COMPENDIUM_SOIL SCIENCE_2024

Soil Science Compendium for Undergraduate Students 2022
A COMPENDIUM OF SOIL SCIENCE FOR UNDERGRADUATE

STUDENTS
Professor Abiud L. Kaswamila

(Cert-LUP), Dip-LUP, BA (Hons) – LUP, PGD-LE, MSc-LUP, PhD-LUP)
JANUARY 2022
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FOREWORD
Rural Land use planners worldwide are continuously confronted with the problem of how best
land resources can be used efficiently and sustainably without leading to environmental
degradation and/or increasing land use conflicts. Soil science knowledge is one of the
mechanisms to achieve this. This compendium intends to equip higher education undergraduate
students taking soil science course with general soil science knowledge, soil survey, soil
classification systems, soil erosion control and simple methods of enhancing soil and water
conservation. It is my hope that the compendium will be useful to higher education
undergraduate students and post-graduate students taking natural resources management
program.
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AUTHOR
Professor Abiud Kaswamila is a Full Professor of Land Use Planning in Protected Areas
Bionetworks. For more than three decades he has worked as an agricultural extension officer;
Serengeti District Land Use Planner; Kagera Region Land Use Planner; Senior Agricultural
Research Officer at Mlingano Agricultural Research Institute, Tanga; Agriculture Specialist with
Escarpment Forest Company, Mafinga; Senior Lecturer and Coordinator of Research and
Consultancy at Mweka Wildlife College, Moshi; and as a Professor at the University of Dodoma.
Professor Kaswamila was the head of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of
Dodoma from 2008 to 2013 and later as the College of Humanities and Social Sciences Research
and Consultancy Coordinator. .
Professor Kaswamila has been teaching several courses at postgraduate (Land Use Planning and
Management, Environmental Law and Environmental Economics) and undergraduate levels
(Land Surveying, and Mapping Science, Soil Science, Research Methods and Land Evaluation
for Land Use Planning) courses. Professor Kaswamila has published widely in areas of Land Use
Planning and Management, Agriculture, Poverty and Livelihood, Biodiversity Conservation and
Community Conservation. Professor Kaswamila is also registered with the National
Environmental Management Council (NEMC) as an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
expert and as an Environmental Audit expert.
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CHAPTER ONE
SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
1.1 Overview
Soil science is a study of soil as a natural resource and includes soil formation, classification and
mapping; physical, chemical, biological and fertility properties of soils, and these properties in
relation to the use and management of soils. Soil science is sometimes called pedology, a
scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of soils including physical and chemical
properties, the role of organisms in soil production and in relation to soil character, the
description and mapping of soil units, and the origin and formation of soils. Soil science
knowledge provides an understanding of how soil properties relate to and can be managed for
optimal agricultural production, forest, range, and wetland management, urban land use, waste
disposal and management; and reclamation of drastically disturbed soils such as mines.
1.2 Soil and soil components
Soil is a three dimensional natural body with a loose, porous matrix made up of rocks and
minerals mixed with organic matter and having water and air in its pores and consists of several
horizontal layers (horizons) in succession down to relatively hard material underneath, the bed
rock (Uriyo et.al, 1983). Soil provides support and nutrient elements to plants, which in turn
nourish animals and microbes.
Soil is composed of 45 % mineral matter, 5 % organic matter, 25 % water and 25 % air roughly
in proportions by volume. The bulk of the soil is made up of solids, mineral matter (90% or more
by weight) and organic matter (1.6 % by weight). The mineral and organic matter contents may
vary according to the factors of soil formation. The proportions of soil water and soil air are
inversely related e.g. when water is added by way of irrigation or rain, the pore spaces occupied
by air is filled by an equal volume of water. The reverse occurs when water is lost by drainage or
evapo-transpiration. These components make the soil a habitat for living organisms commonly
associated with the soil mass.
1.2.1 Mineral matter

Particles of mineral matter range in size from stone and gravel down to the microscopic particles
of colloidal clay. Fragments larger than 2 mm in diameter are stones. Particles of 2-0.02mm
diameter are sands, 0.02-0.002 mm is silt and those below 0.002 are clay. The silt and clay
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particles are derived from original minerals as a result of mainly chemical reactions in some
tropical soils, materials of secondary origin and may become a dominant feature in the topsoil.
1.2.2 Organic matter

This is an active state of decomposition caused by microorganisms. The amount of organic
matter in a soil represents a balance between the addition of plant residues and the destructive
composition of soil microorganisms. In a representative soil, the organic matter in the topsoil is
about 3.5 % by weight. Organic matter has a great influence on soil properties.
1.2.3 Soil water

Soil water is essential for all the physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil. Soil
water is held in pore spaces with varying degrees of tenacity and its content in the soil at a given
time depends on the soil conditions. It acts as a medium for the transport of nutrients from soil to
plant roots.
The soil water also influences the activities of soil organisms, which are involved in the organic
matter decomposition, and the transformation of nutrients from unavailable to available forms. It
also acts as a solvent and hastens the weathering of rocks and minerals in soils.
1.2.3 Soil air
The composition of soil air is determined to a large extent by the relationships between soil air
and water. The soil air occupies pore spaces not filled up by water. As water is removed by
evapo-transpiration or drainage, the pores vacated
1.3 Soil forming factors

Although there is not a clear break between transformation of parent rock into parent material,
one could say that weathered rock is not soil but has to be turned into soil by the operation of
certain factors and processes. It is generally recognized that these soil forming factors are:
climate (temperature and precipitation); biosphere (especially the native vegetation); parent
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material (texture, structure and composition); topography (relief); and time (duration of soil
formation).
The first two factors are called the active soil forming factors, whereas the others are called the
passive factors. Soil forming factors do not act in isolation but always together and set limits to
the operation as a whole. In certain situations it may be that a factor is dominant and then its
effect can be clearly distinguished. Thus, the formation of the soil is the result of a complex of
processes operating within boundaries determined by an interacting set of factors, the processes
and boundaries being subject to variation during time. In short, a soil is formed by action of
climate and biosphere on parent material over a certain period of time and modified by
topography.
1.3.1 Climate
(a) Zonality concept
From an overall standpoint, climate is perhaps the most influential factor. This is borne out by
the fact that there are many parallels in the distribution of climate and soil on the earth‟s surface.
The concept of zonality of soils was based on this observation. The concept says that if the active
factors (climate and biosphere) are similar the soils formed will be similar also when the parent
materials are different. Alternatively, similar parent materials would give rise to different soils if
the active soil forming factors are different. Soils that comply with the climatic zone rule are
called zonal soils and that which do not (because other factors dominate) are called intrazonal,
whereas soils that are too young to show horizon differentiation are called azonal soils.
The effect of climate on soil formation is direct and indirect. The direct effect is that of
precipitation and temperature, the indirect effect is exerted through its influence on the biosphere
(flora and fauna). It can be stated that climate is the determining factor for the vegetation type.
Parent material can modify this but it is far less important than climate.
(b) Precipitation
If rain is falling on the earth‟s surface, part of it penetrates into the earth, part runs along the
surface if topography is favourable for that, and part is evaporated. It is generally assumed that
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roughly 0-50% of the total rainfall percolates and reaches the groundwater. The part that
penetrates and percolates, the effective rainfall, is very important with respect to soil formation.
This water reacts with the mineral particles of the parent material, dissolves some constituents,
removes this dissolved material from the surface and deposits it at a lower part of the solum. In
this way the mass is differentiated into horizons and the soil body is formed. This process is the
more effective, if vegetation has established.
In the beginning there is no vegetation and then erosion (surface run-off) is important. But as
soon as vegetation is present, the roots protect the material from being eroded, the leaves protect
the soil against the impact of raindrops, and decomposition products of the organic material
become increasingly important as they contribute effectively in the reactions between the
percolating waters and the materials with which they come in contact. Not all effective rainfall
will reach the groundwater but that part may be stopped at some depth by a discontinuity in the
soil (pan; clayey layer etc.) and that another part is “caught” by the vegetation.
It is obvious, that under different climates the contribution of the various components of the
water balance will be different. For instance, at high humidity evaporation losses will be small.
In a tropical rain forest the surface evaporation will be small because the relative humidity in
such a forest is 100%. Transpiration, however, can be very high because the top of the trees are
in quite different conditions. Wind, by affecting evaporation and transpiration, can play an
important role too.
In a rainless desert there is no profile differentiation, because there is no water for percolation. In
many places in the desert soil profiles are found, however, but these are then evidence of earlier
more humid climates. If precipitation increases, more percolation takes place and the formation
of soil profiles is the result. Precipitation culminates in the equatorial belt, where rainfall reaches
the startling figures of 3000-7000 mm a year. Although a considerable part runs off and evapo-
transpires, such a large amount of water percolates that only few dissolved substances are
retained in the soil profile, if drainage is not impeded. Consequently, a peculiar type of soil
formation must occur here (ferralization). Not only is the total annual amount of effective rainfall
important in soil formation, but also its seasonal distribution. The Mediterranean climate, for
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instance, is characterized by rainfall in winter, whereas the summer is rainless or nearly rainless;
percolation effects and hence translocation of soil constituents are limited to the winter season.
This must lead to the formation of soils that differ from soils formed under a more uniform
rainfall. Also the monsoon areas of humid tropics have soils that differ strongly from those in the
constantly humid areas (verticals – oxisols).
The form of precipitation is also important. This effect can be seen in the sub-arid climates.
Although here evapo-transpiration is larger than precipitation, leaching of certain constituents
can still take place. If rainfall occurs, it is in a form of a thunderstorm. Certain dissolved
constituents can then be leached deep into soil. Upon drying these leached substances cannot be
transported upwards with the ascending moisture to re-establish the original conditions, because
a considerable part of the ascending moisture moves in the vapour-phase. Thus, soils with a
calcic horizon (horizon of secondary lime accumulation) are very common in those areas.
In regions of the arctic, subarctic and cold (tundra) climates, very little water is available for
percolation. As the snow melts, most of the water disappears as surface runoff. Moreover, the
sub-soils are permanently frozen in the arctic areas, so that percolation is minimal. In the sub-
humid regions, such as the Great plains of North America and the chernozem areas of Europe
and Asia, the seasonal distribution of rainfall determines the formed soils. The long winter keeps
the ground frozen for a considerable period in the year and in spring these soils are completely
saturated; the molten snow cannot percolate, because the subsoil is still frozen. The water does
not percolate until the last trace of ice has disappeared. The summer, which is rather dry, shows
an upward moisture movement. In other words, percolation is here restricted to spring-time and
is then sudden and strong.
(c) Temperature
All the just mentioned sources of water losses are influenced by temperature. The higher the
temperature, the greater the evaporation and transpiration and the lower the effective
precipitation that percolates through the soil. The result is that, with the same precipitation in two
different isothermal belts, different types of soil profiles will develop. In the subarctic, in the low
temperature regions, and in the high mountain country long and severe winters occur; hence,
percolation is strongly hindered with the result that many lakes, swamps and peats are formed.
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The conditions for peat formation are favourable in spite of the scarce vegetation, because the
microbial activity, responsible for the rapid destruction of the organic material, is strongly
restricted during the long winters. Prolonged freezing and, consequently, drying favours the
stabilization of humus, rendering it more resistant to decomposition by micro-organisms. The O-
horizon is therefore very thick, 30 cm or more. Below the O-horizon there is generally no soil
formation because the decomposition products formed in the O-horizon cannot percolate into the
mineral mass and, consequently, cannot react with it.
In a somewhat less cold climate when percolation is not hindered but where microbial activity is
still rather low, complexion organic compounds can be abundant and podzolization will take
place. In the humid tropics and subtropics very dense vegetation occurs, but at the same time an
intense activity of micro-organisms. The plant residues are therefore rapidly mineralized. The
result is that very little organic matter accumulates in the O-layer, and ferralization will be the
dominant soil forming process. Only in areas of poor drainage and at high elevations where
temperatures are low, appreciable organic matter may accumulate. Therefore, also in the tropics
peat and podzols can occur. Temperature can also be affected by slope position. Temperature can
also be affected by slope position.
1.3.2 Biosphere
The biosphere is composed of two elements, viz: the plant kingdom, flora or phytosphere, and
the animal kingdom, fauna or zoosphere. The two elements have opposing effects on soil
formation. Whereas the phytosphere promotes soil horizon formation, the zoosphere retards the
differentiation of the soil into horizons. This will be elucidated in the following:
(a) Phytosphere
The role of organisms in soil formation is related to that of climate. Climate has strong control
over both density and type of fauna which in one form or the other influence soil formation. It
also controls the rate and type of organo-chemical reactions as was discussed earlier. As in the
case of climatic elements, the role of plants can be either direct or indirect. The direct role is
mainly the supply of organic matter from leaf fall, dead roots, tree trunks, twigs etc. The process
by which organic matter is worked into the soil is called humification, a process which involves
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also the soil fauna. Bacteria and fungi decompose the plant tissue whereas earthworms, termites
and other animals then work the products into the soil. These decomposed plant materials supply
carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and acids which are very important in soil formation. A very direct
action is the extraction of CO2 by living roots which to no small extent may contribute to acidity.
The acids react with the minerals or their weathering products and the reaction products can be
transported with the percolating waters and can either be accumulated at some depth in the
profile or removed with the draining water. In this way a differentiation of the soil into horizons
is initiated.
The indirect role is pluriform. The roots penetrate rocks and soils and so facilitate entrance of
solutions and colloids. Vegetation also affects climate. Generally, forests tend to make the
climate milder, reduce wind speed and so decrease the evaporation especially in warm regions
and seasons. They reduce the effective rainfall by interception and last but not least: they protect
the soil against erosion.
A change in type of vegetation may be accompanied by a change in soil type. For instance,
changes that occur as a result of forest clearing are even more marked. Apart from promoting
erosion, the supply of organic matter is interrupted, the plant nutrients are depleted by ensuing
crops and possibly added fertilizers change the base status of the soil and, consequently, the
microflora and fauna. This human activity is sometimes considered the sixth soil forming factors.
In humid and semi-humid temperate climates, because of the organic matter, soil formation is
dominated by processes such as chelation, hydrolysis, oxidation, and reduction. The results are a
redistribution, including leaching, of iron, Al, Si, Ca, Mg and clay in the profile. In arid and
semi-arid climates, where the effect of organic matter is negligible, solubilization and
precipitation of soluble salts are most prominent. In humid hot climates with their rapid and
almost complete decomposition of organic matter in the upper centimetres, hydrolysis and
oxidation are the min processes leading to very typical soils (oxisols).
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(b) Zoosphere
The contribution of the animal kingdom to the process of soil formation is primarily mechanical
in nature. Whereas the phytosphere causes a differentiation of the soil, the zoosphere has the
tendency to hamper and even to nullify this. They homogenize the soil more or less. Anyway,
they disturb the profile. Rodents (mice, rabbits, etc) carry down much material from the A down
into their nests (mostly located in the B-horizon) and bring up B-material to the A-horizon. This
animal effect may be very important from the viewpoint of agriculture, because plant roots
frequently follow the abandoned tunnel borings of rodents, worms, and insects.
Only some details about quantitative aspect of animal activity will be given in the following.
Worms appear to be capable to bring every year about 10 tons of soil material per acre to the
surface, being about 2.5 cm in five years. They do their work at night and drag down leaves and
grasses from the surface into their burrows. The depth to which worms penetrate the soil varies
from a few cm to 7.5 m. they consume in 10 months about 0.1%of the plant residues of the forest
floor and they prefer a neutral to alkaline medium. However, worms can also be found in
moderately and eve strongly acid medium.
Ants, termites carry material from lower to higher levels, build galleries and underground
passage ways, throw out a great deal of material to the surface and frequently form hills and
mounds. Ants are able to transfer soil material from the depth to the surface sufficient to form a
layer of at least half a cm during a year. Rodents, occurring mostly in the treeless regions, are
very active in transporting material. They can throw out 50 tons of material per year per ha.
1.3.3 Parent material

