian products (tuples, records)
• mappings (arrays)
• disjoint unions (algebraic types, discriminated records, objects)
• recursive types (lists, trees).
(For sequential files, direct files, and relations see Exercise 2.3.6.)
We discuss Cartesian products, mappings, and disjoint unions in this section,
and recursive types in Section 2.4. Each programming language provides its own
notation for describing composite types. Here we shall use mathematical notation
that is concise, standard, and suitable for defining sets of values structured as
Cartesian products, mappings, and disjoint unions.
2.3.1 Cartesian products, structures, and records

In a Cartesian product, values of several (possibly different) types are grouped
into tuples.
We use the notation (x, y) to stand for the pair whose first component is x and
whose second component is y. We use the notation S × T to stand for the set of all
pairs (x, y) such that x is chosen from set S and y is chosen from set T. Formally:
S × T = {(x, y) | x ∈ S; y ∈ T} (2.7)
This is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
The basic operations on pairs are:
• construction of a pair from two component values;
• selection of the first or second component of a pair.
We can easily infer the cardinality of a Cartesian product:
#(S × T) = #S × #T (2.8)
This equation motivates the use of the notation ‘‘×’’ for Cartesian product.
We can extend the notion of Cartesian product from pairs to tuples with any
number of components. In general, the notation S1 × S2 × . . . × Sn stands for the
set of all n-tuples, such that the first component of each n-tuple is chosen from S1 ,
the second component from S2 , . . . , and the nth component from Sn .
The structures of C and C++, and the records of ADA, can be understood in
terms of Cartesian products.
EXAMPLE 2.5 ADA records

Consider the following ADA definitions:
type Day_Number is range 1 .. 31;
type Date is
record
m: Month;
d: Day_Number;
end record;
(u, a) (u, b) (u, c)

× =
u v a b c
(v, a) (v, b) (v, c)
S T Figure 2.1 Cartesian product of
S×T sets S and T.
This record type has the set of values:

Date = Month × Day-Number = {jan, feb, . . . , dec} × {1, . . . , 31}
This type’s cardinality is:
#Date = #Month × #Day-Number = 12 × 31 = 372
and its values are the following pairs:
(jan, 1) (jan, 2) (jan, 3) ... (jan, 31)
(feb, 1) (feb, 2) (feb, 3) ... (feb, 31)
... ... ... ... ...
(dec, 1) (dec, 2) (dec, 3) ... (dec, 31)
Note that the Date type models real-world dates only approximately: some Date values,
such as (feb, 31), do not correspond to real-world dates. (This is a common problem in
data modeling. Some real-world data are too awkward to model exactly by programming
language types, so our data models have to be approximate.)
The following code illustrates record construction:
someday: Date := (m => jan, d => 1);
The following code illustrates record component selection:

put(someday.m + 1); put("/"); put(someday.d);
someday.d := 29; someday.m := feb;
Here someday.m selects the first component, and someday.d the second component,
of the record someday. Note that the use of component identifiers m and d in record
construction and selection enables us to write code that does not depend on the order of
the components.
EXAMPLE 2.6 C++ structures

Consider the following C++ definitions:
enum Month {jan, feb, mar, apr, may, jun,
jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec};
struct Date {
Month m;
byte d;
};
This structure type has the set of values:

Date = Month × Byte = {jan, feb, . . . , dec} × {0, . . . , 255}
This type models dates even more crudely than its ADA counterpart in Example 2.5.
The following code illustrates structure construction:
struct Date someday = {jan, 1};
The following code illustrates structure selection:

printf("%d/%d", someday.m + 1, someday.d);
someday.d = 29; someday.m = feb;
A special case of a Cartesian product is one where all tuple components are
chosen from the same set. The tuples in this case are said to be homogeneous.
For example:
S2 = S × S (2.9)
means the set of homogeneous pairs whose components are both chosen from set
S. More generally we write:
Sn = S × . . . × S (2.10)
to mean the set of homogeneous n-tuples whose components are all chosen from
set S.
The cardinality of a set of homogeneous n-tuples is given by:
#(Sn ) = (#S)n (2.11)
This motivates the superscript notation.
Finally, let us consider the special case where n = 0. Equation (2.11) tells us
that S0 should have exactly one value. This value is the empty tuple (), which is
the unique tuple with no components at all. We shall find it useful to define a type
that has the empty tuple as its only value:
Unit = {()} (2.12)
#Unit = 1 (2.13)
Note that Unit is not the empty set (whose cardinality is 0).
Unit corresponds to the type named void in C, C++, and JAVA, and to the
type null record in ADA.
2.3.2 Mappings, arrays, and functions

The notion of a mapping from one set to another is extremely important in
programming languages. This notion in fact underlies two apparently different
language features: arrays and functions.
We write:
m:S→T
to state that m is a mapping from set S to set T. In other words, m maps every
value in S to a value in T. (Read the symbol ‘‘→’’ as ‘‘maps to’’.)
If m maps value x in set S to value y in set T, we write y = m(x). The value y
is called the image of x under m.
Two different mappings from S = {u, v} to T = {a, b, c} are illustrated in
Figure 2.2. We use notation such as {u → a, v → c} to denote the mapping that
maps u to a and v to c.
The notation S → T stands for the set of all mappings from S to T. Formally:
S → T = {m | x ∈ S ⇒ m(x) ∈ T} (2.14)
This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Let us deduce the cardinality of S → T. Each value in S has #T possible
images under a mapping in S → T. There are #S such values in S. Therefore there
u v u v
S S
T T
a b c a b c
Figure 2.2 Two different mappings in
{u → a, v → c} {u → c, v → c} S → T.
{u → a, v → a} {u → a, v → b} {u → a, v → c}
→ =
u v a b c {u → b, v → a} {u → b, v → b} {u → b, v → c}
S T {u → c, v → a} {u → c, v → b} {u → c, v → c}
S→T
Figure 2.3 Set of all mappings in S → T.
are #T × #T × . . . × #T possible mappings (#S copies of #T multiplied together).

In short:
#(S → T) = (#T)#S (2.15)
An array is an indexed sequence of components. An array has one component
of type T for each value in type S, so the array itself has type S → T. The length
of the array is its number of components, which is #S. Arrays are found in all
imperative and object-oriented languages.
The type S must be finite, so an array is a finite mapping. In practice, S is
always a range of consecutive values, which is called the array’s index range. The
limits of the index range are called its lower bound and upper bound.
The basic operations on arrays are:
• construction of an array from its components;
• indexing, i.e., selecting a particular component of an array, given its index.
The index used to select an array component is a computed value. Thus array index-
ing differs fundamentally from Cartesian-product selection (where the component
to be selected is always explicit).
C and C++ restrict an array’s index range to be a range of integers whose
lower bound is zero.
EXAMPLE 2.7 C++ arrays

Consider the C++ declaration:
bool p[3];
The indices of this array range from the lower bound 0 to the upper bound 2. The set of
possible values of this array is therefore:
{0, 1, 2} → {false, true}
The cardinality of this set of values is 23 , and the values are the following eight
finite mappings:
{0 → false, 1 → false, 2 → false} {0 → true, 1 → false, 2 → false}
{0 → false, 1 → false, 2 → true} {0 → true, 1 → false, 2 → true}
{0 → false, 1 → true, 2 → false} {0 → true, 1 → true, 2 → false}
{0 → false, 1 → true, 2 → true} {0 → true, 1 → true, 2 → true}
The following code illustrates array construction:
bool p[] = {true, false, true};
The following code illustrates array indexing (using an int variable c):
p[c] = !p[c];
JAVA also restricts an array’s index range to be a range of integers whose

lower bound is zero. JAVA arrays are similar to C and C++ arrays, but they are in
fact objects.
ADA allows an array’s index range to be chosen by the programmer, the only
restriction being that the index range must be a discrete primitive type.
EXAMPLE 2.8 ADA arrays

Consider the ADA type definitions:
type Color is (red, green, blue);
type Pixel is array (Color) of Boolean;
The set of values of this array type is:

