A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF FELA ANIKULAPO KUTI’S “ZOMBIE”

AND EEDRIS ABDULKAREEM’S “JAGA JAGA.”

JOLAOSHO ZAYNAB OLUWATOSIN

(LAL/2017/081)

A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, OBAFEMI

AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (B.A HONS) DEGREE IN LINGUISTICS

AUGUST, 2023.

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this study was carried out by JOLAOSHO Zaynab, Oluwatosin.

(LAL/2017/081) in the Department of Linguistics and African Languages

_______________ __________________
O.E. Bamigbade (PhD) Dr. K. Adeniyi,

Project Supervisor Acting Head

DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah, the source of all knowledge and

guidance, for His Favor and Grace throughout the course of my study. Also to my

parents whose unwavering support have been my anchor and motivation in every step

of my academic pursuits.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I express my immense gratitude to Almighty Allah, for seeing me

through this phase successfully.

My profound gratitude also goes to my parents, Mr. And Mrs. Jolaosho, for their

unyielding love, support, and sacrifices that have been instrumental in shaping my

future. Their unwavering belief in me has played a pivotal role in my academic

journey. Equally deserving of my heartfelt appreciation are my siblings, for their

constant financial and moral support.

The completion of this research project would not have been possible without the

invaluable insights provided by my supervisor, Dr. Olufemi Emmanuel Bamigbade.

His assistance have been implemental in bringing this project to fruition.

Lastly, I would like to extend a special acknowledgement to all the lecturers of the

Linguistics and African Languages department for sharing their personal experiences

and imparting a wealth of knowledge upon us. Your dedication and inspiration have

been a guiding force throughout the years. May God continue to bless and elevate

each one of you.

JOLAOSHO Zaynab, Oluwatosin

2023

CHAPTER ONE
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Conspicuously, language is an excellent means of communication. The use of

language in any society cannot be overemphasized as it has been an

outstanding tool for communication and interaction right from the evolution of

man and has evolved. Scholars have defined language differently depending

on their distinctive views of the phenomenon. Amidst the pluralistic

definitions variously provided by language researchers, Edward Sapir enjoys

prominence. In Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech, Sapir notes

that language is “a purely human and non-instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily produced

symbols” (1921:8). These symbols referred to here are auditory and are

produced by human “organs of speech.” However, Sapir’s definition is

restricted to the oral use of any language, whether Chinese, English, German,

French, Spanish, etc.

Similarly, H.G. Widdowson (1975:20) asserts that language is “a system of

arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other

people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to

interact.” Not minding the spatial difference in time, both definitions from

Sapir and Widdowson exhibit noticeable purposive synergy in the belief of

what language is. For instance, language in Sapir” s term is an aftermath of

“voluntarily produced symbols” while it is “arbitrary vocal symbols” for

Widdowson. One can deduce from both definitions that it is not unlikely that

both scholars would have implied the same connotations in their deployment
of the words “voluntarily” and “arbitrarily.” Stork and Widdowson (1974)

affirm that:

All languages are highly developed and sophisticated communication systems,

capable of meeting the demands of the society in which they are used and the

personal need of the individual of the society in terms of expressing emotions

and giving and receiving information. (Stork E. & Widdowson, 1974).

From the definition of Stork and Widdowson, language cannot be separated

from society; likewise, can society be separated from language vis-a-vis? This

is because language use is done in society; however, language use can be done

in different linguistic domains. These linguistic domains include Churches,

Mosques, walkways, living rooms, offices, bus stations, classrooms, social

media platforms, board rooms, etc. Without language, societies, communities,

countries, continents, and the world at large will be shambolic and out of

place. For any individual or group of individuals to blend in society, despite

race, and colour differences, there must be an averagely firm grasp of the

language of that community to ease cooperation, communication, and

interaction of that individual to the society.

Osisanwo (2003:1) moves a step further when he opines that language is better

defined as “the human vocal noise or the arbitrary representation of the noise

used systematically and conventionally by members of a speech community

for communication.” Both Sapir and Osisanwo have identified the sound

properties of language in the use of “voluntarily produced symbols” and

“vocal noise.” By extending the scope of his definition to the properties of the

graphetic representation of the sounds, Osisanwo has initiated a definition that

does not limit language to the spoken species alone. From Osisanwo,
therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that language does not stop at the oral

sounds employed physically when speaking but also to the representation of

the said sounds on paper such that the impression communicates the initiator”

s intention (Bamisaye and Afolayan 2006).