The nature of parent material has a decisive effect on the properties of young soils and may exert
an influence on even the oldest soils. Where parent material is derived from consolidated rock,
the formation of parent material and the soil may occur simultaneously. The most important
properties of parent material with respect to soil formation are: texture, mineralogical
composition and degree of stratification.
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(a) Texture
Parent material with fine texture, and consequently low permeability, give generally rise to
shallow soils. Coarse textured, permeable soils are favourable for the formation of deep soils.
(b) Mineralogical composition
If other factors are equal, soils formed on basic consolidated rocks will be deeper than those on
acid rocks because mafic minerals are less resistant to weathering than felsic minerals. During
soil formation, the dominance of parent material properties may change. For instance, a basic
rock may initially form a deeper soil than a neighbouring acid rock but weathering of basic rocks
yields more clay than acid rocks do so that after some time the texture will become an important
factor in soil formation.
(c) Stratification
Layers with deviating texture (stratification) often occur in parent materials. They form a
hindrance to the downward movement of leaching water and thus influence profile development.
Layers of heavier texture (clay layers) allow only slow water movement and water will only
enter the underlying coarser layer at near saturation with water since the small pores (capillaries)
will retain the water until then: they will only let the water go when the curve of the water
meniscus equals or less than the curve of the meniscus in the coarser pores. For the same reason
coarser textured layers hinder the flow of water. In this way, materials carried by the leached
water may be deposited at certain depth in the profile such as clay, humus, sesquioxides, solutes
(calcite, gypsum).
1.3.4 Topography
Topography modifies soil profile development in three ways: by influencing climate (exposure,
temperature, rainfall); by influencing erosion (removal of soil from hill tops, deposition at hill
foot); and by causing lateral movement of material in solution or suspension.
(a) Influence on climate
Because of the difference in exposure to sun rays, there is a „cold‟ and a „warm‟ side of the hill
or mountain. This often coincides with a „wet‟ and a „dry‟ side respectively. Thus, soil formation
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will be different on the opposite sides even if the parent material is similar. In the equatorial
tropics this effect of exposure is negligible because of high elevation of the sun. however, the
monsoon climates in this area result in different climatic conditions of the western and eastern
slopes. The western slopes receive more rains during wet west monsoon than the east side. In the
east monsoon, being dry, both slopes get only little rain. As a consequence, the soils of the
western slopes are deeper than those of the eastern exposures.
Slight depressions and elevations (microtopography or microrelief) can also give rise to locally
deviating (intrazonal) soils. Examples are saline or alkaline soils in depressions in the area of the
chernozems, and podzols in the area of cambisols/inceptsols. The position with respect to
groundwater is also an important aspect of microtopography. An example is the formation of
groundwater laterite in small depressions in an area occupied by latosols (plinthic Ferrasol or
Gleysol Vsorthic Ferrasol; Aquox Vs othox). Also the occurrence of low humic podzols in
depressions of an area of podzols (umbraquepts Vs typorthods). The hydrological position
affects the vegetation and, consequently, soil formation.
With regard to position along the slope, it is important to note that soil material is washed down
from the upper to the lower slope. Thus, generally, the soil depth would increase downslope. Soil
position is also important in other respects. Percolating water becomes more concentrated and
higher in pH in lower-slope soils. The lower slope soils are generally wetter than upper slope
soils and often show gleying. The oxides may differ in degree of hydration and are usually
yellowish in lower-slope soils and brown to red in upper slope soils. The transition of soil types
along a slope is called toposequence or catena,
1.3.5 Time
In soil formation, time is a very relative factor. Development of a soil from hard rock may take
thousands of years, whereas development in permeable, unconsolidated material can fairly be
rapid: from some tens to some hundreds of years. A given period of time may produce much
change in one soil and little in another. Also, soil formation may keep pace with the change of
climate, a very gradual process. On the other hand, changes in environmental condition may be
marked or catastrophic, e.g. by floods or mass flows leading to truncation or burial of an original
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soil profile or to both. Therefore, counting years is of little use and time can better be considered
in terms of stage of development or grade of maturity.
The parent material may be transformed into an immature or young soil in a relatively short
period. There may be some organic matter accumulation in the surface layer accompanied by
some weathering and leaching. Only A and C horizons are present. The mature stage is attained
in a mature profile, it is in a “steady state” or in “dynamic equilibrium” since there is just as
much formation as truncation. However, conditions may allow after sufficient time an old-age
stage may be reached, characterized by a strong differentiation in A and B horizons.
Under tropical conditions, where weathering is very prominent, a separation of 5 stages of
development can be recognized based on the stage of weathering (after Mohr and Van Baren):
(i) Initial stage (unweathered parent material)
(ii) Juvenile stage (weathering has started; much of original material still present)
(iii)Virile stage (easily weatherable minerals have largely decomposed)
(iv) Senile stage (only most resistant minerals have survived)
(v) Final stage (soil development complete; soil is weathered out under the prevailing
conditions).
The effect of time is frequently obscured because in past times climates can have occurred,
different from the present-day climate. In such cases it is difficult to establish whether the soils
are different as a consequence of time or of climate.
1.4 Soil forming processes

The action and particularly the interaction of the soil forming factors are expressed in processes
that actually form the soils. There are a number of important soils forming processes as detailed
below.
1.4.1 Podzolisation
Under certain conditions microbial decomposition of organic material is hampered and formation
of stable, highly polymerized humus does not take place. Instead, there is a production of large
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amounts of fulvic and humic acids as well as low-molecular aliphatic acids such as oxalic acid,
citric acid, etc. These water-soluble organic compounds move downward through the profile
taking along iron and aluminum with which they form stable complexes. This is the only way in
which iron can move to any significant extent in well-aerated soils. The solubility of Fe-organic
complexes is several orders of magnitude higher than that of ferric ions.
At some depth a large proportion of these complexes are precipitated and partly decomposed. A
certain part of the complexes will be lost to the ground water. The major horizons that are
formed in this way are:
O Accumulated organic matter
A1 or Ah Organic matter rich mineral topsoil
A2 Leached (and often bleached “albic”) horizon
B1 or Bh Organic matter enriched horizon
B2 or Bs Sesquidoxide enriched horizon
B3 Transition horizon
C Unaffected parent material (apart from possible gley)
The moist important conditions causing the accumulation of organic matter are: low PH, low
base status, poor microflora (mainly fungi), low temperature, periodical saturation with water.
Such conditions occur notably in the cooler humid climates (zonal podzols) but are also
frequently found in wet tropics on very poor parent materials or at higher altitudes where
temperatures are sufficiently low.
The process: Because of the production of complexing organic compounds, chemical weathering
in the A1 and A2 horizon is very intense. Iron and Aluminium as well as divalent cations are
removed from the minerals and translocated downward as soluble organic complexes. When
such complexes become saturated with metal ions they are insoluble and will precipitate. Supply
of fresh, unsaturated complexes will remove some of the metal ions from the precipitated
complexes and rendering them soluble again. In the beginning, the metal ion supply may be good
enough to retard podzolisation. After some time of leaching (cheluviation) a bleached A2 or
Albic horizon may become visible.
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At some depth in the profile the organo-metallic complexes precipitate forming a B horizon or
spodic horizon. This precipitation is due to one or more of the following processes:
(a) Formation of insoluble complexes
(b) Hydrolysis of the complexes (into organic acid and metal hydroxide)
(c) Decomposition of the organic component
(d) Stagnation at textural discontinuity
Because in the A horizon sesquioxides are preferentially depleted the remaining material
becomes relatively increasingly rich in silica. Under such residually enriched conditions chlorite
and mica will disappear but montmorillonite may persist for a long although kaolinite is the only
stable clay mineral in the albic horizon. In the B horizon, because of influx of sesquioxides,
interstratified clay minerals are found.
After deposition of the organo-metallic complexes in the B horizon, a reshuffle of minerals

occurs. Because unsaturated organic materials reach the B horizon, the top will be depleted of
sesquioxides which are precipitated somewhat further down. This partial segregation leads to a
Bh and a Bs horizon. Decomposition of the organo-metallic complexes liberate the sesquioxides.
Aluminium may be used in the clay mineral formation (chloritization) or co-precipitate with
silica in solution to form allophone and imogolite. Iron will precipitate as hydrous ferric oxides
(e.g. goethite) and is often redistributed under reducing conditions in the wetter podzols which in
extreme cases may result in a placic horizon (iron pan). In many podzols the Bs horizon is not or
not conspicuously present because the sesquioxide content of the parent material is too low
(humods).
The often occurring fibres (micro-B horizons) under the main B horizon occur by precipitation of
organometallic complexes that escaped from the overlying B horizon. It is clear that
podzolisation is a very dynamic process since precipitation can ever be followed by
redissolution, which may lead to very deep profile development (giant podzols).
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1.4.2 Ferrallization
This process of soil formation occurs in warm and humid climates under conditions of perfect
drainage (no ground water table, dry seasons may occur). Weathering consists mainly of
dissolution, hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation and oxidation. There is an intensive biological
activity causing a considerable partial CO2 pressure in the soil. At the same time accumulation of
organic matter does not take place and chelation plays no role. The result is a strong leaching of
alkali and alkaline earth metals and silic acid set free by the weathering. The residue consists of
oxides and hydroxides of aluminium and iron which have a lower solubility than silica under the
present conditions (pH 5-6). The only clay mineral stable in this environment is kaolinite.
The Ferralsols/Oxisols (formerly: Latosols) formed in this way can be very deep (tens of meters)
and have indistinct horizon boundaries. The structure is granular or sub angular blocky and very
stable, clay movement is generally absent. The soils are very porous and have a very good
permeability. The colours are red, reddish-brown and yellow, depending on the parent rock. The
oxic horizon does not harden upon exposure to air (in contrast to plinthite). If the solum is very
deep (e.g. thicker than 4 m), it is sometimes underlain by a mottled clay horizon. Otherwise the
solum lies directly on the rotten rock (saprolite). Concretions are absent or near absent and are
generally soft, only manganese concretions are frequently present. Due to the high porosity,
depth, and stable structure, most Ferrasols are far less susceptible to erosion than other soils
under similar topographical conditions.
1.4.3 Laterization or plinthization