Pixel = Color → Boolean = {red, green, blue} → {false, true}
#Pixel = (#Boolean)#Color = 23 = 8
and its values are the following eight finite mappings:
{red → false, green → false, blue → false} {red → true, green → false, blue → false}
{red → false, green → false, blue → true} {red → true, green → false, blue → true}
{red → false, green → true, blue → false} {red → true, green → true, blue → false}
{red → false, green → true, blue → true} {red → true, green → true, blue → true}
The following code illustrates array construction:
p: Pixel :=
(red => true, green => false, blue => true);
or more concisely:
p: Pixel := (true, false, true);
The following code illustrates array indexing (using a Color variable c):
p(c) := not p(c);
Most programming languages support multidimensional arrays. A component

of an n-dimensional array is accessed using n index values. We can think of an
n-dimensional array as having a single index that happens to be an n-tuple.
EXAMPLE 2.9 ADA two-dimensional arrays

type Xrange is range 0 .. 511;
type Yrange is range 0 .. 255;
type Window is array (YRange, XRange) of Pixel;
This two-dimensional array type has the following set of values:

Window = Yrange × Xrange → Pixel = {0, . . . , 255} × {0, . . . , 511} → Pixel
An array of this type is indexed by a pair of integers. Thus w(8,12) accesses that
component of w whose index is the pair (8, 12).
Mappings occur in programming languages, not only as arrays, but also as

function procedures (more usually called simply functions). We can implement a
mapping in S → T by means of a function procedure, which takes a value in S
(the argument) and computes its image in T (the result). Here the set S is not
necessarily finite.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Functions implementing mappings

Consider the following C++ function:
bool isEven (int n) {
return (n % 2 == 0);
}
This function implements one particular mapping in Integer → Boolean, namely:

{. . . , 0 → true, 1 → false, 2 → true, 3 → false, . . .}
We could employ a different algorithm:
bool isEven (int n) {
int m = (n < 0 ? -n : n);
while (m > 1) m -= 2;
return (m == 0);
}
but the function still implements the same mapping.

We can also write other functions that implement different mappings in Integer →
Boolean, such as:
isOdd {. . . , 0 → false, 1 → true, 2 → false, 3 → true, . . .}
isPositive {. . . , −2 → false, −1 → false, 0 → false, 1 → true, 2 → true, . . .}
isPrime {. . . , 0 → false, 1 → false, 2 → true, 3 → true, 4 → false, . . .}
In most programming languages, a function may have multiple parameters. A

function with n parameters will have n arguments passed to it when called. We can
view such a function as receiving a single argument that happens to be an n-tuple.
EXAMPLE 2.11 Functions with multiple parameters

The following C or C++ function:
float power (float b, int n) {

...
}
implements a particular mapping in Float × Integer → Float. Presumably, it maps the pair
(1.5, 2) to 2.25, the pair (4.0, −2) to 0.0625, and so on.
It is noteworthy that mappings can be implemented by either arrays or

functions in programming languages (and that mappings from n-tuples can be
implemented by either n-dimensional arrays or n-parameter functions). Indeed,
we can sometimes use arrays and functions interchangeably – see Exercise 2.3.5.
It is important not to confuse function procedures with mathematical func-
tions. A function procedure implements a mapping by means of a particular
algorithm, and thus has properties (such as efficiency) that are not shared by
mathematical functions. Furthermore, a function procedure that inspects or mod-
ifies global variables (for example a function procedure that returns the current
time of day, or one that computes and returns a random number) does not corre-
spond to any mathematical function. For these reasons, when using the unqualified
term function in the context of programming languages, we must be very clear
whether we mean a mathematical function (mapping) or a function procedure.
2.3.3 Disjoint unions, discriminated records, and objects

Another kind of composite value is the disjoint union, whereby a value is chosen
from one of several (usually different) sets.
We use the notation S + T to stand for a set of disjoint-union values, each of

which consists of a tag together with a variant chosen from either set S or set T.
The tag indicates the set from which the variant was chosen. Formally:
S + T = {left x | x ∈ S} ∪ {right y | y ∈ T} (2.16)
Here left x stands for a disjoint-union value with tag left and variant x chosen from
S, while right x stands for a disjoint-union value with tag right and variant y chosen
from T. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4.
When we wish to make the tags explicit, we will use the notation left S + right T:
left S + right T = {left x | x ∈ S} ∪ {right y | y ∈ T} (2.17)
When the tags are irrelevant, we will still use the simpler notation S + T.
Note that the tags serve only to distinguish the variants. They must be distinct,
but otherwise they may be chosen freely.
The basic operations on disjoint-union values in S + T are:
• construction of a disjoint-union value, by taking a value in either S or T and
tagging it accordingly;
• tag test, determining whether the variant was chosen from S or T;
• projection to recover the variant in S or the variant in T (as the case
may be).
For example, a tag test on the value right b determines that the variant was chosen
from T, so we can proceed to project it to recover the variant b.
We can easily infer the cardinality of a disjoint union:
#(S + T) = #S + #T (2.18)
This motivates the use of the notation ‘‘+’’ for disjoint union.
We can extend disjoint union to any number of sets. In general, the notation
S1 + S2 + . . . + Sn stands for the set in which each value is chosen from one of
S1 , S2 , . . . , or Sn .
The functional language HASKELL has algebraic types, which we can under-
stand in terms of disjoint unions. In fact, the HASKELL notation is very close to our
mathematical disjoint-union notation.
EXAMPLE 2.12 HASKELL algebraic types

Consider the HASKELL type definition:
data Number = Exact Int | Inexact Float
left u left v
+ =
u v a b c
right a right b right c
S T Figure 2.4 Disjoint union of sets
S + T (or left S + right T ) S and T.
The set of values of this algebraic type is:

Number = Exact Integer + Inexact Float
The values of the type are therefore:
{. . . , Exact(−2), Exact(−1), Exact 0, Exact(+1), Exact(+2), . . .}
∪ {. . . , Inexact(−1.0), . . . , Inexact 0.0, . . . , Inexact(+1.0), . . .}
The following code illustrates construction of an algebraic value:
let pi = Inexact 3.1416
in . . .
The following function illustrates tag test and projection:

rounded num =
-- Return the result of rounding the number num to the nearest integer.
case num of
Exact i -> i
Inexact r -> round r
This uses pattern matching. If the value of num is Inexact 3.1416, the pattern ‘‘Inexact
r’’ matches it, r is bound to 3.1416, and the subexpression ‘‘round r’’ is evaluated,
yielding 3.
We can also understand the discriminated records of ADA in terms of

disjoint unions.
EXAMPLE 2.13 ADA discriminated records (1)

type Accuracy is (exact, inexact);
type Number (acc: Accuracy := exact) is
record
case acc of
when exact =>
ival: Integer;
when inexact =>
rval: Float;
end case;
end record;
This discriminated record type has the following set of values:

Number = exact Integer + inexact Float
Note that the values of type Accuracy serve as tags.
The following code illustrates construction of a discriminated record:
pi: constant Number :=
(acc => inexact, rval => 3.1416);
Other documents randomly have
different content
accepting it with fatalistic resignation, saying that “her edjel had
come to call her away from among the living.”
Our attention was next attracted by three of the children. The
youngest, a baby, appeared choking from the effects of the same
complaint, and died the same night. The other two, a boy and girl,
also attacked, were playing about, although in high fever and with
dreadfully swollen throats. The doctor begged that they should be
sent to bed, to which they both refused to submit, while the parents
phlegmatically said that it would be a useless measure, as they could
not be kept there, and that if it should be their kismet to recover
they would do so. I am glad to say they did recover, though I am
afraid their recovery did not convert the doctor and me to a belief in
kismet.
Owing to this fatal and general way of treating sickness, the
prescriptions of physicians, neither believed in nor carried out, are
useless; besides, they are always interfered with and disputed by
quacks and old women, and the muskas, prayers, and blowings of
saintly Hodjas.
When the patient survives this extraordinary combination of
nursing, it is simply stated that his edjel or death-summons has not
yet arrived.
If a man die away from his home and country, his kismet is
supposed to have summoned him to die on the spot that received
his body.
Kismet thus being the main fountain whence the Mohammedan
draws with equanimity both the good and the evil it may please
Providence to pour forth upon him, he receives both with the
stoicism of the born-and-bred fatalist, who looks upon every effort of
his own to change the decrees of destiny as vain and futile. Hence
he becomes Moslem, or “resigned,” in the most literal sense. His
character gains that quality of inertness which we associate with the
Oriental, and his nation becomes, what a nation cannot become and
live—stagnant.
CHAPTER XXII.
CHRISTIANITY IN TURKEY.
The Greek or Holy Orthodox Church—Its Character under Ottoman Rule—Its