Like language, music is a mode of communication that can express more than

just explicit lyrics. Figurative language, metaphors, and other literary

techniques are frequently used in songs to convey emotions, narrate stories,

and reflect social and cultural values. By analyzing the pragmatic aspects of a

song, one can gain insight into the social and cultural context of its creation

and the message that the artist is attempting to convey.

Moreover, songs are a widely consumed form of media around the world. By

studying the pragmatic features of songs, researchers can better understand

how music influences our thoughts, beliefs, and actions.

There is a need for additional research in light of the potential advantages of

analyzing the pragmatics of songs. This research addresses this gap by

conducting a pragmatic analysis of the music of two well-known Nigerian

musicians, Fela Anikulapo Kuti and Eedris Abdulkareem. The analysis will

focus on two songs, "Jaga Jaga" by Abdulkareem and Fela Kuti's unnamed

song. The primary goal of this study is to explore the pragmatic aspects of the

lyrics of both songs and their contextual significance. Music, like language, is

a form of communication that can convey meaning beyond just the literal

lyrics. Songs often use figurative language, metaphors, and other literary

devices to convey emotions, tell stories, and express social and cultural values.

Analyzing the pragmatic elements of a song can provide insight into the social
and cultural context in which the song was created and the message that the

artiste is trying to convey.

Furthermore, songs are a popular form of media consumed by millions of

people worldwide. By studying the pragmatic elements of songs, researchers

can better understand how music influences our thoughts, beliefs, and

behaviours.

Given the potential benefits of analyzing the pragmatics of songs, there is a

need for more research in this area. This study aims to fill this gap by

conducting a pragmatic analysis of the music of Fela Anikulapo Kuti and

Eedris Abdulkareem, two prominent Nigerian musicians. Two songs have

been purposively selected to aid the research. They are: Fela Anikulapo Kuti’s

“Zombie” and Eedris Abdulkareem's "Jaga Jaga". Therefore, the main focus of

this research is to examine the pragmatic features of the lyrics of both songs

and their meaning in context.

Brief Profile of Fela Anikulapo Kuti

As he was initially named, Olufela Olusegun Oludotun Ransome-Kuti was

born on October 15, 1938, in Abeokuta, Nigeria. He was a musician,

composer, and bandleader who is often credited with creating the genre of

Afrobeat. He was the son of Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti, a prominent feminist

activist and teacher, and Reverend Israel Oludotun Ransome-Kuti, a

prominent Anglican minister and educator.

Fela attended Abeokuta Grammar School for his secondary education and, at

the age of nineteen, was sent to London to study medicine but instead enrolled

at Trinity College of Music, forming his Koola Lobitos band in 1961 with his

school friend J.K Braimah. He returned to Nigeria in 1967, renamed the band
Afrika 70, offloaded his slave name" of Ransome, and set to championing the

cause of the poor underclass and exposing the hypocrisy of the ruling elites,

establishing his commune, the Kalakuta Republic, and his night-club, the

Afrika Shrine. The pidgin in which he wrote his lyrics, dealing wittingly and

provocatively with everything from gender relations to government

corruption, made him accessible and hugely popular not only in Nigeria but in

the rest of Africa, in line with the Nkrumahist Pan-Africanism he espoused, as

well as bringing him to the attention of top musicians from the West. The

genre he created, Afrobeat, is a heady, mesmerizing concoction with

traditional African rhythmic roots but which also drew various strands of

contemporary black music - jazz, calypso, and funk.

Fela was a fearless maverick for whom music was a righteous and invincible

weapon. His early life was marked by tragedy and political unrest. The

Nigerian establishment and the military regime responded to Fela's political

rebellion with increasing violence to his counterculture lifestyle and naked

condemnation of the military government, notably in his 1977 hit "Zombie."

His compound was attacked by hundreds of soldiers, who not only inflicted a

fractured skull and other wounds on Fela but callously threw his octogenarian

mother out of a window, leading to her death - an episode trenchantly marked

in "Coffin for Head of State" and "Unknown Soldier."