When a groundwater table is present, soil formation in a humid tropical climate with alternating
dry and wet seasons leads to an entirely different situation in a freely-drained system. The
process can be divided into three stages.
Stage 1
Is connected with free or nearly free drainage and soil formation is identical to that described for
a Ferralsol.
Stage 2
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Upon continuous weathering, the contents of both clay minerals and amorphous sesquoxiodes
colloids increase and the base level of erosion approached, leading at a certain moment to the
stage that the permeation of the soil with rainwater is slow enough to prevent the drainage of all
the water in the wet season. Consequently a temporary groundwater table is established. In dry
season, however, the water can still drain off sufficiently and disappears. In this second stage
(appearance and disappearance of groundwater), reduction processes will start, especially if the
roots are penetrating deep enough. The second stage is therefore characterized by the occurrence
of weathering and soil formation reactions under alternating reductive and oxidative conditions.
The transformations during this stage are more or less comparable with those involved in
pseudo-gley formation and they will be different from that of stage 1. The material formed will
show mottling (zone III), whereas the upper part of the profile will have a uniform colour. It is
clear that in stage 2 the plinthization process begins.
Stage 3
Upon further weathering and approach of the base level of erosion, drainage and
evapotranspiration are no longer able to remove all the water even in the dry season and a
permanent groundwater table will be established. Normal gley formation will be superimposed
upon that of pseudo-gley. A zone of permanent reduction comes into existence (zone IV, “pallid”
zone) and rock weathering will proceed from this moment on, under reducing conditions (zone
V). There is still a fluctuating groundwater table, although the highest water level is lowered
gradually upon weathering and the mottled horizon grows thicker. Part of the originally formed
mottled clay is now only moistened by capillary rise above the water table and the upper part
(zone II) will not be moistened at all. This part can dry to some extent and this is assumed to lead
to the special characteristics of plinthite material. The drying causes a certain dehydration and
crystallization of “amorphous” iron oxihydrates into cryptocrystalline and crystalline hydroxides
and oxides, thus cementing the material.
After some time, due to erosion of the surface soil, the plinthite may be at the surface as a laterite
or ironstone. It should be mentioned that the described process can be influenced by lateral influx
of material and/or by influx with groundwater. This can lead to strong enrichment with both
silica and iron. Under certain conditions, iron moving laterally in percolating drainage water may
18
eventually be precipitated at some point in the landscape where better aeration supervenes, and
ironstone deposits form.
A model description of the zones can be as follows:

(i) Surface zone, red, friable, with colours varying from 2.5 YR 3/5 to 2.5YR 3/6. Some iron
concretions may be present. Thickness up to 60 cm. Clear lower boundary.
(ii) Plinthite zone
Red material, mottled with yellow, white, and even violet; generally clayey texture, but, if
formed from material rich in quartz, often sandy. Granular to subangular blocky structure.
Firm when moist, however hardens strongly upon exposure to the air and can then be used as
building material (ironstone). Pores frequently filled with whitish or grayish material. Upper
part often hardened to laterite (ironstone), especially if zone I has been partly or wholly
eroded. Sometimes rich in gibbsite and silicates (especially kaolinite). May have a
considerable thickness; thickness of 2 m are common. Diffuse lower boundary.
(iii) Mottled clay zone.
Very similar in appearance to II, but soft and does not harden upon exposure to the
atmosphere. May be absent in the profile or may have considerable thickness (10 m). Clear
lower boundary.
(iv) Pallid zone.
A bleached zone poor in iron. Sometimes rock structure still present. May be absent and, if
present, may be the actual or paleo zone of permanent reduction. May also be very thick
(several meters). Diffuse lower boundary.
(v) Weathering rock or saprolite zone.
Consists of weathered rock and has light grew colour if zone IV is present, or is strongly
mottled with red (10 R ¾), yellowish brown (7.5YR 5/6) and grey when zone IV is absent.
The zone is thin (a few millimetres to a few cms) in the case of mafic rocks and several
meters thick in the case of felsic rocks. Rich in kaolinite generally.
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(vi) Parent rock. The presence of all mentioned zones is exceptional, because the soils are
either very old (truncated profiles) or not old enough, so that time was insufficient to form all
zones.
1.4.4 Gleization or Gleying

Where soil remains saturated with water for some time it is liable to gleying. Saturation with
water, i.e. all pores are filled with water, does not mean that all oxygen is immediately excluded
as some can be dissolved in water. However, oxygen will be quickly used up by the
microorganisms. Under such conditions the redox potential (Eh) is lowered. This may reach the
stage that certain soil components are reduced, notably oxides of iron and manganese. This can
happen because after depletion of gaseous oxygen, anaerobic and facultative aerobic
microorganisms take over the aerobic species and they are able to use the oxygen of oxidized
components for their metabolism.
Reduction gives soils characteristic greenish or bluish tinges. The most distinctive feature of
gley, however, is a scattering of brown/red and black mottles. They result from a long-term
seasonally alternating dry and wet condition causing alternating oxidation and reduction.
Precipitation of newly oxidized compounds takes place preferentially on already existing oxide
surfaces. Ensuing reduction is not able to dissolve these coarse grained concretions within one
season. The zones where gleying is most active are along the wider pores in the soil since those
are the first to be filled with water when the rain starts (conducting pores) and the first to be
emptied when conditions become dryer. In this respect two fundamentally different types of gley
must be distinguished:
(a) Gley caused by groundwater: groundwater gley or normal gley
This type of gley is due to wetness caused by groundwater table and thus results from limited
external drainage. At the end of the wet season the groundwater is at its highest level and the
solum is in the reduced state. After the dry (or less humid) season has started, the groundwater
table is lowered. The soil dries and forms cracks. These cracks and other larger pores will be
filled with air and thus, oxygen enters the soil. The reduced Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions, present in the
soil solution in the smaller pores along the cracks oxidize and form precipitates along these
cracks forming brown and black coatings. As a result, the concentration of Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions
20
in this zone is lowered whereas in the wet matrix it is still high. Consequently, Fe2+ and Mn2+
ions diffuse from the inner of the structural units towards the air-filled spaces and, arrived at
these places, oxidize. In this way diffusion contributes to the already started precipitation and
accumulation of iron-and manganese-oxides and hydroxides.
The inner of structural units is therefore gradually deprived of iron and manganese and its colour
turns into the colour of the soil minerals, which are white, grey or green. After air entrance into
the wider pores, some oxygen will diffuse into the still wet matrix causing precipitation at some
distance from the ped surface. Here, segregation of the Fe- and Mn-oxides will occur because
Fe2+ oxidizes “easier” (at lower Eh) than Mn2+ so that generally the Fe-oxides will occur
further away from the cracks than the Mn-oxides. Of course, there is a gross overlap between the
two since the zone of precipitation will gradually move into the soil matrix as a result of drying.
In the course of many years the iron and manganese accumulation turn into concretion-like
bodies and even into real and hard concretions. Below the lowest groundwater table the soil
remains always saturated with water; oxygen never enters into this system and oxidation never
occurs. Gradually the subsoil will be deprived of iron and obtains its homogeneous grey, green
or blue colours.
(b) Gley caused by a perched (hanging) water table: surface water gley or pseudo-gley
This type of gley is caused by wetness due to limited internal drainage of profile causing a
perched water table. Such impeded drainage is usually caused by a stagnating layer somewhere
in the profile, e.g. a textural horizon or parent rock, or the soil material itself.
At the end of the dry season the surface soil is dry and the subsoil still somewhat moist; the
whole solum is well-aerated. Narrow cracks (the width depending on the clay content) are
observed between structural (frequently prismatic) units. It appears that the roots have followed,
in search for water, the paths of least resistance, viz: the cracks and root channels.
Now, the first rains start; frequently, these are heavy showers. The water follows preferably the
paths of least resistance (the cracks and worm tracks) and moisten the soil along these pathways.
Arrived at the water-stagnating layer, it stops and the cracks are completely filled with water.
The new situation is that the structural units are surrounded by water-saturated layers. The inside
21
of the units remains relatively dry. Because of the swelling of the saturated layers, the cracks
narrow and close; the roots are deprived of O2 and die. Upon microbial attack of the dead roots
the oxygen is rapidly consumed and strong anaerobic conditions are created along the former
cracks. Fe (III)- and Mn (IV)- oxides are reduced to Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions which diffuse to the
inner of the structural units where conditions are still aerobic.
The Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions are then re-oxidized at those places where enough O2 is present to do this
(or better: where Eh is high enough). In this way the immediate surroundings of the cracks are
deprived of iron and manganese and a rim of Fe (III)-oxides is formed at some distance from the
cracks. The Mn2+ ions diffuse further away than the Fe2+ ions as Mn2+ ions need a higher Eh to
be oxiodised than Fe2+ ions. As a result, the MnO2-separations are observed in the inner of the
structural units, the place of the highest O2-pressures. When this process is frequently repeated,
broad white or grey tongues are formed along the cracks with a clear rim of iron oxide
separations, whereas the Mn oxide accumulations are found in the very centre of the structural
units.
1.4.5 Ferrolysis
Alternating dry and wet conditions in the soil causing gley phenomena may be accompanied by
accelerated clay decomposition. During the wet phase, ferric oxides are reduced to ferrous ions
which may be absorbed on the exchange complex thereby expelling other adsorbed cations
which may be leached. During these subsequent dry phases, the adsorbed ferrous ions are
oxidized under production of hydrogen ions (protons). The thus formed ferric oxides vacate
exchange sites which are then taken in by the hydrogen ions. Continuation of this process leads
to acid clays which are unstable and will be decomposed under the production of aluminium ions
and silica. The aluminium ions may be adsorbed producing Al-clays and partly polymerise in the
interlayer of 2:1 clays forming soil chlorites. The decomposition of clays induced in this way is
called “Ferrolysis”.
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1.5. Physical and chemical soil properties
1.5.1 Physical properties of soil

Various physical forces interact in the development of soils. The resulting effect renders
characteristic properties to soils, which can be described, in physical terms. Examples of such
properties are texture, structure, porosity, density, consistence, aggregate stability, temperature,
colour, air, soil water etc. These properties have a considerable impact on anchorage, root
penetration, drainage, retention of moisture, availability of plant nutrients and the chemical and
biological characteristics of the soils. They also affect processes such as infiltration, nutrient
cycling and biological activity.
The mineral particles of a size less than 2 mm in diameter represent the particle size of a soil and
the amounts of various soil separates are expressed as weight percentage. The process of
determining the amounts of individual particle fractions is termed as particle size analysis.
It is difficult to determine the sizes of individual particles, therefore, they are grouped together
within specific size ranges; called soil separates. The size limits are expressed in diameter.
Although there are several systems of particle size classification, the widely used ones are:
(i) The international system of soil science and
(ii) The USDA system
The size limits under the two systems are given below:
Table 1.1: Particle size distribution in the international and USDA systems (equivalent
diameter basis)
International system USDA system
Soil separate Diameter range Soil separate Diameter
(mm) range (mm)
Coarse sand 2-0.2 Very coarse sand 2-1
Fine sand 0.2-0.02 Coarse sand 1-0.5
Silt 0.02-0.002 Medium sand 0.5-0.25
Clay <0.002 Fine sand 0.25-0.10
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Very fine sand 0.10-0.05

Silt 0.05-0.002
Clay <0.002
Source: Uriyo et.al, (1983).
Sand
The grains of this separate are rounded and irregular in shape; individual particles can be seen
with the naked eye and they can be readily felt, sand consists of mainly of the original minerals.
It is rather chemically inactive. When dominant, sand results in a coarse –textured soil.
Silt
The separate includes mainly mineral fragments, which are diverse in shape and rarely smooth or
flat. When dominant in a soil, silt gives a soapy feel.
Clay
This fraction includes the finest particles in a soil. Clay particles are primarily secondary
products of chemical weathering. They have ultra-microscopic structure and expose a large
surface area. The clay separate is very active and influences most of the physico-chemical
properties of soil. A soil dominant in clay separate exhibits such properties as swelling, cracking,
shrinking and cohesion under various moisture conditions.
Sands - soils containing 70 % or more sand such as sand and loamy sand
Clays - soils containing more than 35 % clay such as sandy clay, silt clay and clay
Loams - soils containing sand and silt in almost equal proportions, an ideal loam is composed of
approximately 40 % sand, 40 % silt and 20 % clay. Examples of such soils are sandy loam, silt
loam, silt clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam and loam.
Loams are agriculturally the most important soils as they are ideal for the majority of agronomic
crops. The textural class names are suggestive of many properties that have bearing on
management and productivity of soils.
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1.5.2 Chemical properties of soil

The chemical reactions taking place between solid and liquid phases in a soil control its chemical
properties. In this respect, the composition and reactions of the solid phase are quite important.
Examples of chemical properties include heavy metal concentrations, pH, total carbon, total
nitrogen, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
potassium (P), exchangeable aluminium (Al) and hydrogen (H) and available phosphorous (P).
Chemical properties affect soil plant relationship mainly by exerting influences on root
environmental conditions and nutrient availability to plants, and on the population and activities
of soil organisms responsible for several useful transformations between organic and mineral
constituents.
Soils harbour a varied population of living organisms. Of the soil organic matter, nearly 20 % is
microbial cell substances. The microbial life of the soil plays a prominent and indispensable role
in the changes constantly occurring in the soil. Activities of soil organisms vary from physical
disintegration of plant residues by insects and earthworms to complete decomposition of these
residues by microorganisms e.g. bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes. Such decaying process
results in the release of nutrient elements from their organic combinations. The soil components
govern the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. These components are
interdependent and they jointly influence the soil properties and hence, the plant growth.
1.6 The soil profile

A soil profile (Fig. 1.1) is a three dimensional vertical section through the soil from the surface
to the underlying unweathered material or bedrock. It is made up of a number of several
horizontal layers, technically called as soil horizons, which differ from each other in their
physical, chemical and biological properties. The horizons above the parent material are
collectively referred to as solum.
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Fig. 1.1: Prototype of a soil profile Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
Broadly speaking, all soil profiles contain two or more master horizons. These are characterized
by:
(i) Organic horizons denoted by letter O; and
(ii) Mineral horizons denoted by letters A, B, C & R
These horizons are in turn sub-divided into:

O1, O2 Subdivisions of the O horizon;
A1, A2, A3 Subdivisions of the A horizon
B1, B2, B3 Subdivisions of the B-horizons and the C and R are not subdivided.
1.7 Soil profile development