Service to the Greek Nation—Superstitious Doctrines and Rites—Improvement
—Revenues—Bishops—Patriarchs—The Higher Clergy—Schools—Parish Priests
—Fatal Influence of Connection with the State—Monasteries—Mount Athos—
The Five Categories of Monks—Government of the “Holy Mountain”—Pilgrims
—The Bulgarian Church—Popular Interest in the Church Question—Sketch of
the History of the Schism—The Armenian Church—St. Gregory—Creed—
Church Polity—influence of Russia—Contest between the Czar and the
Catholicos—Ritual—Clergy.
It has long been the custom to fling a good deal of contumely on

the Holy Orthodox or Greek Church. Judging from the descriptions of
trustworthy writers, from conversations I have often held with
persons of authority on the subject, and from personal observation, I
feel convinced that if part of the abuse heaped upon the Greek
Church is well founded, the greater portion is due to the rivalry and
hatred of the Western Church, and to the antipathy felt by the
Reformed Church towards her superstitions and formalities; but a
still stronger reason may be found in the errors the church still
harbors, and in the ignorance in which her clergy remained so long
plunged. Taking this as a general rule, and lamenting its
consequences, we should on the other hand bear in mind the great
antiquity of the church and its early services to Christianity. Some of
its rites and ceremonies are certainly superstitious and superfluous,
but there is none of the intolerance of the Romish Church, nor are
religious persecutions to be laid to its charge. Its clergy, stigmatized
as venal and ignorant tools in the hands of the Turks, have
nevertheless had their virtues and redeeming points
counterbalancing their evil repute. The rivalry of the upper clergy
originated principally in the corrupt system of bribery pursued by
them in their relations with the Porte for the grant of berats or
diplomas installing the Patriarchs in their respective seats, and the
practice indulged in by the Patriarchs of selling bishoprics at a price
in proportion to the wealth of the diocese. Yet in the midst of this
darkness there were still found men to carry on the work of culture
and uphold the dignity of the church. Nor have the Greek clergy
always been the cringing servants of the Porte, or the go-betweens
of the Turks and the rayahs; in the list of the Patriarchs we find
many who, in the midst of difficulties inevitable in serving a
government foreign to their church and hostile to the hopes and
aspirations of their people, hesitated not in moments of supreme
need to sacrifice position, fortune, and even life, under most horrible
circumstances, for the sake of the church. With memories of such
martyrdoms ever present in the minds of a dependent clergy, it is
not surprising to find this section of the Greek nation apparently so
subservient to their rulers. The past, however, with all its blots, is
rapidly passing away; the rules now followed by the Patriarchate in
fixed salaries and written regulations with regard to certain
contributions have put an end to many former abuses. The
theological schools, rapidly increasing in number and importance in
Turkey as well as in Greece, have also a beneficial effect on the
training of the clergy, who daily attaining a higher standard in
morality, mental development, and social position, have of late years
been enabled not only to maintain a more determined and
independent attitude before the civil authorities, but also largely to
increase their influence in promoting the education of their flocks.
The old class of clergy is dying out, and gradually a new and
different set of men is coming forward.
The commonest charge that is brought against the Greek Church
is its accumulation of superstitions. But the people are beginning to
drop the more absurd ceremonies and treat the more preposterous
superstitions with indifference. It is true that the church itself is not
yet taking the lead in this matter, as how should it? I have often
talked on this subject with ecclesiastics of the Eastern faith, and they
admit both the absurdity of many of the rites practised and the
beliefs inculcated, and also the tendency of the people to neglect
these rites and to disbelieve these superstitions; but they say that
any action on the part of the church would lead to the serious injury
both of itself and the Greek nation; for a general synod would have
to be held to deliberate on the necessary reforms; schisms would at
once arise, and the Greek Church, and hence the Greek nation,
would be disintegrated. However, I believe there are too many
sensible men among the Greek clergy for this weak position to be
maintained long. The church must reform if it is to remain the
church of the Greeks.
At present, however, the priests are afraid to move. They dare not
admit the falsity of parts of their doctrine and the absurdity of their
practices, for fear of wider consequences. For example, a miraculous
fire is supposed to spring from the supposed tomb of Christ on
Easter Sunday. The Greek clergy do not actually assert it to be a
miracle—at least not to Westerns—but if questioned about it they
invariably give an evasive answer; and the priest still continues
solemnly to light his taper from the tomb and present it to the
congregation saying, “Take, then, the flame from the Eternal Light,
and praise Christ who is risen from the dead.”[38] A similar ceremony
is observed on a small scale in every Greek church at Easter, when
the congregation light their tapers from the altar and the same
formula is used.
It is needless to say anything here about the doctrines of the
Greek Church: every one knows the insignificant differences which
separate it from the Church of Rome. The rites are less generally
known; but unfortunately they are too numerous and various to be
described here. The general impression produced by a Greek service
is gorgeousness. The rites are essentially Oriental, and have been
little changed since the early days of the Eastern Empire. The
ceremonies are endless; fast and feast days, with their distinctive
rites, are always occurring, and though generally disregarded by the
upper classes are scrupulously observed by the peasantry, to whom
the fasts (on which they work as usual) cause actual physical injury,
and the feasts sometimes produce almost equally disastrous effects.
Some parts of the service are very beautiful and impressive; but the
prayers are generally intoned in a hurried and irreverent manner,
which renders them hard to be understood. These things, however,
are mending: the lower clergy pay more attention to the ordinary
rules of decorum in the conduct of the services, and bishops are now
not consecrated unless they are somewhat educated. Formerly the
lives of the saints were the topics of sermons, now they are
becoming more practical and exhortatory; but political subjects are
strictly excluded.
Since the conquest the Greek Church and its clergy in the
Ottoman Empire have never been supported by the Government, nor
have its ministers ever received any grant either for themselves or
the churches and schools under their care. An imperial order
confirms the nomination of patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops,
and bishops. The last received from each family in their diocese a
portion of the produce of its fields: from a peasant, for example,
from half a kilo of corn and hay to a whole kilo, according to his
means. This was considered a loyal donation from each household to
its spiritual guide. Besides this the archbishops enjoyed special
benefits from the celebration of marriages, funerals, and other
religious ceremonies to which they were invited. But unfortunately
these emoluments eventually became subject to some abuses, which
excited murmurs from the community. Another custom was that a
bishop should receive from his diocese, at his consecration, a sum
sufficient to defray his immediate expenses during the first year. This
sum, as well as the offerings in kind, was fixed by the elders of the
town in which the metropolitan resided; the local authorities never
interfered in these arrangements, except when the bishops
demanded their assistance for the recovery of their dues. These
usages continued in force until 1860; Feizi Pasha and his two
supporters, Ali Pasha and Fouad Pasha, had previously tried every
means to induce the Patriarch of Constantinople and his Synod,
together with the higher classes of the Greek nation, to accept the
funds of their church from the Ottoman Government. The Porte, in
order to obtain the end it had in view, showed itself liberal by
promising large fees to the higher clergy. But for religious, political,
and social reasons, the patriarch and the nation in general rejected
the proposal. After the Crimean War a Constitutional Assembly,
composed of bishops and lay deputies from all the provinces, was
convened by order of the Porte, to deliberate upon the settlement of
some administrative affairs connected with the œcumenical throne
of Constantinople, the cathedrals, and the bishops. This assembly
also regulated, among other things, the revenues of the patriarch
and all the archbishops. Each province, proportionately to its extent,
its political importance, and its Christian population, was ordered to
pay a fixed sum. The annual minimum is 30,000 piastres, and the
maximum 90,000 piastres. The patriarch receives thirty per cent on
this. The fees fixed by the elders of each province are paid annually
by each family: the maximum of this contribution does not exceed
twenty piastres each, which, in the aggregate, constitutes the
revenues of the bishops and the pay of their subordinates. The extra
revenues are regulated in the same manner, the ancient customs
concerning their receipt having been abolished. The fees and extra