Despite the challenges he faced, Fela committed to his music and activism,

becoming a significant figure in the Nigerian and International music scene.

He was indeed a man who always seemed destined for the almost-mythical

status he has now claimed among music fans worldwide.

In 1991, when the AIDS alert began to be sounded throughout Africa, Fela

had no qualms in composing what would be the most reckless song of his

entire career, "Condom, Scallywag and Scatter," a tune in which the rebel

musician roundly condemned the use of condoms by Africans and decried

protected sex as "unnatural." Ironically, Fela died on August 2, 1997, from

complications related to AIDS.

Despite his unconventionality, since his death at 58, the "zombie" crooner has

become a totemic at home and abroad.

Brief Profile of Eedris Abdulkareem

Eedris Abdulkareem is an accomplished musician and composer whose

popularity spans the young and old. Born Eedris Turayo Abdul Kareem

Ajenifuja to a polygamous family in Kano, Nigeria, his father was from Ilesha,

Osun State, and his mother was from Ogun State, all in the South Western part

of Nigeria. Still, he adopted Kano State as his state of origin. He is known for

his socially conscious music that often addresses political and societal issues

affecting Nigeria.

Eedris Abdul Kareem started his music career in the late 1990s as a member of

the hip-hop group The Remedies, which consisted of himself, Tony Tetuila,

and Eddy Remedy. The group gained popularity with their hit song "Judile,"

which became a nationwide anthem.

In 2002, Eedris Abdul Kareem went solo and released his debut album

"P.A.S.S. (Pains And Stress = Success)." The album was a critical and

commercial success, with songs like "Mr Lecturer" and "Jaga Jaga" becoming

hits across Nigeria. The latter song, "Jaga Jaga," was particularly controversial

as it criticized the Nigerian government's handling of the country's affairs.

In 2004, Abdul Kareem released his third album, "Jaga Jaga", a Yoruba term

for "shambles", declaiming corruption and suffering in Nigeria. The title track

was banned from radio by President Olusegun Obasanjo but continued to be

played in nightclubs and spots nationwide and became an underground

Nigerian national anthem. The album cover was by the renowned artist Lemi

Ghariokwu, known for creating many album covers for Fela Kuti.

In November 2005, Abdul Kareem launched his record label, Lakreem

Entertainment, and released his fourth studio album, "Letter to Mr President.

The album's title track addressed Obasanjo's criticisms of 'Jaga Jaga"; the

album also included "Flash Up Unu Lighter", a tribute to Obasanjo's wife,

Stella, who dies while undergoing surgery in Spain, as well as the victims of

the Bellview Airlines crashed in October 2005.

In the King is Back album 2007, Eedris chronicled his travails in the hands of

Obasanjo's government, industry dealers, and concert promoters who

blacklisted him for standing up for the truth in "Koleyewon" and other songs.

He followed that up with Unfinished Business in 2010. Eedris Abdul Kareem's

music continued to address political and societal issues in Nigeria, with songs

like "Nigeria Jaga Jaga pt. 2" in January 2020 during the Occupy Nigeria

protest against the lifting of fuel subsidies.

Aside from music, Eedris Abdul Kareem has also been involved in

philanthropic activities, including donating funds to support education and

health-care initiatives in Nigeria.

Overall, Eedris Abdul Kareem is widely regarded as one of Nigeria's most

socially conscious musicians, as he has played a significant role in raising

awareness about the country's issues through his music.

Statement of the Problem

This paper aims to delve into the pragmatic elements utilized in the lyrics of

both songs to determine their intended meaning, social and political context,

and their impact on their respective audiences. Additionally, the analysis seeks

to examine how these songs reflect the cultural and historical background of

their creators and how they contribute to the larger discussion on social

justice, political corruption, and power relations in Nigeria. Ultimately, this

analysis seeks to uncover the intricate interplay between language, music, and

social context that gives these songs their unique communicative power and

how they continue to influence public discourse and social movements.

Research Objectives

The objectives of the research are as follows:

i. To investigate the pragmatic elements employed by both artists to pass

across their intended meaning to the audience.

ii. To evaluate how the lyrics reflect the socio-political context of Nigeria

at the time they were released.

Research Questions

i. What are the key pragmatic elements used by the artists in their lyrics

to convey their intended meanings?

ii. What role does cultural context play in the interpretation of the

pragmatic elements in the lyrics of the songs?

iii. How do the lyrics of the songs by the artists comment on or engage

with the social-political issues of Nigeria during the time they were released?