The major elements involved in profile development are clays, sesquioxides, humus, living
organisms and water. Under suitable conditions, the activities of the living organisms on organic
matter lead to the formation of humus which imparts a dark colour and structural stability to the
surface soil horizon with which it is mixed. In this way organic matter contributes to soil
layering (or the formation of soil horizons).
Acid produced from organic matter decomposition enhance the breakdown of base-containing
minerals. This yields soluble nutrients and secondary minerals, such as silicate clays and hydrous
oxides of Iron and Aluminium. These may enrich the upper layers of the soil in which they are
26
formed or they may be moved downward by percolating water, eventually to accumulate as

layers at some lower depth in the developing soils. This downward movement and accumulation
promotes horizon formation.
Soil water, as a transport agent, helps in horizon formation in low rainfall regions, upward
movement and evaporation of water results in the accumulation of salts at the soil surface. The
converse takes place in areas of high rainfall.
1.8 A study of a soil profile in the field

Much of the studies of soils have been concentrated on the top 6 to 20 cm of the profile. This is
the horizon mostly affected by both physical and chemical processes. Although the top few
centimetres of soil are important for the growth of most of the agronomic crops, the lower layers
are also important for many reasons such as the movement of water and stability of the soil
surface. In the study of soil development it is necessary to examine the horizons in a profile. The
profile can be exposed by digging a pit or by using a recent vertical cut along the roadside or in a
quarry or trench.
The major properties commonly looked for in the study of a soil profile are the depth of the
individual horizons, colour, texture, structure, consistency, porosity, presence of roots and
animals, presence of carbonates and concretions, pH and parent material. All these properties can
be observed directly in the field. The acidity or alkalinity can be measured quickly by means of
indicators or by using a portable pH meter. In addition, detailed physical and chemical analyses
are done to classify the profile (soil classification). The colour notation refers to Munsell colour
chart and the description is according to FAO guidelines to soil profile description (FAO, 1976).
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CHAPTER TWO
SOIL SURVEY
2.1 Overview
Soil survey is one of a group of activities collectively known as natural resource surveys. These
are studies of the natural environment with special reference to its resource potential. Resource
surveys may cover each of the eight factors of physical environment: geology, landforms,
climate, hydrology, soils, vegetation, fauna and disease. The production of maps is a major
element in geological, landform, soil and vegetation surveys, and plays a lesser role, as compared
with statistical and descriptive matter, in other types of survey. Of these branches of natural
resource survey, soil survey is the most widely used in development planning. A soil map and a
soil survey report is one of the primary documents on which land development projects are
based. Soil survey can therefore be simply defined as process of taking inventory and/or
assessment of the quality of soil resources for different uses such as crop production and
increased land productivity.
2.2 Purpose of soil survey

“The most widely recognized general practical purpose of soil survey and mapping is to provide
a systematic basis for the study of crop and soil relationships with the view to increasing
productivity and to help in soil conservation and reclamation” (Stephens, 1953). The purpose of
soil survey and its products the soil map and associated text, may be viewed in two ways:
(i) Provide the user with information about soil and land form conditions at any site of
interest
(ii) To supply information which will assist in decisions about land use and land
development planning
(iii) Its output e.g. soil physical and chemical properties are used in land evaluation
(iv) Indicate potential productivity and where and how to achieve it
(v) Select suitable land for development;
(vi) Plan soil conservation and reclamation; and
(vii) Select sites for experiments, which can be carried out, for instance to estimate fertilizer
requirements.
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2.3 Materials and Equipment for soil survey

In order to undertake soil survey, a multi-disciplinary survey team should ensure that basic soil
science and land survey equipment are in place. Where accommodation proves to be difficult, the
team is advised to take camping materials (tents and its associated accessories, umbrella, FAO
soil profile description guidelines, standard soil profile description sheet). Soil science
equipment will mainly be used for soil profile description and recording while land survey
equipment will be essential to ensure that the surveyed area is surveyed and mapped.
Some of the essential equipment and materials may include hand hoe for digging a soil profile,
GPS for recording location, Dutch auger for soil sampling to supplement soil profile data; pH
meter for recording acidity and alkalinity; Munsell colour chart for determining soil colour when
dry, moist and wet; and FAO guidelines for soil description provide users with complete
procedure for soil description and for collecting field data necessary for soil classification
systems such as the World Reference Base (WRB). The ruler is for measuring horizon depth,
field knife for cleaning horizon boundaries and for differentiating horizons. Horizon
differentiation using a field knife will depend on the differences of force used and colour
differentiation.
The microscope may be used in assessing the root thickness and distribution of both micro and
macro-pores. The wash bottles with water is used to assess soil texture and soil colour (when
moist or wet) in the field. The compass is for recording the magnetic north and angular
measurements while plastic bags are used to collected soil samples from each horizon. Umbrella
is essential as will guard you against sunshine and/or rains. The standard soil profile description
recording sheet is for recording soil profile information such as texture, structure, porosity, roots
distribution, mottles, horizon depths, soil colour, acidity or alkalinity level, profile depth etc. The
ranging poles are for identification of survey points and may also be used for taking linear
measurement in case you don‟t have a tape measure or a chain.
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2.4 Types of survey

Within the broad field of decisions concerning land use there are different types of survey with a
range of aims (Fig. 2.2), corresponding in part to different scales although with some degree of
overlap.
1:500000 1:250000 1:100000 1:50000 1: 25000 1:10000 1:5000 1:2500
Scale of soil survey
Recce Semi-detailed Detailed Intensive
Resource inventory
Project location
Feasibility surveys
Development surveys
Management surveys
Fig. 2.1: Types of surveys and its corresponding scales
Surveys for resource inventory are national or regional surveys intended as a guide to varying
resource potential and problems possessed by different areas, and more specifically as a guide to
areas with development potential, they also provide basic scientific information of use in other
disciplines.
Feasibility surveys are intended to assess the technical and economic feasibility of specific
development projects. They do not provide complete plan, but only an estimate of whether the
project is sufficiently likely to be successful to warrant detailed investigation. Development
surveys are surveys undertaken as part of the actual planning of a project. Both feasibility and
development surveys may be either semi-detailed or detailed scales. Management surveys are
normally at intensive scale. They are concerned with specific management questions such as the
30
application of irrigation water, precise planting locations for individual plants/crops or fertilizer
application. In relation to the amount of detail presented on the map the following general
grouping can be made:
The exploratory inventory is the very first soil investigation in a large area to answer general
questions with respect to development possibilities: this survey can sometimes be executed on
very small scale imagery with the aid of some additional information (geology, climate, etc.) and
a minimal amount of fieldwork. For example: suppose a soil scientist would be charged with
making a small scale soil survey of Makulu village in order to answer the specific question: “Are
there soils in this area where agriculture on the basis of sustained yields can be executed?”. (with
„agriculture on the basis of sustained yields‟ is meant permanent agriculture which does not
deplete the soils in one or two years). The soil surveyor would get to know the general climatic
data of the area, if only for practical reason that fieldwork is influenced greatly by weather
conditions.
The corresponding map will be based on geological, meteorological and adaphological data.
Fieldwork is not intensive and soil classification is very general. Land classification is mainly
based on relief and climate (altitude).
General reconnaissance survey, soil classification up to great group level will be adequate. The
mapping units of this map consist of larger physiographic units. Land classification will be based
on relief and general soil conditions (fertility, erosion etc.).
For detailed reconnaissance the level of taxonomic classification is that of the subgroup. At this
level the land classification is carried out in steps:
(i) for every region or sub-region appropriate land evaluation types, including sets of crops
are indicated. Crops that are typical for the region are considered. These sets are
determined by what is actually cultivated, the climate and general soil conditions
(ii) The soils are classified according to their suitability for the crops, within the actual
management system, taking into consideration a number of factors, such as oxygen,
31
water, fertility, erosion hazard and the use of machinery. Some of these aspects,
might have a limiting influence on the choice of crops
(iii) The land is classified according to its suitability after certain improvements have been
applied, specially irrigation and/or drainage.
2.4 Methods of soil survey
2.4.1 Planning and organization
There are three main phases and/or stages to soil survey: pre-field, field survey and post field
operations. Each phase has a number of activities to be carried on.
Pre-field phase
This phase can be described as a preparatory or logistical stage and involves several activities.
These include secondary data review of the area where the survey will be conducted, formation
of the multi-disciplinary survey team, aerial photo interpretation, making transport arrangements,
mobilization of resources, putting in place all materials and equipment for the survey, literature
review, and communicating with your client and/or customer through formal letter in advance. If
the area to be surveyed is close, you may also undertake reconnaissance survey during this
phase.
Field survey phase

This is the actual soil survey implementation phase. Assuming that funds to carry the exercise
are available and your client has already responded to your letter sent earlier; the survey team
may leave for the task ahead in that particular district and/or village. Upon arrival, the team
should liaise with the respective District Executive Director for permission to undertake the
exercise. Once the permission is granted the team will proceed with the exercise by reporting to
lower administrative structures, that is, to the Ward Executive Officer and later to Village
Executive Officer (VEO).
In case the survey is done at village level, the VEO will facilitate the exercise through the village
environmental committee. The chairperson of the committee may assign the team one or two
members to work with the team as facilitators. The main activities to be performed during this
phase will be reconnaissance survey, literature review, determining the number of soil profiles to
32
be dug and this will be dictated by the type of relief or topography of the area (catena
toposequence approach), digging soil profile(s), soil profile description, and soil sampling.
During the survey three types of soil observations are carried out: auguring to verify boundaries;
mini-pit observations to characterize the range of variation of the soil in order to establish
representative or „model‟ profiles‟; and full profile descriptions to illustrate the model concepts
established by means of the mini-pit observations.
The mini-pit has turned out to be an efficient way to gather data in soil surveys. It consists of a
shortened version of a full pit description carried out in a small pit deep enough to draw
undisturbed samples from subsurface diagnostic horizons. An auger accompanies the pit to
deliver disturbed samples of the deeper parts of the profile. This allows for a classification till
subgroup or family level.
Simple auguring does not yield undisturbed samples and cannot serve the aforementioned
purpose. Full pit descriptions are too elaborate and time consuming for the purpose of
establishing a range. Of these full pit descriptions only a limited number is carried out at the end
of the survey to characterize the model profile.
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance (recce) refers going around the area to be surveyed and may be by walking in
case the survey area is small or by use of vehicle where the survey area is large. Recce is
important as may help in planning the task and in determining the number of profiles to be dug
based on the relief of that particular area.
Determination of profiles
In case the relief of the surveyed area is flat, it is recommended to dig one profile only. Where
the relief is undulating (with ups and downs), two or more profiles can be dug and this follows
the soil catena toposequence approach. The approach assumes that similar landforms have
similar soils, vegetation, climate, land uses etc.
Digging soil profiles, augering and mini-pits
33
Where there are no exposed road cuts, the survey team will be required to dig a standard soil
profile (standard dimension - 2x2x2 m). The depth of the profile may be dictated by the presence
or absence of hard pans.
Soil profile description

With the help of the soil profile description guidelines and standard soil profile recording sheet,
record the soil horizon (layers) characteristics such as texture, pH, porosity, structure, roots
distribution, colour, horizon boundaries and depth etc. Texture will be determined in the field
using feel method.
Soil sampling
After recording all parameters (as per recording sheet), take soil sample for each horizon (500
gm) and pack into the plastic bag. These samples will later be sent to soil laboratory for
determining both physical and chemical properties to facilitate soil classification
Post field phase

This phase encompasses a number of activities. The main one include literature review,
laboratory analysis of soil samples, data analysis and land evaluation, revision of aerial photo
interpretation and production of soil map(s).
2.5 Catena Toposequence

Soil catena (Fig. 2.3) is a succession of soils down a slope. Soil formation is dependent on the
way water moves in the soil and on the fate of compounds dissolved in it or particles dispersed in
it. This means that the soil-forming process operative at any particular site depends on the
position of that site on the morphological landscape. Thus, if in area of fairly uniform parent
material there is a fairly regularly recurring pattern of landscape morphology, it is likely that the
soils derived from such a parent material may have a fairly regular pattern associated with the
landscape. This recurring pattern was called Catena by Milne (1938).
It was introduced as a mapping unit for small-scale soil maps but a surveyor can only make full
of it if he can recognize the basic landforms present in the landscape. The catenary concept has
34
been generalized by the introduction of the soil sequence. Thus, toposequence is fairly constant
parent material where the different elements are all of the same age. A lithosequence is a soil
sequence on different parent materials where the topology and age of the landform elements are
about the same; and a chronosequence is where the ages of the elements differ. The basic process
producing catena or toposequence complex of soils is the movement of water from the interfluve
and the valley sides into groundwater or into the river draining the catchment. The soil catena is
primarily a function of the factor of relief, together with indirect effects of relief upon hydrology.
In the case of compound catena the parent material factor may also be an important cause of
intra-catenary differentiation of soil properties.
Differentiation of properties between the different parts of the catena is brought about by
additional processes consequent on the slope. These latter processes are erosion and deposition,
processes arising from the position of water table, and the lateral eluviation of materials in
solution. The processes of natural erosion on slopes are soil creep, surface wash, solution and
rapid mass movements (landslides). In tropical climates ranging from semi-arid to moist
savannah, surface wash is the most important.
Fig. 2.3: Soil catena Source:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
2.6 Soil survey report
As stated earlier on, the end products of soil survey exercise are soil maps and technical soil
survey report. The report should consist of the following main chapters and/or sections. The
report should have an executive summary. This will be followed by chapters namely the table of
contents, introduction, the environment, soils, land suitability for various uses, conclusion and
recommendations, references, appendices and a soil map in the back cover.
35
The environment chapter may cover aspects such as physical, geology and hydrology; climate,
vegetation and present land use and soil erosion. The soils chapter may include study approach,
soil map and legend, general soil conditions, description of the mapping units and soil fertility
aspects. The conclusion and recommendations chapter may cover soil tillage practices, soil
fertility management, land management and livestock management. Appendices/annexes may
include: glossary, analytical procedures followed, profile descriptions and analytical data and
analytical data of composite samples.
.
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CHAPTER THREE
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
3.1 Overview
Like plants and animals, soils are also classified and named. Soils are identified by such
characteristics as the number and kind of horizons that have developed in them, the relative
amounts of gravel, sand, silt and clay (texture), kinds of minerals and their amounts; the presence
or absence of various kinds of salts, amount of organic matter, the drainage characteristics and
many other important features. Soil classification is a systematic arrangement of soils into groups
on the basis of their characteristics or genesis. One of the major objectives of soil classification is
that it contributes to the development of soil maps on which the classified soils are shown. Soil
maps are useful for planning irrigation, drainage, land uses etc. According to the World
Reference Base (WRB) for soil resources, there are two major soil classification systems namely
the Soil Taxonomy (UDSA system or land capability) and the FAO-UNESCO (land suitability)
classification systems.
3.2 Soil taxonomy system or the USDA system