emoluments of the lower clergy of cities, towns, and villages are
received after the same fashion. An annual sum is paid by each
family to the priest, which in many villages rarely exceeds three or
four piastres. The archbishops also receive their stipend from their
diocese, and are very seldom obliged to request the assistance of
the authorities, who show great repugnance to interfering in the
matter.
The social influence of a bishop proceeds from many
circumstances. He is considered the spiritual guide of all Orthodox
Christians, presiding over the vestry and corporation intrusted with
public affairs—such as schools, philanthropical establishments, and
churches. He hears and judges, conjointly with a council composed
of laymen, all the dissensions which arise between the members of
the community. To a certain extent, and when there is no
intervention of the local courts, he judges in cases of divorce, and in
disputes relative to the payment of dowries, as well as in cases of
inheritance; but the local courts have the right of interfering. In
these cases the canonical laws are more or less well interpreted
according to the pleasure of the Kadi. The bishop judges all that
relates to the aforesaid cases in right of a privilege granted to him
by the patriarch. He can also decide other matters which belong to
the local courts in a friendly way when the disputants agree to it;
but when one of them appears dissatisfied he may refer it to the
local court, and the sentence or the bishop is nullified by that of this
tribunal.
The bishop enjoys the political position of Ἐθνάρχη and permanent
member of the Government Council of the province. In addition to
his spiritual duties, in the fulfilment of which he has sometimes to
call in the assistance of the local authorities, the bishop acts as
intermediary between the Christians and the civil government when
they ask for his intervention and counsel. But this is not always
successful, as the bishop is invested with no regular power, and the
local authorities, as well as the central administration, make use of it
as they choose and when convenient to them, always acting for the
direct interest of their government.
In the Council the influence of the bishop is nil; for his vote, as
well as those of all the other Christian members, is lost in the
majority gained by the Mussulmans, to which is added the arbitrary
influence of the Pasha and the President. Very small benefit is
derived from the presence of these Christian representatives at the
councils. Liberty of speech, reasonable discussion, and all that might
contribute to the proper direction of affairs, are entirely unknown.
The Greek Church is governed by four patriarchs residing at
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria; the last three
are equal and independent, but the authority of the first is supreme
in the regulation of spiritual affairs, and in his hands rests the power
of appointing, dismissing, or punishing any of the prelates. He is
elected by a majority of votes of a synod of the metropolitan and
neighboring bishops, and is presented to the Sultan for institution, a
favor seldom obtained without the payment of several thousand
pounds—a long-standing instance of the habitual simony of the
Church. The Sultan, however, retains the unmitigated power of
deposing, banishing, or executing him. These penalties were
frequently inflicted in former times, but the ecclesiastical body within
the last half century has gained much in influence and substance.
In spite of the general ignorance and corruption of the higher
clergy since the occupation of the country by the Ottomans, their
ranks have never lacked men who were as famous for their
knowledge as for their virtue and piety. There were many who
shunned ecclesiastical dignity in order to pass their lives in
instructing the rising generation of their time.
No religious schools then existed: the ecclesiastics received their
elementary education in the Ottoman establishments, and were
subsequently sent to the colleges of Germany or Italy to complete
their studies. It was only about the year 1843 that the first school
for the teaching of theology was founded in the island of Chalcis, so
that most of the present archbishops in the Empire studied there;
but many priests still go to Athens to complete their education.
Schools were also established for the lower clergy, but the teaching
in them was so deficient that most of the priests were sent to study
only in the national schools, where they learn next to nothing.
The higher ranks of the clergy are entirely recruited from the
monastic order: hence they are always unmarried, and hence the
too often vicious character of their lives. An attempt, partly
successful, was made to put some check upon their conduct by the
law that no bishop or archbishop can hold more than three sees
during his lifetime. If, therefore, he scandalizes the population of two
dioceses, he is at least bound to be prudent in the third.
No distinction exists between the priests of the cities and those of
the country villages. All are equal; nominated and elected in the
same manner; remunerated for their services after the mode already
explained. Nearly all of them are married; but those who are not
stand on the same footing as those who are. Historically, these
parish priests have done some service to the Greek nation: they
helped to remind it of its national existence, and by their simple,
hard-working lives taught their flocks that the Greeks had still a
church that was not wholly given over to cringing to the Turks, that
had not altogether bowed the knee to Baal. But that is all that can
be said for them. It is impossible to conceive a clergy more ignorant
than these parish priests; they are not only absolutely without
training in their own profession, knowing nought of theology, but
they have not a common elementary education. If, on the one hand,
this ignorance puts them more on a sympathetic level with their
parishioners, it must not be forgotten that it renders them incapable
of raising their flocks one jot above the stage of rustic barbarism in
which they found them. There is no ambition (unlike the rest of the
Greek race) in these homely priests; for they cannot attain any high
position in the Church. Their association seldom benefits the people
with much religious instruction, for their studies are restricted to the
external formalities of their services. Many of the abuses attributed
to them for exactions are exaggerated: their condition of poverty
and modest way of living, in no way superior to the common people,
is the best proof of this fact. They are accused of bargaining for the
price of performing certain rites, but any abuse of the kind can be
prevented by consulting the established table of fees for all such
matters; so that this infringement cannot be carried on to any great
extent.
There is no manner of doubt that the only hope for the Orthodox
Church lies in its separation from Moslem government. So long as its
high dignitaries have to purchase their appointments from Turkish
ministers and Sultans, so long will it retain its character for truckling
and corruption, so long will it lack the one thing needful in a church
—moral force. Not less are the lower clergy affected by this unhappy
connection between church and state. The government puts every
obstacle in the way of the establishment of schools for priests: it is
aware that its influence over the mass of the clergy can last only so
long as that clergy is ignorant and knows not the energy for freedom
which education must bring. Let the Church be severed from the
control of the Porte, let it be assured of the integrity of the Greek
nation, and the end of the necessity for conciliating the Turks, and
then we may hope for reforms—for the regeneration of the
priesthood and the destruction of the web of deadly superstition
which it has so long found profitable to weave round the hearts of
the people.
Any account, however brief, of the Greek church would be very
incomplete without some notice of the monasteries which the
traveller sees scattered over the country in the most beautiful and
commanding positions, perched on the summit of precipitous rocks,
on the steep slopes of hills, or nestled in the shady seclusion of the
glens. The most renowned are the twenty monasteries of Mount
Athos, called Ἅγιος Ὄρος, or Monte Santo. The population of this
peninsula is quite unique of its kind. The community of monks is
divided into five classes. The first comprises those who are as it
were independent, and are subjected to no severe rules. It is
impossible for a man without fortune to live in these monasteries,
because the common fund provides only the rations of bread, wine,
oil, etc. Every other outlay in the way of dress or the choice of better
food is at his own expense. Each prepares his meals in his cell and
need not fast unless he chooses, but cannot indulge in meat, as its
use is strictly prohibited.
Eight monasteries are called independent (Idiorrhythmic), on
account of the manner in which their occupants live. The greatest of
these and the first founded is Μεγίστη Λαὺρα, or Great Lavra: and
the others are Xeropotamu, Docheiareiu, Pantokratoros,
Stavroniketa, Philotheu, Iveron, and Vatopedi. But these monasteries
occasionally change their régime from the stricter to the laxer
discipline, or again from the Idiorrhythmic to the Cenobite.
The second category comprises the monasteries in which the
recluses live in common. This life, which is one of great austerity,
was founded by the organizers of the religious orders of the
Orthodox Church, and represents, as nearly as possible, the rule of
the ascetics of ancient times. Community of goods is the regulation
in these convents: all is equal, frugal, and simple. There is but one
treasury, one uniform, one table, one class of food, and the