Significance of the Study

This analysis is expected to enrich the comprehension and understanding of

pragmatics and also to deepen our understanding of language use in context.
The findings of this study could be a valuable resource for future researchers
who intend to position their area within a study related to this research.
Scope of the Study
This study is confined primarily to providing a nuanced understanding of the
pragmatic features used in “Zombie” and “Jaga Jaga” lyrics, such as speech
acts, presupposition, implicature, context, deixis and politeness strategies. It
will also include a comparative analysis of “Zombie” and “Jaga Jaga”
regarding their pragmatic features, sociopolitical context, and impact. The
comparative analysis could involve comparing and contrasting the similarities
and differences in the pragmatic strategies used by Fela Kuti and Eedris Abdul
Kareem and how these strategies are shaped by their respective sociopolitical
contexts.
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter is structured into four sections. The first section provides an in-
depth literature review that establishes a comprehensive background on the
concept of pragmatics. The second section offers a brief description of the
selected tracks that will be analyzed in the study. The third section of the
paper examines the findings of previous studies conducted in the same
research area. Additionally, the conclusion provides a review of the gaps
identified in the previous study within this field.
Conceptual Review
This section reviews the existing literature on pragmatics and its elements. The
aim is to explore the perspectives of different scholars in order to ensure a
thorough understanding of the subject matter.
Pragmatics
Etymologically, pragmatics is derived from the Latin word "Pragmatics" and

the Greek word "pragmatikos", meaning "fit for action", which comes from

"pragma", meaning "deed, act" and that from "prasso", meaning "to do, to act,

to pass over, to practice, to achieve."

It encompasses a wide range of linguistic phenomena, including patterns of

language use, language functions, inferences, communication principles,

knowledge frames, attitudes, beliefs, and organizational principles of text and

discourse. It focuses on the meaning-in-context, which can be approached

from various perspectives, such as the speaker, the recipient, or the analyst.

Pragmatics bridges the structural aspects of language and its actual use,

linking the system side with the use side simultaneously. Unlike other

linguistic disciplines such as syntax, semantics, and sociolinguistics,

pragmatics is defined by its perspective rather than its specific objects of

investigation, as it shapes the way we understand and analyze language.

Pragmatics is fundamentally concerned with how communication is carried

out in any given context.

Pragmatics is frequently conceptualized as the science of language use, the

study of context-dependent meaning and speaker-intended meaning,

presupposing the existence of language, language user and context on the one

hand and context-independent on the other. To capture its multifaceted nature,

definitions tend to concentrate on something other than the questions of what

pragmatics is and what it does but instead on what it is not and does not do.

Pragmatics was a reaction to Structuralist linguistics as outlined by Ferdinand

de Saussure. His idea was that language has an analyzable structure composed

of parts that can be defined concerning others. Pragmatics first engaged only

in synchronic study as opposed to examining the historical development of

language.

The modern usage of pragmatics is attributable to the philosopher Charles

Morris (1938), who was concerned with outlining (after Locke and Pierce) the

general shape of a science of signs or semiotics (or semiotic as Morris

preferred). Within semiotics, Morris distinguished three distinct branches of

inquiry: syntactics (or syntax), being the study of “the formal relation of signs

to one another”, semantics, the study of “the relations of signs to the objects to

which the signs are applicable” (their designata), and pragmatics, the study of

“the relation of signs to interpreters” Morris (1938: 6).

Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in a particular context. Many

works have been written on general and specific pragmatics problems since C.

W. Morris ((1901-1979), the father of modern pragmatics. Morris introduced

pragmatics as “The study of the relation between signs and their interpreters”.

Recently, pragmatics has expanded into a broad and somewhat vague topic,

including anything relating to how people communicate that cannot be

captured by any other conventional analysis.

According to Jenny Thomas (1996), he opines that pragmatics considers:

i. The negotiation of meaning between speaker and listener

ii. The context of the utterance

iii. The meaning potential of an utterance.

This means that pragmatics looks beyond an utterance’s literal meaning,

considers how meaning is constructed and focuses on implied meanings. It

considers language as an instrument of interaction, what people mean when

they use language and how we communicate and understand each other.