This system was first developed in USA in 1938. The new soil taxonomy system is based upon
soil properties that may be measured quantitatively and in addition it has the following
advantages over the 1938, which based on upon genesis and the 1975 system which based on
morphological properties.
 Classification is based upon soil properties rather than soil genesis
 It focuses upon soil rather than related sciences
 Properties of soil may be measured quantitatively and verified by others
 Names used give a definite clue to the major characteristics of the soil
 It permits the classification of soils of unknown genesis, since only the knowledge of soil
properties is required and
 It provides more uniform classification by a group of scientists
37
This system does not ignore soil genesis but rather emphasizes measurable soil properties as a
basis for soil classification. Soil depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange
capacity (CEC), base saturation, organic matter etc. are some of the properties to classify soils.
The most significant of the properties used to identify soils in this system, is the presence of
certain soil horizons. These are known as diagnostic horizons as they are used to classify the soil.
Some are surface and some are sub-surface diagnostic horizons. The diagnostic surface horizons
are known as epidedons (Table 2.2). The epipedons includes the upper part of the soil darkened
by soil organic matter, the upper eluvial horizons or both.
In addition, a number of sub-surface horizons (endopedon) (Table 3.1) are known to occur e.g.
calcic horizon is a characteristic of vertisols, and an oxic horizon is of Oxisols. Duripans,
fragipans and placic horizons, which restrict water movement and root penetration, are also
present in some soils. There are six categories in this system (soil taxonomy) of classification:
(1) Order (2) Sub-order (3) Great group (4) Sub-group (5) Family and series. Mapping units of
soils are known as types of series.
38
Table 3.1: Major features of diagnostic horizons
Horizon Derivation Major features

Epipedons
Mollic L. mollis, soft Thick, dark colour high base saturation and strong structure so that the
soil is not massive or hard when dry.
Umbric L. umbra, shade Same as mollic except low base saturation

Ochric Gk. Ochris, pale Thin, light colour and low in organic matter
Histic Gk. Histous, tissue Very high organic matter content and saturated with water at sometime
during the year unless artificially drained
Antropic Gk. Anthropos, men Mollic like horizon with a very high phosphate content resulting from
long time cultivation and fertilization
Plaggen Gk. Plaggen, sod Very thick, over 5 cm produced by long continued manuring
Endopedons
Argillic L. argilla, white clay Illuvial horizon of silicate clay accumulation
Natric L. natrium, sodium Illuvial horizon of silicate clay accumulation, over 15 % exchangeable
Na and columnar or prismatic structure
Spodic Gk. Spodos, wood ash Illuvial accumulation of free Fe and Al hydrous
Oxic L. oxide, Oxide Altered subsurface horizon consisting of a mixture of hydrous oxides of
Fe & Al and 1:1 clays
Cambic L. cambare, to Altered horizon due to movement of soil particles by frost, roots and
animals to such an extent as to destroy original rock structure
An illuvial horizon of clay and organic matter accumulation just under
Agric L. ager, field the plough layer due to long-continued cultivation
A horizon 15-cm or more thick with a secondary accumulation of salts
Salic L. sal, salt soluble in cold water. The accumulation of salts is such that plant
growth is adversely affected.
Source: Uriyo et.al, 1983. Soil orders in the soil taxonomy system
The order is based upon morphology and the presence or absence of diagnostic horizons. There
are 12 orders in the system namely Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Gelisols, Histosols,
Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols and Vertisols.
39
(i) Entisols
Soils of recent origin (young) such as alluvium and infertile soils of barren sands are included in
the order. Such soils lack significant profile development and have no diagnostic horizon or have
only beginnings of such horizons. Such soils are usually found in areas of water stream flow,
desert, steep slopes and high rainfall areas.
(ii) Gelisols
Are soils of very cold climates that contain permafrost within 2 meters of the surface. These
soils are limited geographically to the high-altitude polar regions and localized areas at high
mountain elevations. Because of the extreme environment in which they are found, gelisols
support only about 0.4 percent of the world‟s population.
(iii) Vertisols
Vertisols (L. verto, turn) are soils containing 30 % or more of expanding clays (of
montmorillonitic group) in all horizons, which cause deep wide, cracks in the soil during the dry
season. While cracks are open, some loose material from the surface falls into them. During wet
season, rainwater runs into these cracks, causing the clays in the cracks to swell and force their
way upward through cracks. Repeated cycles of wetting and drying or expansion and contraction
cause gradual inversion of these soils hence the name Vertisol.
(iv) Inceptisols
Inceptisols (L. inceptum, beginning) are young soils in which the development of genetic
horizon has just begun. In fact, such horizons are thought to form rather quickly mostly due to
alterations of parent materials. Horizons of marked accumulation of clay and hydrous oxides of
Iron and Aluminium are absent. Inceptisols are considered older than Entisols because of their
more advanced profile development. Typically, inceptisols have ochric epipedon and may have
other diagnostic horizons. They can be found in slopes of mountains and other highland areas.
(v) Aridisols
Aridsols (L. aridus, dry) include soils of dry climates. They have an ochric epipedon, which is
generally light in colour, and are low in organic matter. They may have a calcic or salic horizon.
In some Aridsols, there is a distinct zone of lime accumulation in the profile.
40
(vi) Mollisols
Mollisols (L. mollis, soft) are dark coloured rich mineral soils of high agricultural value. They
are characterized by a mollic epipedon, which is thick, high in organic matter and rich in divalent
cations. They may have an argillic, natric, albic or cambic horizon but not an oxic or spodic
horizon. Due to the presence of high organic matter and divalent cations, the surface horizons
have a granular or crumb structure.
(vii) Spodosols
Spodosols (GK. spodos, wood ash) are soils having a spodic horizon, a subsurface horizon with
an accumulation of organic matter and hydrous oxides of Al and Fe. Normally an albic horizon
(light coloured, hence, justifying reference to wood ash). They occur in forest areas in humid
climates and are most common where it is cold and temperate. They are derived mostly from
coarse textured (sandy), base deficient, acid (siliceous) parent materials, which permit leaching
readily.
(viii) Alfisols
Develop under more wet conditions than the Mollisols in areas where trees are the natural
vegetation. They may have an ochric epipedon but they definitely have an argillic endopedon
(illuvial horizon of silicate clays accumulation). The clay horizon is generally > 35 % base
saturated. Sometimes a natric horizon may be present. The alfisols are more strongly weathered
than the Inceptisols but less so than Spodosols.
(ix) Ultisols
Ultisols (L. ultimus, last) are usually moist soils developed under warm tropical climate. These
are more highly weathered and acidic than the Alfisols but they are not so acidic as the
Spodosols. Such soils show the ultimate effect of leaching and, hence, the name Ultisol. They
have an argillic horizon with low base saturation, being less than 35 %. High amounts of
exchangeable Al are usually present.
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(x) Oxisols
Oxisols (F.oxide) are the most highly weathered soils characterized by the presence of deep oxic
endopedon composed of weather resistant minerals. Weathering and intense leaching have
removed a large part of the Silica from silicate minerals in this horizon leaving a high proportion
of hydrous oxides of Al and Fe. Some quartz and Kaolinitic clays remain but the hydrous oxide
are dominant. The clay content of the oxic horizon is usually high but it is of non-sticky type.
(xi) Histosols
Histosols (G. histos, tissue) include organic soils with histic epipedon which is over 50 cm thick,
saturated with water at least for 30 consecutive days a year, and it contains at least 20 % organic
matter. In other words, these soils develop under a water-saturated environment. Such soils may
be found in marshy lands and at very high elevations.
(xii) Andisols
Are soils that have formed in volcanic ash or other volcanic ejecta. They differ from those other
soil orders in that they typically are dominated by glass and short-range-order colloidal
weathering products such as allophone, imogolite, and ferrihydrite (minerals). As a result,
andisols have andic properties – unique chemical and physical properties that include high water-
holding capacity and the ability to fix (and make available to plants) large quantities of
phosphorous.
3.3 The FAO-UNESCO classification system

A generally accepted system of soil classification did not exist when FAO decided to honour a
recommendation of the International Society of Soil Science to prepare a soil Map of the World
(1:5,000,000). Consequently, FAO set out to construct a legend, which aimed to be a common
denominator of existing national schemes while adequately accommodating the major soil
patterns of the global soil cover to ensure its geographic relevance. The legend, which evolved,
was first published in 1974; a revised version which incorporates additional experience gained
and the latest views of soil classification concepts was published in 1990. This text is based on
the 1990 version.
42
The FAO-UNESCO classification of soils comprises three categories. It distinguishes 28 „Major

Soil Groupings‟ at the highest level of generalization. At the second level these Major Soil
Groupings are subdivided into a total of 153 „Soil Units‟. The revised Legend (FAO, 1990)
introduces a third level of „Soil Subunits‟, devised in support of soil mapping at larger scales.
Soil subunits will not be discussed here. The FAO-UNESCO system accommodates land
features in as far as these have practical importance for use of the soils. These land features are
designated as „phases‟, which are non-taxonomic and can cut across the boundaries of Soil Units
and Soil Subunits.
The 28 Major Soil Groupings will be presented hereafter in nine „Sets‟ composed by applying
the following criteria:
First, a separation is made between organic soils and mineral soils; all organic soils are grouped
in one Set. Then, the remaining (mineral) Major Soil Groupings are each allocated to one of the
eight Sets on the basis of their „dominant identifiers‟, i.e. those soils forming factor(s), which
most clearly conditioned soil formation.
Table 3.2 & 3.3 below summarizes the nine Sets, their dominant identifiers and the Major Soil
Grouping(s) within each Set.
Table 3.2: All major soil groupings of FAO-UNESCO system in nine sets
Sets Dominant identifiers Major soil
groupings
1 Organic soils Histosols
2 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by human influences (not Anthrosols
confined to any particular region)
3 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by parent material
- Soils developed in volcanic mineral Andosols
- Soils developed in residual and shifting sands Arenosols
- Soils developed in expanding clays Vertisols
4 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by
topography/physiography
- Soils in lowlands (wetlands) with level topography Fluvisols,
Gleysols
- Soils in elevated regions with non-level topography Leptosols,
43
Regosols
5 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by limited age (not Camisoles
confined to any particular region)
6 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate (and climate – Plinth sols,
induced vegetation) in wet tropical and subtropical regions Ferralsols,
Nitosols,
Acrisols,
Alisols,
Lixisols
7 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate (and climate- Solonchaks,
induced vegetation) in arid and semi-arid regions. Solonetz,
Gypsisols,
Calcisols
8 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate (and climate – Kastanozems,
induced vegetation) in steppes and steppic regions Chernozems,
Phaeozems,
Greyzems
9 Mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate (and climate- Luvisols,
induced vegetation) in subhumid forest and grassland regions Podzoluvisols,
Planosols,
Podzols.
Source: FAO, 1991.
Table 3.3: Summary of diagnostic horizons
Diagnostic horizon Most prominent features
histic H-horizon Organic (peaty) surface horizon of 20-40 cm depth; in some cases till 60 cm.
mollic A-horizon Surface horizon with dark colour due to organic matter; base saturation exceeds
50 %.
umbric A-horizon Similar to mollic A horizon but base saturation lower than 50 %.
fimic A-horizon Man made surface layer, 50 cm or more thick, produced by long-continued
manuring.
ochric A-horizon Surface horizon without stratification and lacking the characteristics of ( a histic
H-horizon, or) a mollic, umbric or fimic A-horizon.
albic E-horizon Bleached eluviation horizon with the colour of uncoated soil material, usually
overlying an illuviation horizon.
ferralic B-horizon Highly weathered horizon, at least 30 cm thick, with a cation exchange capacity
of 16 cmol(+)/kg clay, or less.
natric B-horizon Clay accumulation horizon with more than 15 % exchangeable sodium, usually
44
with a columnar or prismatic structure.