discipline is very rigid. Whoever wishes to enter one of these
monastic establishments must give all that he possesses in the way
of money or raiment to the Father Superior or chief elected by the
members of the institution. The neophyte is submitted to a year’s
noviciate; and if, during this time, he can bear the life, he is
admitted into the order and consecrated a monk. If, on the contrary,
the rigid and austere life disheartens him, he is allowed to retire.
Each monk possesses a camp-bed in his cell, besides a jug of water
and his clothing; but he is strictly forbidden, under pain of severe
ecclesiastical punishment, to have money or any kind of food, or
even the utensils necessary for making coffee.
Should a monk find some object on his path, he is obliged to
deliver it to the Father Superior, to whom he ought to carry all his
sufferings, physical and moral, in order to receive consolation and
relief. Every monk belonging to this order must, without shrinking,
execute the commands of the Father Superior concerning the
exterior and interior affairs of the monastery. One third of the night
is consecrated to prayer in the principal church, where all the
brotherhood are expected to attend, with the exception of the sick
and infirm. The ritual of prayers is the same as in all the monasteries
of Mount Athos, except those of the communal ascetics. Vigils are
very frequent, the prayers commencing at sunset and continuing till
sunrise.
The following may be mentioned as belonging to this class: St.
Paul, St. Dionysius, St. Gregory, St. Simopetra, and St. Panteleemon,
called the Russian monasteries on account of their being principally
inhabited by Russian and Greek monks. Xenophu, Konstamonitu, and
Zographu, are inhabited by Bulgarian monks, and Chilandari by
Bulgarians and Servians. The other monasteries are Sphigmenu,
Karakallu, and Kutlumusi.
The third category is composed of monks who live in solitude.
Their rules resemble those already described, but they may be
considered to lead a life of still greater austerity. Their groups of
small houses, which contain two or three little rooms and a chapel,
are called sketés (σκητή); they are surrounded by gardens of about
an acre in extent. In the midst of these groups of, buildings is a
church called Κυριακόν, where mass is celebrated on Sundays and
feast-days, at which service all the monks are expected to be
present; on other days they perform their devotions in their own
chapels. In each of these habitations two or three monks lead a very
frugal life; their food consists of fresh or dry vegetables, which can
only be prepared with oil on Saturday and Sunday, when they are
allowed to eat fish, but very seldom eggs or cheese. The inhabitants
of the σκητή support themselves entirely by their manual labor; each
monk is required to follow some trade by which he can earn
sufficient for his food and clothing. This consists mostly in the
manufacture of cowls, stockings, and other articles of dress, which
are sold in the neighborhood; with the addition of carvings in wood
in the shape of crosses, spoons, etc., with which a small commerce
is carried on with the pilgrims that visit the peninsula. Each σκητή
ought to go to Karias once a year, where a fair is held, to sell his
wares, and with the proceeds buy his supply of food. There are a
great many monks who, with the exception of this annual journey,
go nowhere, and possess not the remotest idea of what is passing in
the world outside the restricted limits of their mountain. On the
whole, their life is a time of continual toil in order to procure what is
strictly necessary for their support, and of endless prayer for the
eternal welfare of their souls.
The fourth category comprises the recluses known as Κελλιώται.
Their pretty houses are sometimes sufficiently spacious and kept in
good order. Each contains from four to five rooms and a chapel,
besides possessing large extents of garden planted with vines, and
olive and nut trees. These dwellings are tenanted by five or six
recluses, and belong to convents that sell them to the monks. But
the right of possession is not complete, as the purchasers are
subjected to the payment of a small rent, and are not allowed to
transfer their purchase to other persons without the consent of the
monastery. The buyer, being the chief of those who live with him,
considers them his servants or subordinates, and they can acquire
no privileges without long years of service. The Superior may
inscribe the names of two other persons on the title-deeds, who
succeed according to their order in the hierarchy. Such property is
never made over to persons of different religions, the law on this
point being very strict. A new regulation is, that no Greek monastery
should be granted to foreigners, such as Russians, Bulgarians,
Servians, or Wallachians; as they, being richer than the Greeks,
might easily make themselves masters of the whole.
The recluses live on the produce of their lands and seldom by the
labor of their hands. Many among them have amassed a little
fortune by the sale of their oil, wine, and nuts. Their mode of living
and their food and clothing are the same as in the other
monasteries; their ritual is also similar, with the exception that their
devotions are performed with more brevity.
Take away their solitary life and their continual prayers, and they
then might be considered as industrial companies belonging to the
world.
The fifth category comprises the anchorites, whose rules are the
most sublime and severe. These holy men do not work, but pass
their time in prayer, the hard earth serves for their bed, and a stone
for their pillow; their raiment consists only of a few rags.
Never quitting their grottoes, they pass their days and nights in
prayer; their food is always dry bread, with fresh water once a week.
If the abode of the anchorite be situated in an inaccessible spot, he
lets down a basket, into which the passers-by throw the bread which
is his sole nourishment. Others have friends in some distant
monastery, who alone know the secret of their retreat and bring
them provisions. These solitary beings shun the sight and sound of
man, their life having for its sole object the mortification of the flesh,
meditation, and prayer. The population of Mount Athos is estimated
at between six and seven thousand souls, two-thirds of whom are
Greeks from different parts of the Ottoman empire, and the other
third Russians, Bulgarians, and Servians. Their government is a
representative assembly in which deputies from the twenty
monasteries take part, except the σκητή and the κελλιώται, who are
dependants of the others. The twenty monasteries are divided into
four parts, which are again subdivided into five. Each year a
representative from each division is called upon to take part in the
government of the peninsula. Their duties consist principally in
superintending the police and the administration of justice. These
four governors are called nazarides, a Turkish word which signifies
inspectors.
Twice a year regularly, and each time a serious case occurs, a kind
of parliament is called, consisting of the twenty deputies, who, with
the four nazarides, occupy themselves with current affairs and
common wants. Each monastery acts independently of the others in
the administration of its affairs. The chief inspector, judge, and
spiritual chief, who decides all disputes that arise in the monasteries
is the Patriarch of Constantinople. The authority of the Turkish
government is represented by a Kaimakam, who acts as
intermediary between the parliament and the Porte; he fulfils rather
the duties of a superintendent than that of a governor. There is also
a custom-house officer to watch over the importations and
exportations of “The Holy Mountain.”
Some of the monasteries contain fine libraries and rich church
ornaments, which are the only wealth they possess. Each convent is
under the protection of a patron saint, who is generally represented
by some λείψανα, or relics. The anniversaries of these patron saints
are held in great veneration by the Greeks, crowds resorting to the
convents to celebrate them. Caravans may be seen wending their
way along the mountain paths leading to the convent, some
mounted on horses or mules, some on foot, while dozens of small
heads may be seen peeping above the brims of large panniers
carried by horses. On entering the church attached to the edifice the
pilgrims light tapers, which they deposit before the shrine of the
tutelar saint, cross themselves repeatedly, and then join the rest of
the company in dedicating the evening to feasting and merry-
making. These gatherings, though blamable perhaps as being
occasioned by superstitious rites, are otherwise harmless, and even
beneficial to the masses; to the townspeople in the break in their
sedentary habits, and to the country-people in introducing among
them more enlightened and liberal ideas, and in facilitating social
intercourse between them in these Arcadian gatherings under the
shade of spreading plane-trees, and stimulated by the circulation of
the wine-cup. I have often visited these Panaghias and experienced
real pleasure in witnessing the happy gambols of the children and
the gay dances and songs executed by the young people, and in
listening to the conversation or those of more mature years. At meal
times all the assembled company unite in an immense picnic,
feasting to their hearts’ content on the good fare with which they
come provided, and to the special profit of the numerous hawkers of
“scimitiers,” “petas,” parched peas, popped corn, stale sugar-plums,
gum mastic, fruits, flowers, little looking-glasses, rouge, etc.; the
last two articles for the benefit of the young beauties, who may be
found adding to their charms hidden behind the trunk of a tree. The