Levinson (1983) defines pragmatics as “the study of the ability of language

users to pair sentences with the contexts in which they would be appropriate”.

Therefore, in pragmatics, meaning and context go hand in hand. Levinson

(1983) also states that pragmatics is the scientific study of the relation between

the structure of a semiotic system (notably language) and its usage in context,

and along with semantics, forms part of the general theory of meaning. In the

theory of meaning, pragmatics deals with inherent meanings, presumptions

and contextual interpretations: the method in which syntactical features of

linguistic expressions operate on the background of presumption and

inferences.

Leech (1983) defined pragmatics as studying how language is used in

communication. In other words, pragmatics focuses on two main points: what

is communicated? And how is it communicated?

Crystal (1997) states that pragmatics is the study of language from the point of

view of users, especially of their choices, the constraints they encounter in

using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has

on other participants in communication. This means that he views pragmatics

as the language field that studies the factors that govern the choice of language

in social interaction and the effect of such decisions. Crystal (1987) also says,

“Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choices of language in social

interaction and the effects of our choice on others”. From this definition, it is

essential to note that pragmatics is not only concerned about what is said but

also the factors responsible for it and why the writer or speaker has chosen to

use specific expressions at the expense of others.

Stalnaker (1972:383) tends to be briefer in his words. He states that

pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are

performed. Expanding the scope of context as maintained by other scholars,

Mey (1993) postulates that pragmatics studies the use of language in human

communication as determined by the conditions of society. He adds that there

is a paradigm shift from the approach of traditional linguists, which

concentrates on the elements and structures, such as sounds and sentences that

the language users produce, to the “language user” and

“message” oriented approach. Mey’s definition presupposes that language

users must understand their society well to attain a communicative

competence level.

Similarly, Moore (2001) says pragmatics is a systematic way of explaining

language use in context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot

be found in the plain sense of words or structure as illustrated by semantics.

According to Yule (2003:3), pragmatics refers to the study of meaning in

interaction or meaning in context, exploring how linguistic utterance could be

interpreted differently as a result of different contextual forces and

communicative goals. He defines pragmatics as the study of speaker meaning,

focusing on interpreting what people mean by their utterances rather than what

the phrases in the utterances mean by themselves. Speaker meaning is

necessarily bound to contextual meaning and how the particular context

influences what is uttered. The context comprises the addressee, the place, the

time and other circumstances.

Some pragmatics scholars maintained that pragmatics is an offshoot of syntax

and semantics. This means pragmatics is not another branch of language

studies such as phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. According to

Yule (1996), Andersen (2001), Mey (2001) and Ariel (2008), pragmatics is a

perspective towards making communication by language users and a message

centred contrary to the traditional and mentalist approach that is primarily

concerned with the “structure and formal abstract meaning of words”.

Pragmatics also aims to investigate the hidden meaning; how what is spoken

and not spoken is recognized as a relevant part of a conversation. A physical,

social or conceptual distance determines the proportion of what is said and not

communicated. In this respect, pragmatics is the study of the expression of

relative distance.

Elements of Pragmatics

Among the many concepts in pragmatics, there are several fundamental

concepts that one should be familiar with to grasp the complexities of

language use in communication. These concepts shed light on the nuanced

aspects of meaning and how it is conveyed in different contexts.

Austin’s (1962) Theory of Speech Acts

The foundations of speech act theory were laid by J.L. Austin, a British

language philosopher from the University of Oxford, in his influential work

titled "How to Do Things With Words, " published posthumously in 1962. It

marked the beginning of a new approach to the study of language by attacking

the view that the function of language is to state facts. Austin drew the

attention and interest of the academic world to the importance of speech acts

in human communication. His major contribution through his book, How to

Do Things with Words was a breakthrough in the study of pragmatics. He is

widely associated with the concept of speech acts and the idea that speech

itself is a form of action. Consequently, in his understanding, language is not

just a passive practice of describing a given reality, but a particular practice

that can be used to invent and effect reality. His pioneering investigation of

speech acts states that in every utterance an individual makes, he acts on it.

This action is what he termed the “Speech Act’’.

In dealing with “How to do things with words”, Austin recognizes two types

of statements, “constative” and “performatives”. According to him,

constatives are statements with properties of truth and falsity, while

performatives are those that do not have truth value but rather perform actions.