argic B-horizon Clay accumulation horizon lacking properties of a nitric B-horizon and/or a
ferralic B-horizon.
spodic B-horizon Horizon with illuviation of organic matter with alunimium or with iron and
aluminium.
cambic B-horizon Genetically young B-horizon (therefore not meeting the criteria for argic, nitric,
spodic or ferralic horizons) showing evidence of alteration; modified colour,
removal of carbonates or presence of soil structure.
calcic horizon Horizon with distinct calcium carbonate enrichment
gypsic horizon Horizon with distinct calcium sulphate enrichment.
petrocalcic hor. A continuous cemented or indurated calcic horizon.
petrogypsic hor. gypsic horizon hardened to the extent that dry fragments do not slake in water
and roots cannot enter.
sulfuric horizon Horizon of at least 15 cm thick, having jarosite mottles and pH (H2O, 1:1) <3.5.
Source: FAO, 1990
Set 1 includes all organic soils, i.e. soils with more than a defined quantity of „organic soil
minerals‟. All organic soils are accommodated in only one Major Soil Grouping: the Histosols.
Set 2 contains all man-made soils. These soils vary widely in properties and appearance and can
occur in any environment influenced by human intervention. They too have been accommodated
in only one Major Soil Grouping: the Arnthrosols.
Set 3 includes the mineral soils whose formation is conditioned by the particular properties of
their parent material. The set includes three major soil groupings:
(i) The dark and fluffy Andosols of volcanic regions
(ii) The sandy Arenosols of desert areas, beach ridges, inland dunes, areas with highly
weathered sandstones, etc., and
(iii)The swelling and shrinking heavy clayey Vertisols of backswamps, river basins, lake
bottoms, and other periodically wet areas with a high content of expanding 2:1 lattice
clay.
Set 4 is composed of mineral soils whose formation was markedly influenced by their
topographic/physiographic setting. Such soils can be found in low terrain position, associated
with recurrent floods and/or prolonged wetness, but also in elevated or accidented terrain where
soil formation is hindered by low temperatures or erosion.
Set 5 accommodates (other) soils that are only moderately developed on account of their limited
pedogenetic age or of rejuvenation. Moderately developed soils occur in all environments, from
the sea level to highlands, from the equator to the boreal regions, and under all kinds of
vegetation.
Set 6 accommodates the red and yellow soils of wet tropical and subtropical regions. High soil
temperatures and (at times) ample water promote rock weathering and mineralization of soil
organic matter.
Set 7 accommodates major soil groupings that are typical of arid and semi-arid regions.
45
Set 8 holds soils that occur in the steppic zone between the dry climates and the humid temperate
regions at higher altitudes.
Set 9 accommodates the brownish and grayish of the humid temperate regions.
46
47
CHAPTER FOUR
SOIL EROSION CONTROL
4.1 Overview
In the development of new agricultural land or in areas with steep slopes, often little attention is
given to soil and water conservation. Usually some of the natural resources of the county are
present in such quantities that they are taken as inexhaustible. Later when population density
becomes great, the necessity for conserving resources becomes apparent and frequently acute.
Often as in developing countries the need for conserving soil as a resource is one of last to be
recognized. As such a lot of soil erosion has taken place in areas which were once good
agricultural lands. Poor or complete lack of conservation practices has resulted in serious
deterioration of otherwise good land and places desertification Engineering conservation works
to mitigate the problem are expensive and most poor farmers in developing countries cannot
afford. , therefore, simple, cheap and effective practices should be promoted.
4.2 Soil erosion

There is no universally acceptable definition of soil erosion. According to Uriyo (1979) he
defines soil erosion as the wearing away detachment and removal of soil from one place and its
disposition at another through the forces of striking and moving water, blowing winds, strong
waves, snow and the force of gravity and that erosion results in the loss organic matter and plant
nutrients. Kirkiby (1980) defines soil erosion as the accelerate movement of soil by cultural
practice such as farming and urban development it is distinguished from the much slower process
of geological (natural) erosion. Removal of surface material may be by wind or water
Evans (1980) defines soil erosion as the removal of soil in excess of soil formation and primarily
attributed to man and his activities. Soil erosion and sediment yield are terms with district
meaning in soil terminology. Soil erosion causes the gross amount of soil moved by drop
detachment and runoff. Soil loss is the soil moved off a particular slope or field. Sediment yield
is the loss delivered to a point in a catchment drainage system.
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4.3 Soil erosion problem in the world context

The current rate of agricultural land degradation worldwide by soil erosion and other factors is
leading to an irreversible loss s of productivity on about six million hectares of fertile land a
year. It has been estimated that human include soil degradation has affected 24% of the inhabited
and area. The values of individual contents range from 12% in North America, 19% Ocean, 26%
in Europe, 27 % Africa and 31 % in Asia (Lal, 1993; Kaswamila, 1995) regardless the method
used in the assessment it is clear that the situation is alarming and that it is worldwide problem
requiring attention .
4.4 Agents of soil erosion

The major agents of soil erosion are water and wind. Wind erosion is normally dominant in arid
and semi arid regions. Our concern here will be on water erosion. Movement of soil by water are
in three stages. First individual grains (particles and aggregates) are detached from the soil mass.
Second the detached grains are transported over the land surface. Third the soil grains fall out of
suspension and are deposited as sediment on the new site. Soil removal and deposition occur to
some degree in nearly all locations but detachment and removal are major concern on uplands,
and deposition in most important on low land sires and in streams and lakes. In arid regions rare
intense rain storms cause excessive runoff and severe erosion even when the soil is covered with
spare native vegetation.
4.5 Types of water erosion

Soil erosion by water can be classified as plash sheet (interill) rill, gully and stream bank erosion.
The classification is based on the nature and extent of soil removal
4.5.1 Splash erosion

The impact of rain drops causes splash erosion. Fine textures soils can easily be dislodged by the
impact of raindrops such impact is insignificant on soil protected with vegetation on bare soil, as
much as 250 are splashed and may be wasted away. More serious erosion hazard. Occur on
sloping lands as a considerable amount of splashed material is moved downhill. This type of
erosion account for much of the erosion on short steep sloped or near the tops of ridges
49
4.5.2 Sheet erosion

The uniform removal of soil in thin layers from the surface of the land is referred to as sheet
erosion. This happened every time when rainfall of eroding intensity occurs. The beating action
of raindrops combined with the surface flow of rain water causes most of the sheet erosion. This
type of rain water cause most of the sheet erosion this type of erosion is (i) downhill rolling or
dragging action of water (ii) the valuation which occurs when turbulent water causes soil
particles are carried away along with the rain water sheet erosion is extensive where the soil is
bare and unprotected
4.5.3 Rill erosion

The removal of soil through well defined channels (rills) formed by concentration of surface
flow is called rill erosion. This type of erosion is more serious because the n run of water moves
faster in the rills on the land surface.
4.5.4 Gully erosion

As the volume of runoff increase the rills grow into gullies. Depression such as furrows wheel
track and cattle trails generally aid the development of gullies. Such erosion is more spectacular
and it indicates faulty land management. Gullies in an advances stage may be more than 15
meters deep. Other types of erosion include slip erosion (land slide) stream erosion, and sea
shore erosion.
4.6 Agents active in water erosion

Two major kind agents are active in water erosion. Falling raindrops and running water both of
these drive the energy needed to detach and transport soil grains from the force of gravity. I
addition water acts as lubricant as gravity causes soil to roll or slide downhill. This types of
movement while spectular and important when it occurs in the aggregates is less important than
the direst movement of soil by water (Troeh, 1980).
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4.6.1 Vegetation and raindrop

All raindrops do not strike the soil at terminal velocity and so release maximum energy. Shaw
(1959) showed that a growing corn intercepts and holds 3-5 mm of moistures from a storm that
exceeds 7.5 mm total rainfall. This water never reaches the ground to beat the soil and cause
erosion. The importance of vegetation cover in intercepting raindrops was first reported by
woolly in 1980 (Baver, 1939). His study showed that growing crops intercepted as much as 45%
of the raindrops.
Studies by Ellison (1944, 1947a, 1947b) show that the main detaching agent in sheet erosion is
the falling raindrop. It appear that raindrops are more responsible for sheet erosion. Ellison
(1944) found that as large as 10 diameter were moved by raindrops when the pebbles were partly
submerged in the surface flown
4.6.2 Running water

The slope of land in which water flows influence over land flow velocity and volume, and hence
erosiveness. Four features of slope affect the velocity and amount over land flow: slope
gradient, slope length, slope shape and slope aspect. Increased slope gradient increase the speed
of water moving downhill and therefore increase the erosive force of the flowing water. Slope
length in a terraced field is the distance from the ridge top of one terrace to the centre of the
channel of the terrace immediately below. Slope shape can be straight, convex or concave. Slope
aspect is the direction the slope faces.
Runoff is also influenced by the shape of the contour lines across the slope. Convex contours
cause the water flow lines to diverge in the downhill direction. Concave contours cause them
converge and produce a deeper accumulation of water and higher velocity than would occur with
straight or convex contours. Runoff from medium and fine textured soils usually increases with
the slope gradient. Runoff from sandy soils, on the other hand, does not always increase with
increasing slope. Erosion however always increases with slope steepness. Slope length has a
variable effect on runoff and erosion. Runoff loses per unit area are usually greater on short
slopes and decrease on longer slopes. Increasing slope length on some soils however has the
effect of increased runoff rate (Troel, 1980).
51
There is generally more erosion per unit area on longer slopes inspite of less total runoff. The
soils on which erosion is less affected by slopes length usually are permeable and consequently
less erodible. Longer slopes increase the amount of erosion when rainfall intensity is high or the
permeability of the soil is low or both. The effect of slope shape on runoff and erosion is
complex. Runoff velocity is low and soil movement in minimal near the top of the convex slopes
because runoff volume is small and the slopes grading is gentle.
Water movement is faster on steeper gradients and more runoff water will accumulate. Soil tends
to be shallow on convex slopes because replacement from the flatter slope above is lower than
the loss to the stepper slope below. Concave slope usually suffer less from erosion and have
deeper soils than convex slopes. The effects of slope aspect on runoff have not been studied
extensively. The major effects arise from its influence on the microclimate as the result of the
angle at which the sun rays strike the soil. Aspect has minimal effect at the equator but the
influence increase towards the poles. From example, a south or west facing slope in the northern
hemisphere is warmer and has higher evaporation during the growing season.
A north or east facing slope on the other hand is usually noticeable more moist and better
vegetated. The nature of the soil surface and vegetative cover also has a marked effect on the
amount and velocity of runoff. A smooth bare surface offers the possible friction resistance to the
passage of water, a soil covered with dense vegetation presents the ultimate resistance to water
movement. Both micro topographic depression and plant material living or died reduce runoff
volume and its velocity.
4.7 Factors influencing soil erosion

The major factors affecting soil erosion are climate, ground cover, its nature and characteristics
topography physical and chemical characteristic of the soil natural phenomena such as
earthquakes landslide and upheaval. The above factors are important in determining the rate of
erosion from a given soil.
52
4.7.1 Climate
Precipitation (rain and snow) is a forceful factor causing erosion through splash. Excessive run
off depends on the amount, duration, intercity and frequency of rainfall. Prolonged slow drizzles
cause much less soil erosion compared to heavy downpours.
4.7.2 Ground water

Vegetative ground cover retards soil erosion. Grasses and forest are more effective in providing
cover than cultivated crops. A good cover reduces the impact of rain and thus reduces the erosion
hazards. The canopy of forest and grasses holds backs much of the rain water and also provides
litter which absorbs most of water that falls on it. This water is slowly and harmlessly released to
the underlying soil.
The plants roots bind the soil and increase resistance to the erosive process. Transpiration from
plants may reduce the subsoil content so that a build of excess soil moisture if reduced. Grasses
and forest can check the power of wind velocity and water and thus regulate the hydrologic
cycle. When ground cover is destroyed over wide area erosion will occur quite rapidly.
4.7.3 Topography
The slope of the land affects the extent and rate of erosion. The steeper the slope the faster the
velocity of flowing water. The magnitude and length of slope determine the rate of erosion.
Water that is travelling fast has little time to infiltrate into the ground. As water travels down the
slope water increase in both volume and momentum with resultant increase in its potential as an
erosion agent.
4.7.4 Soil characteristics

Soil characteristics such as structure, organic matter content depth and fertility influence soil
erosion. There is no severe erosion on coarse texture soil, since these soils are porous and they
have high infiltration rates. The fine particle in silt loams and clay soils are more easily carried
away in suspension by water. Stones and big particles help to reduces erosion. They catch the
impact of rain drops and slow the movement of run-off water thus greatly reducing soil loss.
53
Soil with a crumb or granular structure is more open and porous and will absorb water much
rapidly than soils which are dense or lightly packed. Fine textured soils have low infiltration
rates. A reduction of infiltration capacity through rain impacts or stock trampling will lead to
an increase in surface run off thus favouring increased erosion of top soil. When left undisturbed
for a long time, cultivated soils tend to come together (become compact) through the influence of
rainfall and their own weight. Ploughing therefore aids in preparing a soil for the absorption of
water.
4.7.5 Infiltration
Organic material that accumulates on the soil surface acts as cushion in protecting the soil from
the direct impact of rain drops. Organic matter has high water holding capacity. It can also slow
down runoff, increase rates of infiltration and cause the soil aggregates to remain stable in the
presence of water. As a result of organic matter accumulation soil erosion by water is decreased.
Deep and permeable soils are less erodible than shallow and permeable soil. More water is
absorbed in deep permeable soils, hence run-off is decreased. If the fertility of a soil is increased
the crop growth will improve. Increase in crop growth results in a better protective cover to the
surface and it adds greater quantities of residues after harvest.
4.8 Causes of soil erosion