merriment is kept up to a late hour, and at dawn the slumberers are
awakened by the sound of the monastery bell calling them to mass.
This is generally read by the Egumenos, or Prior, except when the
bishop of the diocese is invited to celebrate it, in which case the
ceremony is naturally more imposing and the expenses incurred by
the community increased to a slight extent. Money, however, is not
extorted from the worshippers, each individual giving to the
monastery according to his means and his feelings of devotion. Kind
and open hospitality is afforded to all by the good monks, whose
retired and simple mode of life receives no variety but from these
gatherings.
Women and animals of the feminine gender are not allowed to
enter the precincts of the “Holy Mountain.” This prohibition seems to
be in some way connected with the curiosity of Lot’s wife, whose
punishment is expected to befall the adventurous daughter of Eve
who should thus transgress. This superstition has, however, lost
much of its force since Lady Stratford’s visit to the monasteries
during the Crimean War, when some of the monks tremblingly
watched for the transformation, till they had the satisfaction of
seeing her Ladyship quit the dangerous precincts in the full
possession of the graces that characterized her.
It is difficult to say whether the adoption of the Orthodox Creed by
the Bulgarians has been a blessing or a curse to them; for the
friendly union that sprang up from the assimilation of faith between
the two rival nations was not of long duration. Their amicable
relations were often disturbed by jealousies, in the settlement of
which Christianity was often used as a cloak to cover many ugly sins
on both sides, and its true spirit was seldom allowed free scope for
its sublime mission of peace, light, and charity. Religion was the
subject that occupied, after the Crimean War, the minds of the small
enlightened class of the modern Bulgarians, spread over all parts of
Bulgaria, but existing in greater numbers in the eyalet of
Philippopolis, where the honest, wealthy, and educated men who
had in foreign lands imbibed the progressive ideas of the day, raised
their voices against the then subjected condition of their church to
that of Constantinople, and put forward a just claim for its
separation or independence. As already mentioned, the religious ties
existing between the Greeks and Bulgarians do not appear at any
time to have formed a bond of union between the two nations, or
promoted social or friendly feelings among them. After the Turkish
conquest, Bulgarians and Greeks, crushed by the same blow, ceased
their animosity; but bore in mind that one was to serve in promoting
Panslavistic interests, and the other those of Panhellenism. The
proximity of these two distinct elements, and the mixture of the one
people with the other by their geographical position, render the two
extremely diffident of each other and jealously careful of their own
interests, although direct and open action on either side has not
been prominent.
The Bulgarians, during the 13th century, had separated
themselves from the Church of Constantinople. This was a serious
measure which the mother church naturally resented and used every
means in her power to abolish. In this she finally succeeded in 1767,
when the Bulgarian Church was once more placed under the
immediate spiritual jurisdiction of the See of Constantinople. The
Bulgarian bishops were dismissed and their dioceses transferred to
Greeks, the monasteries seized and their revenues applied to the
Greek Church. This was doubtless an unjust blow which the nation
never forgot, nor did they cease to reproach the Greeks with the
injury done to them. The latter had, no doubt, a double interest in
the act, and the first and less worthy was the material profit the
clergy and Greek communities obtained by the appropriation of the
Bulgarian Church revenues. The second was a strong political
motive; for the right of possessing an independent Bulgarian Church
and cultivating the Bulgarian language meant nothing less than
raising and developing the future organ of Panslavism in districts the
Greeks consider they have a hereditary right to; their national
interests were, in fact, at stake. The men to whom was intrusted the
duty of protecting these interests were unscrupulous as to the
means they used in the fulfilment of their task, and a perpetual
struggle ensued, resulting in persecution and other crimes besides
the unjust dealing with which the Bulgarians charge their rivals. Both
parties, from their own point of view, are right; and there is nothing
for them but to keep up the conflict till some decisive victory, or
perhaps arbitration, settles the dispute.
The Bulgarian Church question re-commenced in 1858 and lasted
until 1872, during which time the bitter strife was renewed between
the two nations, inducing the Bulgarians to demand from the Porte
the fulfilment of the promises made in decreed reforms to guarantee
liberty of religious worship and the church reforms indicated in the
Hatti-scherif of Gulhané.
These demands were just and reasonable, and at first limited to
the request that the Porte would grant permission that Bulgarians, or
at least men capable of speaking their language, should alone be
appointed bishops; that the service in their churches, instead of
being performed in the ancient Greek, a tongue unknown to the
Bulgarians, should be performed in the native language, and other
similar demands, which the Greek patriarch very unwisely refused to
listen to. Previously to this, in 1851, the Porte had obliged the
patriarch to consecrate a Bulgarian bishop.
In a church which the Bulgarians had erected by permission of the
Porte at Constantinople, in 1860, during the celebration of Easter,
the Bulgarian bishop, at the request of the congregation, omitted
from the customary prayer the name of the patriarch. This was the
first decisive step towards the accomplishment of the schism that
took place subsequently. The example set by this bishop was
followed in many parts of Bulgaria; occasionally the name of the
Sultan was substituted for that of the patriarch. The excitement this
movement caused in Bulgaria was intense, and acted upon the
dormant minds of the people with a force that pushed them at least
ten years in advance of what they had been, and opened their eyes
to things they had failed previously to observe.
The Porte, alarmed by this sudden effervescence of public feeling
in Bulgaria, despatched the Grand Vizir on a tour in that country to
study the feeling of the people. At his approach the inhabitants of
every town flocked to his presence and brought their grievances
under his notice. The Vizir’s action was as just and impartial as
circumstances would allow; he listened to the grievances of the
people, righted many of their wrongs, imprisoned some officials and
dismissed others; but, notwithstanding, the Bulgarians failed to
obtain on this occasion any great material amelioration either of
their condition or with regard to the Church question.
At this stage all true Bulgarians, including those of the rural
districts, were fully aroused; and, reminded by their respective
chieftains, or heads of communities, of the importance of the
pending question, and the necessity of united action, they
determined to fight the battle with the patriarch and overcome the
opposition they continued to meet with from that quarter. Help of
any description was desirable for them, and even foreign agency was
prudently courted. The Porte was given to understand that it
possessed no subjects more faithful and devoted than the
Bulgarians, and that the rights they demanded could be only
obtained from it, and if their Sultan decided in their favor he would
secure their eternal gratitude and devotion. Rome began to take an
interest in the matter, and the Government of Napoleon III.,
stimulated by the Uniate Propaganda, headed by some Polish
dignitaries established in Paris, endeavored to secure a hold upon
the people by means of the priests and agents sent into Bulgaria,
and people were made to believe that the whole of Bulgaria was
ready to adopt Roman Catholicism and place itself under the
protection of France. (See the next chapter.)
Russia, alarmed by these rumors, also began to show signs of
active interest in the matter, and by her promises of assistance, her
efforts to counteract the Uniate movement, and the pressure she
finally began to enforce upon the Porte in favor of the Bulgarian
church movement, ended in gaining to her side a small but
influential body of Bulgarians in the Danubian districts. There was a
critical moment when the Bulgarians, thinking all was lost for them,
turned their hopes and even appealed to England for help, promising
that if this were granted they would become Protestants. The
missionaries of the Evangelical and other Protestant societies were
led to believe in the possibility of such a conversion, and became
doubly zealous in their efforts to enlighten the people. In the midst
of this conflicting state of affairs, when each party tried to enforce
its own views and derive the most profit, the church of
Constantinople remained inflexible, the Porte took to compromising,
and the Bulgarians, doggedly and steadily working on, by degrees
became more venturesome in their action, more pressing in their
demands, and more independent in their proceedings. Greek bishops
were ejected from their dioceses in Bulgaria and driven away by the
people. In Nish and other places monasteries were seized, and their
incomes reappropriated by the Bulgarian communities. Personal
encounters and struggles of a strangely unchristian nature were
frequent between the contending parties, sometimes taking place
even within the precincts of the churches. The struggle for
independence continued, in spite of the anathemas hurled against