In other words, instead of being true or false like constative, performatives are

either “felicitous” or “infelicitous”. The difference between constative and

performative utterances lies in the difference between saying something and

doing something through what is said (Lyons, 1977).

According to Yule (1996a, p.47), in attempting to express themselves, people

do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words,

they perform actions via those utterances. Simply put, the speech act is the

action we perform with our words (Austin 1962). He explained further by

distinguishing between “Constatives” and ‘‘Performatives’’ acts. According to

him, while constative are statements that have been traditionally treated as

having the property of truth or falsity, performative, on the other hand, are

neither true nor false but indicate that the issuing of the utterance is the

performance of an action. Austin identifies five categories:

1. Verditives: These are typified by the giving of a verdict, estimate, grade, or

appraise e.g “The accused is hereby sentenced to life imprisonment” (by a

judge in a court).

2. Exercitives: These are identified by the exercising of powers, rights, or

influences as in appointing, ordering, warning, or advising, e.g “ I pronounce

you husband and wife” (as used by a priest during a marriage ceremony).

3. Commissives: We have commissives when a speaker promises or is

undertaking and committing someone to do something by announcing his

intention or espousing a cause, e.g. “I hereby bequeath my building to my son”

(as seen in a will).

4. Behabitives: Behabitives have to do with matters like apologizing,

congratulating, blessing, cursing, or challenging. e.g. “I apologize, I

congratulate you, etc”.

5. Expositives: This is an act used to refer to how somebody makes

utterances fit into an argument or exposition, e.g. “I argue, I disagree, I assure,

etc.
Performatives are not normally thought of as just saying something instead of

being true or false, they may either be felicitous or infelicitous, that is,

appropriate or inappropriate within the context. Before a performative can be

felicitous, there must be an accepted conventional procedure for it. This

procedure includes the uttering of certain words in certain circumstances.

However, the participants and the circumstances in a given case must be

appropriate for the particular procedure being invoked. The participants’

thoughts and feelings must also be in accordance with the setting and the

situation on ground. However, performatives will be infelicitous if any of

these necessary conditions are not met. For instance, if a priest says ‘‘I name

this child Blessing and the circumstances are appropriate, then the speaker has

done something special, i.e. the priest has performed the act of naming a child.

Other examples of performatives are: ‘‘I bequeath all my properties to my

wife and kids...’’ as seen in a will; ‘‘I bet you #5000, I will ace my entrance

exam....’’, ‘‘I take this woman as my lawfully wedded wife....’’ etc. Austin

further classifies Speech Act types into three. These according to him are

illocutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts.

Locutionary Act

One of Austin's central concepts is the “locutionary act,” which seeks to

understand the various actions performed through language. According to

Austin (1965), "a locutionary act refers to the basic act of saying something

that has a meaning and reference, that is, the act of uttering words or

producing meaningful linguistic expressions".

It involves the act of expressing or conveying meaning through language.

When we engage in a locutionary act, we form sentences or utterances with

 semantic content that are understandable within a specific language

community. Austin analyzed the locutionary act into three parts:

i. A phonetic act (the act of uttering certain noises).

ii. A phatic act (the act of uttering words, that is, sounds as

conforming to a particular vocabulary and grammar).

iii. A rhetic act (the act of using these words with a specific

meaning – sense or reference).

Illocutionary Act

Illocutionary act, Austin's central innovation, are acts done in speaking (hence

illocutionary), including and especially that sort of act that is the apparent

purpose for using a performative sentence: christening, marrying, and so forth.

According to Austin (1965), "Illocutionary act is an act uttered by the speaker

with intention, by keeping motive in mind. It is the intended meaning or force

behind a speaker's utterance.

According to Searle, when we speak, we convey information and perform

various acts. These acts can include making requests, giving commands,

asking questions, making promises, etc. The illocutionary act is the underlying

intention or purpose behind the words spoken.

Percolutionary Act

Austin (1965) "Perlocutionary act is the consequence or by-product of

speaking, whether intended or not. As the name is designed to suggest,

perlocutions are acts performed by speaking. According to Austin,

perlocutionary acts affect the thoughts, feelings, or actions of the addressee(s),

speaker, or other parties."