Soil erosion is primarily caused by water and wind. These two agents can cause severe erosion if
land is misused. The following are some of the causes of soil erosion: monoculture, overgrazing,
casual burning and deforestation.
4.8.1 Monoculture
The growing of single crops continuously is referred to as monoculture. The growing of the same
type of crops and of poor ground cover for a number of years results in increased erosion
hazards. It is necessary therefore to provide a rotation with crops of good ground cover.
54
4.8.2 Overgrazing
The destruction of vegetation by overgrazing exposes soils to erosion. Soil structure is also
destroyed by animals trampling the soil thus increasing its vulnerability to erosion. More erosion
can occur where sheep and goats are allowed to remove most of the shrubs through browsing.
4.8.3 Casual burning

In many areas particularly in developing countries some people still have the habit of burning the
land for several reasons such as cultivation, grassland management hunting and ceremonial
purposes. Such burning practices increase the hazards of soil erosion. Potential cultivable land
has been lost through casual burning particularly in arid and semi-arid areas.
4.8.4 Deforestation
The vegetation cover provided by forest help to hold the soil firm, to decrease run off and to
reduce raindrop impacts. A layer of decaying litter covers the forest soil and acts as a huge
sponge which absorbs considerable amounts of rain water which is subsequently released to the
underlying soil. When this protective cover is destroyed over wide areas, soil erosion may
quickly occur. Forests are also the natural cover in most highland areas where water courses and
streams start.
4.9 Effects of soil erosion

The top soil is the most productive part as it contains over 90% of the soils organic nitrogen and
phosphorous and several other nutrients. The subsoil has a poor tilth and it does not take rain
water as quickly as the surface soil. If erosion takes place at the top soil, fertility can be lost and
the unproductive lower horizon may be exposed. The loss of the top soil results in decreased
fertility of the land. The consequences of continued erosion are (i) shallow soils (ii) Low crop
yields and (iii) decreased forest and grassland cover.
55
4.10. Soil erosion control measures

Soil erosion seriously affects the soil productivity and the value of land. Therefore it is important
that good methods of conserving the soil should be applied. The following are some of the
measures.
4.10.1 Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is the alternating of crops. This practice offers protection to the land from soil
erosion and has a good chance to recover its original fertility. Crop rotation makes it possible to
have the land occupied with crops most of the year. In addition the loss of nutrient elements by
leaching in minimized and losses from erosion are greatly reduced.
Erosion hazards are an important factor in determining the kind and sequence of crops to be
grown in a rotation of a particular piece of land. In areas where erosion can easily occur due to
either slope or soil characteristics permanent crops such as trees or pastures should be panted.
Rotation will provide erosion protection on steep slopes.
4.10.2 Contour farming

Contour farming is ploughing, planting and cultivation across the slope following the contour
generally on gently sloping land. Each contour row can be viewed as a small dam that checks the
speed of runoff water and reduce erosion on well drained soils. Contour farming is simple and
easiest of all the supplemental soil conservation measures. Two example of contour farming
include:
i. Planting macro contours: these are permanent horizontal rows of crops planted cross
the hill side. Crop choices include Guatemala grass, Napier grass, bananas, sugarcane,
multipurpose, tress, pineapples, and other suitable crops. They are between 5 and 15
meters apart from permanent barrier against runoff water moving downhill.
ii. Micro contour lines: these are rows of food or biannual crops planted across a slope
parallel to between macro-contour lines. Maize, beans, groundnuts, or vegetable crops
should all be planted between the macro counts in lines running across the slope.
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4.10.3 Contour strip cropping

This is a practice of growing alternate strips of different crops in the field. Contour strip
cropping implies that the strips are on the contour. Strips ploughing can also done by ploughing
every strip on the contour and leaving the altered strip in sod. It is often combined with
terracing. Strips are laid across the direction of the prevailing wind so that any soil blowing from
bare strips is caught and held by grass strips.
4.10.4 Terracing
A terrace is an embankment of earth or stone or other suitable material or combination of these
made across the slope for purpose of controlling run off. Terrace decrease the length of the
slopes thus reducing erosion and run off. It is usually practiced in conjunction with measures
such as contour strip cropping. There are two major types of terraces:
i. Level terrace: a ridge built generally on sandy with little or no grade. It is designed to
hold water in the field until absorbed. These terraces are adopted in areas where
rainfall and soil characteristics are such that there is only a slight danger of water
accumulating on the soil and breaking the soil surface; these terraces are constructed
by moving earth from both sides of the line of the terrace so as to form a ridge.
ii. Drainage terrace or channel terrace: it consists mainly of a channel across the slope. It
is made by moving earth from the slope downhill to form a low flat ridge. The grade
of channel is variable being level to nearly level at the upper end and increasing in
slope little by little along the length of terrace so as to afford increase water velocity
without increasing terrace width.
4.10.5 Planting of trees and grasses

Trees and grasses acts as wind breakers and can control water erosion. In controlling erosion
caused by wind trees or grasses may be planted in strips so that particles carried by wind may be
deposited on or near the grass strips. The use of high plant population, early planting, and mulch
can help to control erosion. In the case of water ways the planting of suitable grasses and shrubs
can reduce erosion.
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4.10.6 Controlled grazing

Overgrazing can be dangerous as most or all the vegetation can be removed with resultant
exposure of the land to erosion. Rotational grazing with the optimum number of animals in one
area can help to maintain the vegetation cover.
4.10.7 Mulching
Mulch acts as a huge sponge which absorbs the water that falls on to it and released slowly and
harmlessly to the under laying soil. If there is no protective cover erosion may occur rapidly.
Splash and wind erosion can be reduced considerably by mulching.
4.10.8 Mixed Cropping (agro forestry)

This means cultivating two or more crops on the same field simultaneously e.g. maize with cover
crops such leguminous crops are likely to reduce erosion significantly as very little surface will
be left uncovered but also will improve soil structure. These crops can also be planted with fruit
or multipurpose trees.
4.10.9 Cut-off drains

Cut-off drains either with soils scooped downhill or uphill will trap run-off from upslope and
directed safely to areas where can be collected and used for other purposes.
4.10.10. Traditional soil conservation measures

Different traditional soil conservation measures are operative in different regions in developing
countries depending on the socio-economic and environmental setting of the area in question.
For instance, in Tanzania the Matengo pits, agroforestry, maize stalk lines and stone heaps are
used as soil conservation measures. In rocky places the rock can be made into rock walls which
slow down the flow of the rain water and hold back the soil. Where there are no rocks level
canals can be dug to absorb the rain water.
4.11. Soil conservation practices

Soil conservation practices can be grouped into cultural, biological and physical measures. For
effective soil conservation combinations of the techniques are needed to effectively control
58
erosion and increase production. Cultural and biological measures are practices related to crop
and soil management. Generally cultural measures are farming management related to crop
production such as early planting. Biological measures involve the use of vegetation for soil
protection.
Biological (crop rotation mixed cropping, strip cropping, grass strips, trash lines, wash stops,
infiltration zone etc) and cultural measures (contour farming early panting tillage practice (zero
tillage minimum tillage) ridging, mulching, organic fertilizers) involve a relatively small amount
of soil manipulation. These measures are sufficient for soil conservation on relatively gentle
slopes and in high productive areas where vegetation can easily be established.
As the slope gradients increase additional physical measures such as terrace and drains must be
include to control erosion. Physical measures should always be combined with biological and
cultural measures for optimal agricultural production. The emphasis should really be on the
cultural and biological measures and only where these measures alone are not sufficient should
they be combined with physical structures such as terraces, cut off drains and artificial water
ways.
Common criticism against physical soil conservation structures particularly the terrace is that
they reduce the lands available for farming, they are labour intensive and the infertile sub soil
which is normally brought up during construction. This subsoil calls for application of fertilizers
otherwise the yield will drop. It is therefore important that physical structures are utilized
intensively for production of fodder, grass, trees or perennial crops. The farmer should preferably
use the most cost effective soil conservation methods. Always the aim should be at conservation
through increased agricultural production and combine physical measures with cultural and
biological measures.
4.12 Important factors for construction of physical structures (terraces)

It is important to know the physical characteristics and cultural practice of a locality before
deciding which type of terrace to be used. The following criteria could be used as a basic
guidance for implementation of physical conservation measures
59
 Are physical measures really needed? Sometimes a change in farm management

(incorporation of cultural and biological soil conservation measures) can be enough to
reduce soil erosion to an acceptable level
 If physical measures are needed the following factors should be observed: rainfall
intensity and amount, slopes steepness and length, soil erodibility, expected future use of
the land and availability of labour for construction
 One must decide if the physical structures should aim retaining water. Infiltration of
water into the farm land avoids problems of discharging water and increase available soil
moisture
 Since the farmer is the one constructing the terrace it is important to select a type of
terrace that is suitable for the land and physical condition in the area and accepted by the
farmer.
 All physical conservation structures need maintenance below are some rules for
maintenance of terrace
 Repair breakages in structures and fill up low spots on the terrace edge. This
maintenance is especially important during the first years
 Plants new grass on bare spots to increase the density of vegetation on the terrace
 The riser of the terrace should be slanting and planted with grass (only on very
stable soils the riser can be more or less vertical). Do not excavate the riser.
It is important to note that all types of terrace embankments should have good vegetation cover (
grass) to be productive to the farmer and prevent erosion. Both the terrace edge and the riser
should be planted. The final vegetation cover should be dense, without gaps, to stabilize the
structure.
4.13. Effectiveness of erosion control measures

Soil conservation practices are those remedial actions that are taken to reduce human induced
erosion to within acceptable limits. Erosion is a term governing many processes varying very
much in time and space. Consequently, soil conservation must be adapted from one area to
another to ecological and social condition.
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4.14. Application of appropriate conservation practices

Not all available conservation technologies are applicable under all circumstances; therefore,
there will always be the need to select only those that are most appropriate. Selection criteria
should include technical feasibility, profitability and acceptability by local population. Measures
depend on natural features (steepness of slope, soil type and depth, precipitation pattern etc.)
and cultivation practice and customs of the local farmers e.g. types of crops grown, fuel wood
needs, livestock production and fodder needs .
61
CHAPTER FIVE
SIMPLE METHODS OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
5.1 Overview
Lack of conservation measures in erosion prone areas particularly in steep slopes has resulted in
serious deterioration of otherwise good land and to some areas this has led to serious land
degradation. Engineering conservation works to mitigate the problem are expensive and most
poor farmers in developing countries cannot afford. This chapter describes the simple, cost-
effective and accurate methods of soil and water conservation practices. These are the line level,
the A-Frame and the contour triangle. These methods use materials which are readily available
locally and can be done by anybody without formal education.
5.1 Line level method

5.1.1 Materials and pre-preparation
Two sticks (poles /boards) about 1.5 meters high marked in graduations of 10 or 5 cm a string of
11 meters of which only 10 m will be used between boards for tying a spirit level with hook,
handful of pegs and three people. Before using the line level tie a string with a total length of 11
meters to one of the boards. Ten meters is used between the boards and the extra one meter (50
cm on each end) is for tying the string to the board and for holding the string in the united end. A
knot is made in the middle of the string (5m) where the sprit level is placed, and another knot is
made for marking the full string length (10m). Place a spirit level on the middle of the string. The
spirit level consists of a small box with an air indicating that the string is level. It is important to
keep the air bubble exactly between the two marks to avoid measurement errors.
5.1.2 Calibration of Spirit level

Before using the line level the spirit level should be inspected to ensure it functions properly.
The following are the procedures: (i) set up the line level on the ground and hold the string tight
(ii) hook the spirit level onto the middle of the string. Move the string up and down on one of the
boards until the air bubble in the spirit level become exactly in the middle (iii) remove the spirit
level from the string turn it 180° and replace it on the same place on the string. If the air bubble
still remains in the middle position. The spirit level is functioning properly.
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5.1.3 Measuring with the line Level

A line level can be used to determine the slope gradient (percentage of a slope) determine the
vertical interval (height between terraces/contours) and layout terraces/contours. Follow the
following steps:
5.1.3.1. Determine the Percent slope

The percentage slope is measured to decide what type of structures and intervals (vertical
interval V.I) should be used. To measure the percentage slope three people are needed two
persons holding the boards and one person reading from the spirit level. To accomplish the
process follow the following four procedures:
(i) Select a place which is representative of the field and place the line level along the slope.
The tied board is placed down slope with the string tied at zero mark of the board. The
untied board is placed upslope.
(ii) Start by holding string at the zero on the untied board. Keep the string tight and move it
slowly down along the graduation marks until the sprit level reads level
(iii) Read from the graduation mark on the untied board when the string is level
(iv) To make the calculation to determine a percentage slope, all figures must be calculated in
meters. The centimetre mark read from the board must therefore be converted into meters
Slope % = change in height read from board (m) length of straight (m) x 100
For gentle slopes (up to 15 % slopes) use the whole length of 10 m string for slopes 15 to 30 %,
the string must be shortened to half length (5 m). The maximum percentage slope that can be
measured with a 10 m string is 15%. The spirit level cannot become level the slope gradient that
exceeds 15%.
The exercise should than be tried with the string shorted to half length 5 m. With a 5 m string
percentage slopes up to 30% can be measured. If the slope is steeper than 30% (30-60%) the
string must again be shortened to quarter length, 2.5 m.
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5.1.3.2. Determine the vertical interval (V.I)

Spacing between terraces can be expressed either in height between the successes terraces (V.I)
or width of a terrace (Horizontal interval H.I). Since the gradient usually changes along the
slope a horizontal measurement is not suitable. The V.I. is therefore used to determine the
spacing between terraces. The V.I. can be calculated but more common is the use of a constant
V.I. calculation. Calculation of V.I. mainly consider the slope gradient factor and the calculations
can therefore be misleading. Mistake in calculations can also cause errors. Therefore it is better
to use a constant V.I. which can be adjusted according to local conditions. Which constant V.I. to
use depends mainly on the following factors: Rainfall intensity and amount, slope steepness, soil
erodibility and expected future use of the land.
Generally a smaller V.I. is used on gentle slope, especially in drier areas where water
conservation is important. A smaller V.I. will reduce the spacing between terraces. A bigger V.I.
can be recommended on steeper slopes with deep soils to avoid very narrow spacing between
terraces. The most commonly used constant V.I. are as follows:
Slope 5-25% V.I. 1.2-2.0 meters
Slope 25-55% V.I. 1.8-2.2 meters
5.1.3.3. Measuring the V. I.