the Bulgarians by the Patriarchate, and was encouraged by the
desertion of two Bishops to their side. The exile of these by the
Porte, at the instigation of the Patriarch, and a variety of other
incidents ensued, until in 1868 Fouad and Ali Pashas took up the
Bulgarian cause, and the exiled Bishops were recalled (February
28th, 1870).
Through the instrumentality of the latter a Firman was issued
constituting a Bulgarian Exarch, and permission was given to the
Bulgarians to elect their spiritual chief, the election to be confirmed
by a Berat of the Sultan.
Ali Pasha’s death, however, in 1871, caused new difficulties, and
the enforcement of this measure was, under different pretexts,
delayed during the ministry of his successor, Mahmoud Pasha, and
ultimately only fulfilled in consequence of the proportions the
question had assumed, and the active interest taken in it by Russia
as shown in the policy of General Ignatieff. This policy was not
approved of by the majority of thinking Bulgarians, who, with good
reason, dreaded the consequences of Russian influence based on
the solid assistance it had rendered to the Bulgarian church. Russia
from all times has made use of the churches and monasteries in
Bulgaria, largely endowing them with sacerdotal gifts, in order to
consolidate her influence and gain the faith and confidence of the
people.
All now is confusion, darkness, and uncertainty in Bulgaria. Their
churches, inaugurated with so much hope and confidence, have
been polluted with every crime and stained with the blood of
innumerable victims. Centuries must pass before the wrongs and
misfortunes of late years can be forgotten by this unhappy people.
There is yet another Christian Church in Turkey which must have a
place in this chapter. St. Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of
Armenia, is looked upon as the effective bearer of that heavenly light
that was to extinguish the beacons of the fire-worshippers and found
the Armenian Church. In the beginning of the fourth century of our
era this saint preached in court of Tiridates, who, evidently little
disposed at the time to accept the new faith, vented his ill-humor
against it by ordering the martyrdom of its preacher. The most
agonizing tortures, say the Armenian annals, inflicted upon St.
Gregory failed in the desired effect. Finally, after having been made
to walk on pointed nails, and having melted lead poured down his
throat, he was cast into a cistern, among snakes and scorpions,
where he lived fourteen years, daily fed by an angel, who brought
him bread and water. At the end of this period he was allowed to
issue from his dismal abode, and was called upon to baptize the
penitent king and his nobles, converted through the instrumentality
of the king’s sister, to whom the Christian religion was revealed in a
vision. Such is the legendary origin of Christianity in Armenia. The
new faith enforced by royalty was soon spread through the country.
St. Gregory was appointed Patriarch of Armenia, and after creating a
number of churches, bishoprics, and convents, and regulating the
canons of each, he retired into the solitude of a hermitage, where he
was put to death by order of the king’s son. It was the beginning of
a long course of misfortunes. There is something grand in the
sacrifice that the ignorant and stout-hearted Asiatics made in the
cause of religion. Nowhere was persecution so long or so cruel,
martyrdoms so terrible, self-denial so complete as among the people
of the land where the human race is fabled to have had its origin.
St. Gregory was succeeded in the Patriarchal chair by his son
Aristogus, who, having taken part in the Council of Nice in 335 a.d.,
brought back with him some of its decrees, and caused the first
schism in the church. The terrible religious dissensions that raged for
so many centuries made themselves as deeply felt in Armenia as
elsewhere. Every dogma of Christianity was in turn examined,
adopted, or rejected, until the Monophysitic views, gaining the
majority of the people, caused the schism that finally separated the
Armenian from the primitive church.
The two parties, though differing but slightly from each other,
cease not, even to the present day, their antagonism. The
schismatics affirm the absorption of the human nature of Christ into
the Divine—the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father alone
—redemption from original sin by the sacrifice of Christ, redemption
from actual sin by auricular confession and penance. They adhere to
the seven sacraments, perform baptism by trine immersion, believe
in the mediation of saints, the adoration of pictures, and
transubstantiation, and administer the sacrament in both kinds to
laymen; they deny purgatorial penance and yet invoke the prayers of
the pious for the benefit of the souls of the departed.
The Armenian Church differs from the Latin in seven points. Its
doctrine is contained in the following formula, which the candidates
for priestly office are obliged to profess before ordination: “We
believe in Jesus Christ, one person and a double nature, and in
conformity with the Holy Fathers we reject and detest the Council of
Chalcedon, the letter of St. Leon to Flavian; we say anathema to
every sect that denies the two natures.”
In Church polity, after long quarrels and bickerings between three
patriarchs, each following his own interest, rivalries, and rites, the
supremacy has at last been vested in one who is called Catholicos,
chosen from among the Armenian archbishops and appointed by the
Emperor of Russia. The seat of the Patriarchate is the famous
convent of Echmiadzin at Erivan, in Russian territory. This convent
contains a magnificent library, is extremely wealthy, and exercises
supreme power over the others in spiritual matters. It alone has the
right to ordain archbishops to the forty-two archbishoprics under its
control, and to settle points of dogma. Among the pretended relics it
possesses are the dead hand of St. Gregory, used for consecrating
his successors in the Patriarchate, and the lance with which Christ
was pierced. This convent of Echmiadzin is to the Armenians what
Mount Athos has been to the Greeks. In both, Russia has spared
neither expense nor effort to establish her influence and spread it by
means of these channels all over the Christian populations of the
East. Her too stirring policy at Mount Athos, as shown by the
publication of “Les Responsabilités,” and her attempt to enforce
upon the Catholicos of Echmiadzin the decree for the suppression of
the Armenian language in the churches and schools, and replacing it
by Russian, had an equally unfortunate result.
The efforts of the Russian Government to improve the condition of
this country are said to have met with a certain amount of success;
commerce and industry, encouraged by the creation of roads and
other facilities, have been the principal temptations held out to
emigrants from Turkish territory. Of all the European powers Russia
alone could help to civilize and improve the degraded condition of
the Christians of those distant regions. Her influence would have
been stronger and more beneficial to them if her policy had been a
more straightforward and liberal one, and more in accordance with
the national rights of the people whose good-will and confidence she
will fail to secure so long as she follows the old system of trying to
Russianize them by the suppression of their privileges.
The Armenian churches are not unlike those of the Greeks; they
are similar in decoration—pictures of Christ, the Virgin, and the
saints being the principal ornaments of their altars. These pictures
are slightly superior to the expressionless ones used by the Greeks.
The pious often decorate parts of these with a silver or gold coating
on the hands, or as an aureole, and sometimes over the whole body.
The Armenians have faith in the efficacy of prayers addressed to
these images, as well as in the laying of hands on the sick or
distressed, who are often taken to the church and left through the
night before the altar of some special saint. The Armenian patriarchs
and bishops enjoy the same rights and privileges as the Greeks, and
administer justice to their respective communities on the same
conditions.
Like the Greek, the Armenian clergy are of two orders, secular and
monastic; the former are allowed to marry, but never occupy a high
position in the church. They are usually very poor, even poorer and
more retired than the Greek parish priests, living like the lower
orders of the people, who look upon them as their friends. Although
ignorant, they are much respected for the morality of their lives, but
knowing nothing more than the routine of their office they are
unable to give any religious instruction to their parishioners beyond
that contained in the books of prayer used in the church; a passage
from the lives or writings of the saints is read in place of a sermon.
This drawback to the propagation of more practical religion is
being by degrees removed since the introduction of excellent
religious books published by the Mechitarist College at Venice, and
by the American Missionary societies. The latter especially have done
much to stimulate the dormant spirit of inquiry; the large circulation
of Bibles, which by their low price are brought within the reach of
all, encourages the propensity shown by the Armenians to admit
Protestant ideas, which are being daily more extensively spread
among the community. “In Central Turkey alone there are now no
less than twenty-six organized churches, with some 2500 members,
and audiences amounting in the aggregate to 5000 or 6000 steady
attendants.”
CHAPTER XXIII.
RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND MISSIONARY
WORK.
Turkish Tolerance—High Disdain for Christians—American Mission Work—Roman