Searle’s (1969) Theory of Speech Acts

Following Austin, Searle initially proposes his theory of speech acts in his

book Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language and developed it

in subsequent works (e.g. Searle 1969). He is credited with having elaborated

the theory of speech act associated with Austin. He introduced into the theory

original elements of his own, most notably regarding the role played by

speakers (their intentions) and receivers (their ability to process the

information received) in constituting the meaning of speech acts. According to

Adegbija (1982, p.18), Searle’s theory is more powerful than Austin’s theory

because he combines important elements of Grice’s intentional theory of

meaning with Austin’s conventional theory of speech acts.

Searle’s theory is based on the hypothesis that speaking a language is rule-

governed by a form of behaviour and that language is employed to refer to a

matter and to predict it. He categorized speech acts into utterance acts and

propositional acts. Utterance acts have to do with the uttering of words or

expressions from the point of building up morphemes to the largest unit of

grammar, while propositional acts assign conceptual meanings to utterances

by referring to and predicating matters. When there is a difference in two

paradigmatic utterances, definitely the meaning of such expression will differ,

but if two illocutionary acts that are not the same have the same referent, this

means that the two illocutionary acts contain only one proposition.

In 1983, Searle however formulated a comprehensive theory of intentionality.

He analyzed the intentional state as consisting of representative content in a

psychological mode. The background is an important feature of Searle’s

theory of intentionality. This background he theorized to be a set of skills,

capacities, and presuppositions that while being non-representational makes

all representation possible. He postulated that speech act is the basic unit of

communication and that they are intentional behaviours. He also asserted the

principle of expressibility. This means that “whatever can be meant can be

said”. Searle elaborates on his notion of rules by distinguishing two different

kinds of rules; regulative and constitutive rules. After a series of arguments, he

maintained that illocutionary acts are performed within a language based on

certain rules.

Searle (1975) set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts:

Directives

Directives are issued with the desire that the hearer should do what is

proposed; should change the world according to the uttered propositional

content. They are used to try to get the hearer to behave in such a way as to

make his behaviour match the propositional content of the directive.

Directives consist of orders, demands, instructions, and so forth.

Expressives

Expressives are speech acts that convey the speaker's psychological or

emotional state. They express attitudes, emotions, or feelings towards a

situation or individual, such as pleasure, pain, dislikes, joy, or sorrow, and are

expressed through praising, congratulating, sympathizing, apologizing, and

regretting.

Representatives

Representatives are speech acts that aim to convey information and make

statements about the world. These acts commit a hearer to a proposition; “it is

to present the proposition as representing a state of affairs in the world”, and

thereby they have a ‘word to world’ fit. They can be true or false, depending
on the correspondence between the statement and reality. Examples of

representative speech acts include asserting, stating, describing, insisting,

hypothesizing, predicting, and claiming.

Commissives

Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to a future course of

action. They involve making promises, vows, pledges, verbal contracts, oaths,

or guarantees, where the speaker is committed to carrying out a specific action

in the future. Any commissive utterance is “an expression of an intention to do

something. Examples of commissive speech acts include promising, vowing,

pledging, and guaranteeing.

Declaratives

Declaratives are speech acts that bring about a change in the external state of

affairs by the mere act of uttering specific words in the appropriate context.

Declaratives, unlike other speech acts, do not describe or report a state of

affairs but instead create one. Examples of declaration speech acts include

pronouncing someone married, declaring war, or firing someone from a job.

Searle argues that the speaker communicates to the hearer more than he says

by way of relying on their mutually shared background information both

linguistically and non-linguistically. Saying something and meaning it, he

further noted, is not a matter of intending to perform a perlocutionary act as

Grice maintains, but a matter of intending to perform an illocutionary act. The

effect of an illocutionary act on the hearer consists of the hearer’s

understanding of the speaker’s utterance.

Searle introduced the primary illocutionary acts and the secondary

illocutionary acts. The primary illocutionary act is the indirect act while the
secondary illocutionary act is the direct act performed in the literal utterance

of a sentence

Direct Speech Acts.

According to George Yule (1996: 54-44), the direct speech act is the direct

relationship between structure and function (the structure and the function are

congruent). Thus the direct speech act (or direct illocutionary act) is the one

that matches the syntactic form of the utterances; in other words, direct speech

act means that whatever we use language as a means of bringing about some

end, this does not imply some chain of actions. Someone uses a direct speech

act to communicate the literal meaning that the words conventionally express;

there is a direct relationship between the form and the function.