Measuring of V.I. is normally done in several steps. When the V.I. is measured in several steps,
try to divide the measures into relatively equal steps. A V.I. of for example 1.8 m could if
possible be measured in first 1m and thereafter the remaining 0.8 m. For a V. I. of 1.5 m the
measurement can sometimes be done in one step. This is done by placing the string at the bottom
of the untied board. The string is only 10 m which restricts the measurement. Spacing between
terraces exceeding 10 m (which depends on the slope gradient) must therefore be made in several
steps also when using a V. I of 1.5 m. The procedures (see also Fig. 5.1) will be as follows:
64
Figure 5.1: Measuring of V.I. of 2m Source: Kaswamila (2012)
(i) Decide which V. I to use. This example uses a V.I of 2 m.

(ii) Measure from the upper end of the field, going down the field in the direction of the
slope.
(iii)The string is tied at the “0” mark on the tied board. The tied board is placed down slope
and the untied board is placed upslope. With a V. I. of 2 m used in this example, the
measurement must be made in several steps. The string is placed at 100 cm mark on the
untied board for the first measurement.
(iv) The level is placed in the middle of the string. The string is placed at the 100 cm mark on
the untied board. The person with the tied board moves up or down the slope until the
spirit level reads level. The person with the untied board stands still and keeps the string
tight.
(v) This is the measurement for a 100cm ( 1 m) V. I. Make a temporary mark while the
person with the tied board moves further down the slope.
65
(vi) Repeat the exercise by placing the untied board at the temporary mark while the person
with the tied board moves further down the slope.
(vii) The second measurement of 100 cm will give a total V. I of 2 m. Place a
permanent mark at the tied board.
(viii) Continue the exercise and mark a V. I. of 2 m down the slope until the end of the
field is reached.
5.1.3.4 Measuring the Horizontal interval (H.I)

When the percentage slope is determined and the V. I. decided, a H. I. can be calculated. It is not
necessary to calculate the H.I. However, such calculation before doing any construction work
can be of interest to the farmer for discussion and comparison. With a known V. I. and the
percentage slope, the H.I. is calculated as follows:-
H. I = V.I. x 100 ÷ determined % slope
5.1.4. Lay out of level terrace

The layout of terrace starts from each mark or peg that was put during the measurement of
terrace/contour spacing. Start lay out from the top of the field. Three or four people are needed to
lay out a terrace. Two people holding the boards, one reading the spirit level and keeping record
of terrace measured and possibly one pegging. For lay out of a level terrace the length of the
strings is not defined. To avoid confusion however it is advisable to use the full of the string (10
m). On regular with depression the string can be shortened to half lengths (5 m). In laying out a
level terrace follow the following procedure (See also Fig. 5.2):
(i) Put the string at zero mark on both boards
(ii) Starts from top of the field at the first V. I. mark and lay the contour across the slope
(iii) The person with the tied board starts from the first V. I. mark, the person by the spirit
level direct the person holding the untied board to move up or down hill, while the spirit
level reads level
(iv) Place a peg into the ground by the untied board, repeat the process with the tied board
being moved to the new peg
66
(v) The contour could be more permanently marked by ploughing or digging so as not to
disappear in case the pegs are moved or lost.
Figure 5.2: Laying of level terrace Source: Kaswamila (2012)
5.1.5. Layout of graded terrace and cut off drains

The procedure to lay out graded terrace is basically the same as for level terraces. To measure a
gradient with the line level, the string is placed down on the untied board. Which gradient to be
used depends on different factors such as type of soil. For soils with relatively low infiltration
capacity and on steep slopes, it is necessary to allow for water discharge from farm land to avoid
breakage of structures and or water logging. The following gradients towards a natural discharge
area or artificial water away are generally recommended: in erosion resistant soils (clay ) 1%;
common soils (loam ) 0.5% and in erodible soils (silt and sand) 0.25%.
You need a line level consisting of two sticks (boards) marked in a graduation of 7.5cm with a
string of 7.5 meters stretched between the boards and spirit level hooked on the meddle of the
string. The string is horizontal, when the air bubble of the sprit level is in the centre of the spirit
level. If you want to peg a terrace to a gradient of 1%, put the string on board B at the second
graduation mark from the top and move the board up and down the slope until the spirit shows
67
that the string is horizontal ( Fig. 5.3). Using boards graduated in metric system you can have a
distance between boards of 10 meters. In this case, a difference in height of 10 cm = 1 %, 5cm =
0.5% and 2.5cm = 0.25%.
Figure 5.3: Setting a graded terrace Source: Kaswamila (2012)
5.2. Contour triangle method

This triangle measures approximately 60 cm (24 inches) across and 40 cm (16 inches) the other
two sides. The face of the triangle is divided into six sections (6); three on the left of the centre
(class i-iii) and 3 cm on the right (class i-iii) (Fig. 9.4). There is also a string with small weight
on the end of it attached to the middle of the long side of the triangle. This string always points
straight down, even if we turn the triangle around. When we hold the long side of the triangle
exactly level, with the corner formed by the two shorter sides points towards the ground, then the
string should fall directly over the corner and divide the triangle in half. As you progressively tilt
the contour triangle, the string will gradually fall across the sections marked I (0-25% - gentle
slope), II (26-45% - medium slope) and III (> 45% - steep slope) which indicate slope steepness.
68
Figure 3.4: Contour layout using a contour Triangle Source: Kaswamila (2012)
The contour triangle tells us what the slope of the field is and how far apart the contour lines
should be laid. For example, 15-20 should be used if the slope is in class 1; 8-15 steps for class
II; and 5-8 steps for class III. The greater the slope the closer together the contour lines. For
laying out contour lines follow the following procedure:
(i) Find the steepest part of the field. The person with the triangle should stand at the top
corner of the field and his partner should go down slope 15-20 steps (12-15 meters).
(ii) The person down slope should look uphill at the person with the triangle and the person
with the triangle should aim the triangle at his partner‟s eye and sight it along the upper
edge of the triangle. As the eyes is sighted, the string will swing on its axis to indicate
slope classification.
(iii) Measure the distance based on how many steps the triangle indicated and at that point
inserts a cutting, spilt or planting material. Planting material is used since it will
permanently mark the contour. Sometimes complete lines cannot be planted due to
inadequate supplies of planting materials. You may measure or layout a line this year but
not plant it until next year
69
(iv) After planting the marker, the person with triangle should stand next to it and his partner
should move 10-15 paces horizontal from him. Aim triangle at the partner making sure
upper edge is aligned with his eye and that the string lies across the dividing line in the
middle of the triangle, indicating there is no slope.
(v) Once this had been determined, a second split should be planted where the second person
was standing. Repeat this process until reaching the end of the field. You have just laid a
contour line.
(vi) To layout the second line, one person should stand on the freshly demarcated contour line
and he should go 15-20 paces down slope. Repeat steps 2-5 until entire field is laid out.
(vii) The best way to learn contour laying is to do with it with experienced person.
5.3 A frame
5.3.1 Materials required
The materials required for constructing an A-frame include three poles (2.5 m long), three inches
nails, four meters of strong string, a fist sized piece of rock and two pegs of about half a metre
long.
5.3.2 Making an A frame

In making or constructing the A-Frame follow the following procedures (See also Fig. 9.5):
(i) First, cross two poles at the top and tie them together securely. Use one of the nails to
help fasten them
(ii) Tie the third poles across the other two to form the letter “A”. Tie both ends securely and
nail them together
(iii)Tie a length of cord to the top of the A and let it hang down below the cross bar
(iv) Tie a rock to the end of the cord, below the cross bar. Now the A frame is almost
compete but before it can be used to mark contours, a point must be found on the cross
bar which will indicate when the two legs are in a level position
(v) Stand the A frame upright and drive one of the pegs into the ground next to each leg of
the A frame
(vi) With a pencil, piece of chalk, charcoal or machete, mark the point where the string passes
the cross bar of the frame
70
(vii) Move the A-frame so that the placement of the legs is reversed. Hence leg one
touches the first peg and the two touches the second peg
(viii) Again mark the point the string passes the crossbar. Usually the marks will be at
different points. If the ground is level, the two marks should be at the same point
(ix) Mark a third half way between the first two. This is the point on the crossbar, which will
indicate when the two are in a level position
(x) In order to keep the mark from being erased, cut a notch with a machete
(xi) When the weighted string hangs directly in front of the cut notch, then the two legs are in
a level position
(xii) Now the A-frame is finished and is ready to mark level contours ( See Figure
below)
Figure 5.5: Construction of an A-Frame Source: Kaswamila (2012)
5.3.3 Using an A Frame

The following are the procedures required during the layout of a contour line using an A-Frame
(See also Fig.5.6).
(i) Study the area of your field on which you want to construct contour barriers. It‟s is good
to start near the top of your field
71
(ii) First, cut a supply of stakes/pegs (mambo). These are used from marking level lines
where the ditches will be dug or the rock barriers will be constructed
(iii)Drive the first stake at the edge of the field near the highest point. You will being
marking the contour lines at this point
(iv) Place one leg of the A-frame just above and touching the first stake. Adjust the other leg
so that the string passes the level position point you notched on the cross bar (See Figure
below)
(v) With the string passing exactly the point of the level position, drive another stake into the
ground just below and touching the second leg of the A-frame
(vi) Now pick up the A-frame and move it along, placing it is that one leg of the A- frame
touches the stake you just drove into the ground. Continue across the field this way. Now
you have a line of stakes which tells you where the first contour barrier will be
constructed. But one contour barrier is not enough
(vii) A hillside is protected with one contour barrier for very one hand a half meters of
difference in elevation. One steep hills, the barriers will be close together. On gentle
slope they will be further apart
(viii) Continue marking level contour lines across the field until you rich the bottom of
the slope
(ix) If the field is rocky, use the rocks to construct rock barriers along the level lines marked
by stakes
(x) Then using a hoe and shovel, dig canals along the line made by the stakes and throw the
soil on the upper slide. Be sure to follow the lines of stakes. Remember these stakes mark
the level lines across the field. The canal should be half a meter wide and half a meter
deep.
(xi) Plant grass along the top of the canal. A tall thick variety such as elephant, Napier or
guinea grass is best
(xii) When the heavy rains come, the grass barriers will catch the soil and prevent it
from being washed down the slope
(xiii) As the soil is caught behind the grass or rock barriers terrace will gradually build
up.
72
(xiv) As the terrace built up not only is the soil saved, but the field become easier to
work because they are more level
Figure 5.6: Contour layout using A-Frame
73
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Soil Science Compendium for Undergraduate Students 2022

A COMPENDIUM OF SOIL SCIENCE FOR UNDERGRADUATE

Professor Abiud L. Kaswamila

SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

1.2 Soil and soil components

1.2.1 Mineral matter

1.2.2 Organic matter

1.2.3 Soil water

1.2.3 Soil air

1.3 Soil forming factors

1.3.3 Parent material

(iii)Virile stage (easily weatherable minerals have largely decomposed)

(iv) Senile stage (only most resistant minerals have survived)

1.4 Soil forming processes

(c) Decomposition of the organic component

(d) Stagnation at textural discontinuity

After deposition of the organo-metallic complexes in the B horizon, a reshuffle of minerals

1.4.3 Laterization or plinthization

A model description of the zones can be as follows:

(ii) Plinthite zone

(iii) Mottled clay zone.

(iv) Pallid zone.

(v) Weathering rock or saprolite zone.

1.4.4 Gleization or Gleying

1.5. Physical and chemical soil properties

1.5.1 Physical properties of soil

Very fine sand 0.10-0.05

1.5.2 Chemical properties of soil

1.6 The soil profile

Fig. 1.1: Prototype of a soil profile Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia

These horizons are in turn sub-divided into:

1.7 Soil profile development

formed or they may be moved downward by percolating water, eventually to accumulate as

1.8 A study of a soil profile in the field

2.2 Purpose of soil survey

2.3 Materials and Equipment for soil survey

2.4 Types of survey

1:500000 1:250000 1:100000 1:50000 1: 25000 1:10000 1:5000 1:2500

Scale of soil survey

Recce Semi-detailed Detailed Intensive

Fig. 2.1: Types of surveys and its corresponding scales

Field survey phase

Digging soil profiles, augering and mini-pits

Soil profile description

Post field phase

2.5 Catena Toposequence

Fig. 2.3: Soil catena Source:

3.2 Soil taxonomy system or the USDA system

Table 3.1: Major features of diagnostic horizons

Horizon Derivation Major features

Umbric L. umbra, shade Same as mollic except low base saturation

3.3 The FAO-UNESCO classification system

The FAO-UNESCO classification of soils comprises three categories. It distinguishes 28 „Major

with a columnar or prismatic structure.

4.2 Soil erosion

4.3 Soil erosion problem in the world context

4.4 Agents of soil erosion

4.5 Types of water erosion