Catholic Missionaries—Catholic Establishments—The Uniates—United
Armenians—Mechitar—The Two Parties—Persecutions—European Interference
—The Hassounists—The Hope for Armenia.
From the time of the Ottoman conquest spiritual liberty has been
allowed to all creeds in Turkey, and the external observances and
ceremonies of religion have, in most places, been permitted by the
Moslems, though in some even funeral ceremonies were often
molested, and the use of church bells was forbidden. Certain rights
and privileges were granted to each church, to which the Christians
clung with great tenacity—as to a sacred banner, round which they
would one day rally and march to freedom.
By the concessions granted to the vanquished by their conquerors,
they were allowed to retain those churches that had escaped
destruction or were not converted into mosques, and permitted to
worship according to the dictates of their own consciences so long
as the sound of their bell calling the infidels to prayer did not offend
the ear of the faithful. The internal administration was not interfered
with; each congregation was free to choose its own clergy, ornament
the interior of its church as it saw fit, perform its pilgrimages and
bury its dead, without interference from the authorities. These
privileges, though looked upon as sacred by the poor, could not
compensate in the sight of the rich and once powerful for social and
material losses; thus many Christians renounced their faith and
adopted that of their masters.
Time and succeeding events have softened down some of the
outstanding wrongs; fanatical outbreaks and religious persecutions
have become of less frequent occurrence; and the various Hattis
proclaiming freedom of worship and religious equality to all Ottoman
subjects before the law, are guarantees that no arbitrary action on
the part of the government can interfere with the religious privileges
of the Christians, or deprive them of their rights. Though this
guarantee is a proof of the sincerity of the Porte in its efforts to give
satisfaction to its Christian subjects, it cannot remove the evil or
lessen its consequences, which remain in all their force of danger
and uncertainty. Every movement of discontent in Turkey receives a
strong impulse from that religious zeal which stimulates the
Mohammedan to acts of fanatical barbarity, and the Christian to a
superstitious belief in miraculous powers that will protect him in the
hour of danger. Thus, in times of disturbance the timorous bulk of
the population of a town or village will rush to the church for safety,
there pouring out mingled prayers and tears to God and all the
saints that the threatened danger may be averted. Rarely, it would
seem, are such prayers heard, for the first place to which the excited
Mussulman rushes is the church, and thither the brigand chief will
lead his band, and perpetrate acts of the most revolting barbarity.
The armed peasant, the undisciplined soldier, or the cruel and
licentious Bashi-Bazouk will all attack the sacred edifice, break it
open, and destroy or pollute all that falls into their hands. These are
the ever-recurring evils that no Imperial law will be able to prevent,
no measures eradicate, so long as the two rival creeds continue to
exist face to face, and be used as the principal motives in the
struggle, past and present, for supremacy on one side, freedom and
independence on the other. The Mussulmans, under pressure, will
grant every concession demanded of them, and to a great extent
carry them out; but it would be utterly erroneous to suppose for a
moment that under any pressure or in any degree of civilization, the
Turk would be able to disabuse himself of the deeply-rooted disdain
the most liberal-minded of his race feels for strangers to his creed
and nation.
The experiences of all thoroughly acquainted with the character of
the Ottoman tallies with mine on this point. I have seen the disdain
felt by the Mohammedan towards the Christian portrayed on the
faces of the most liberal, virtuous, and well-disposed, as well as on
those of the most bigoted. A Christian, be he European or Asiatic, is
an infidel in the Moslem’s sight. He will receive him graciously,
converse with him in the most amicable manner, and at the same
time mumble prayers for pardon for his sin in holding communication
with an unbeliever.
The religious freedom enjoyed by the members of the Protestant
and Roman Catholic churches is far more extensive than that
enjoyed by the Eastern. Both, upheld by the powerful support of
European powers, enjoy a liberty of action and license of speech
rarely found in other countries. Both are aliens and owe their origin
to the proselytizing efforts of the missionaries. The Church of Rome,
being the older and more enterprising, naturally commands a much
vaster field than the Protestant; she is supported by France and
other Roman Catholic countries, who jealously watch over her rights
and privileges. The Protestants are protected by England and
America; their missionaries entered Turkey at a later date and
gradually established themselves over the country. At first the
extremely reserved attitude of the missionaries, their conscientious
method of making converts, and the extreme severity of their
regulations, gave them but a poor chance of success. Gradually,
however, the esteem and regard of the people for them increased;
stringent opposition, promoted by sectarian dissensions, died out,
and mission stations, with numerous churches, some of considerable
importance and promise, were established, especially in Armenia.
The principal cause of the encouragement they met with was the
wise policy, lately adopted, of promoting missionary work by
education.
The extensive body of Protestant missionaries now found in
Turkey is almost entirely American. The meetings of the Board are
held in Constantinople; it controls the administration of the different
missions and directs the large American College at Bebek—the best
foreign institute for education in the country.
When a community of Protestant converts numbers a few families
it is given a church and school, and one of the principal men is
elected as chief of the society. This person is presented officially to
the authorities by one of the consuls of the protecting powers—
generally the English; he is recognized as chief of his community,
obtains a seat in the local court, and is intrusted with all the
interests of his co-religionists. In difficult or complicated cases the
missionaries themselves share the responsibilities of this chief, and
through consular or ambassadorial agency generally settle all
matters calling for redress and justice in a satisfactory manner.
The few English missionaries who are established in Turkey are
intrusted with the fruitless task of endeavoring to convert the Jews.
The Roman Catholic missionaries, from the date of the separation
of the Eastern and Western Churches, have ever been actively and
diligently employed in making converts. Thus a great portion of the
population of Syria, yielding to their influence, has become Roman
Catholic, as have the Bosnians, a portion of the Albanians, some of
the Greeks inhabiting the islands, the Armenians of Constantinople,
and of later years a small portion of the Bulgarians. The action of
the missionaries of late years has not, however, been so much
directed towards making new converts as it has to consolidating and
strengthening the tie binding the few scattered communities to the
mother-church. This religious body recruits itself chiefly from France
and Italy, and consists of priests, monks, and Sisters of Charity,
belonging chiefly to the orders of St. Benois, the Jesuits, Lazarists,
and St. Vincent de Paul. Their extensive establishments are situated
in the Frank quarters of the towns, and consist of well-built and
spacious churches, monasteries, schools, orphan asylums, and
foundling hospitals. Pera and Galata contain a goodly number of
these establishments, as do the principal towns of European and
Asiatic Turkey. These missions are evidently well furnished with
funds, for their establishments have everywhere a prosperous
appearance, and are provided with every requisite for the purposes
for which they are intended. The religious instruction given in them
is, however, extremely illiberal, bigoted, and imparted on Jesuitical
principles. Exclusiveness and intolerance towards other creeds are
openly prescribed. “Point de salut hors de l’Eglise” is their doctrine.
Considerable laxity is allowed in moral points so long as they do not
interfere with the external duties of the community to the church.
Should an individual belonging to another creed die among the
community, the rite of burial will be refused to him by the Roman
Catholic priests, but those of the Orthodox Church will often in that
case consent to perform it. Even the marriage ceremony, unless
performed in their churches, is considered by the more bigoted
portion of the Roman Catholic clergy as not binding. This strange
statement was made in my presence before a large gathering of
persons belonging to different creeds, by the superior of a Lazarist
establishment at A⸺. It was on the occasion of the marriage of
two members of the Latin community of that town, when the service
was terminated by the following short address to the married
couple: “Twice happy are you to belong to the Holy Church of Rome
and to be united in the sacred ties of matrimony within her bosom:
for in the same manner as there is no hope after life for those who
do not belong to her, so marriage is not binding out of her, but every
woman who so gives herself is not a legal wife but a concubine!” In
many cases the sacrament is refused to ladies united in marriage to
persons belonging to other creeds.
The secular teaching given in the schools of these missions is
limited, and, based on the same principles as the religion, is illiberal
and narrow-minded. Much time is consecrated by the pupils to
religious recitations, prayers, and penances of no possible profit to
the children. Thus from an early age, imbued with narrow ideas and
made to lose sight of the spirit of Christianity, the Roman Catholic
communities, be they of European, Greek, or Armenian nationality,
are the most bigoted, intolerant, and exclusive of all the Christian
communities of the East.
The missionaries belonging to this Church are unsurpassed in the
admirable manner in which their charitable establishments are
arranged. The homes and asylums for the poor and orphan children
are for the girls under the control of the Sisters of Charity, and for
the boys under that of the priests and monks. These are well kept,
and very orderly, the food is good and abundant, and the dress of
the children solid and befitting their condition. Hospitals are attached
to each establishment, where the sick are well cared for and
destitute Europeans admitted irrespective of creed. The good Sisters
of Charity take upon themselves the duty of watching over the
patients night and day. A dispensary is included in each mission
station, where medicines and medical advice are given gratuitously.
The children reared in these establishments are placed in situations
on leaving them; but I regret to be obliged to say that comparatively
few of either sex are known to turn out honest and respectable.
The retired lives led by these active servants of Rome do not
prevent their being very intimately connected with their respective
communities or using their all-powerful influence for good or for evil
in all family concerns. They are hardy, active, and most persevering;
their personal wants are small and their mode of living modest and
unassuming. But in spite of this they are worldly-wise, crafty, and
unscrupulous as to the means they use in obtaining their ends. Their
mode of action is based upon the principle that the end justifies the
means; few, therefore, are the scruples that will arrest their action
or the dangers and difficulties that will damp their courage or check
their ardor in their work.
All the internal regulations and arrangements of the Catholic
community are made without the Porte troubling itself much about
them—indeed, to do the Turk justice, in his high contempt for things
Christian, he keeps as much as possible out of the religious
dissensions of his subjects, and when by chance he does appear on
the scene of action, by turns persecutor, protector, or peacemaker,
he is generally prompted in the matter by one of the interested
parties. An amusing incident witnessed by one of my friends at
Jerusalem well illustrates this fact. This gentleman accompanied one

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Concepts of programming languages 10th Edition Robert W.

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Part II: Basic Concepts 13

2.7 Implementation notes 49

3 Variables and storage 57

4 Bindings and scope 95

4.2.1 Block structure 97

5 Procedural abstraction 115

Part III: Advanced Concepts 133

6.3.3 Abstract classes 157

7 Generic abstraction 171

8 Type systems 191

9 Control ﬂow 215

9.4 Exceptions 221

Part IV: Paradigms 263

11 Imperative programming 265

11.3.3 Bindings and scope 274

12 Object-oriented programming 297

13 Concurrent programming 333

14 Functional programming 367

15 Logic programming 393

15.3.6 Control 404

Part V: Conclusion 429

Examples and case studies

Figure P.1 Dependencies between chapters of this book.

The paradigms studied in Chapters 11–16 are illustrated by case studies of

Part I introduces the book with an overview of programming linguistics and a

In this chapter we shall:

1.1 Programming linguistics

1.1.1 Concepts and paradigms

A programming language must be universal. That is to say, every problem

1.1.2 Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

In order to avoid distracting syntactic variations, wherever possible we shall

1.1.3 Language processors