Indirect Speech Acts

In contrast to the direct speech act, George Yule (1996:55) defined the indirect

speech act as the indirect relationship between structure and function.

Someone who uses an indirect speech act wants to communicate a different

meaning from the apparent surface meaning; the form and the function are not

directly related. Indirect speech acts are generally associated with politeness in

English than direct speech acts. To understand why, we must look at a bigger

picture than just a single utterance performing a speech act.

Grice's (1975) Theory of Co-operative Principles

H.P. Grice introduced the theory of implicature in 1975 to address instances in

communication where a speaker's intended meaning extends beyond the literal

interpretation of their words. Implicature represents a facet of the speaker's

intended message that goes beyond the explicit content of their utterance,

separate from what is explicitly stated. Grice (1975) distinguishes what is said
and what is conventionally implicated. According to him, a logician and a

natural language user say the same thing, but it is the convention of natural

language not that the use of the words we are concerned with has certain

implications in addition to what they mean. In essence, implicature cannot be

part of what is being said, because it can be cancelled out or what is said can

be interpreted differently. Implicature is what a speaker or writer means or

implies. It is what is suggested as distinct from what is literally or overtly

stated. Implicature has to be inferred or worked out, and the working out of an

implicature is crucially dependent on the awareness of the speaker and the

hearer of the presuppositions in the context of interaction. Grice, however,

recognizes two types of implicature, which are conventional and

conversational.

Grice distinguished conversational implicatures, which arise because speakers

are expected to respect general rules of conversation, and conventional

implicatures, which are tied to certain words like "but" or "therefore".

Conversational Implicatures

Paul Grice (1913-1988) focused on explaining the behavior of individuals in

everyday conversations. In order to achieve this, he introduced the concept of

'conversational implicatures,' which are inferred by speakers during

interactions. Grice identified four primary conversational maxims:

i. Maxim of Quality: what you say is assumed to be true

ii. Maxim of Quantity: Be informative but not too much

iii. Maxi of Relevance: Be relevant to the purpose of the exchange

iv. Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous, avoid absurdity and ambiguity

Conventional Implicature
According to Grice, conventional implicatures are entailed by the lexical and

constructional meanings of the words and sentences. Still, they are distinct

from the communication's primary or "at-issue" content. In other words, while

the primary meaning of a sentence is what is explicitly said, conventional

implicatures add layer of meaning that is indirectly conveyed.

Grice emphasizes that the conventional meaning of words contributes not only

to what is explicitly stated but also to what is implied. These implied meanings

are part of the overall communicative effect and are crucial for understanding

the speaker's intended message. For example: “Mary is a spinster”. That Mary

is a spinster implicates that she is not married.

Leech’s (1983) Theory of Politeness

According to Leech (1983), there is a politeness principle with conversational

maxims similar to those formulated by Paul Grice. He lists six maxims: tact,

generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement, and sympathy. According to

him, the first and the second form a pair as the third and the fourth also form a

pair. Leech argues that these maxims vary from culture to culture. What may

be considered polite in one culture may be strange or downright rude in

another.

A. The Tact maxim: The tact maxim states that “Minimize the expression of

beliefs which imply cost to others and maximize the expression of beliefs

which imply benefit to others’’. The first part of this maxim fits in with Brown

and Levinson’s negative politeness strategy of minimising the imposition, and

the second part reflects the positive politeness strategy of attending to the

hearer’s interests, wants and needs.

For instance, “Could I interrupt you for a second if I could just clarify this

then?’’

B. The Generosity maxim: This maxim states that “minimize the expression of

beliefs that express or imply benefit to self; maximize the expression of beliefs

that express or imply cost to self. Unlike the tact maxim, the maxim of

generosity focuses on the speaker and says that others should be put first

instead of the self. For example, “You take a rest while I do the laundry’’.

C. The Approbation maxim: The approbation maxim states that “Minimize the

expression of beliefs which express dispraise to others; maximize the

expression of beliefs which express approval of others’’. It is preferred to

praise others and if this is impossible to side step the issue, to give some sort

of minimal response (possibly through the use of Euphemism) or to remain

silent. The second part intends to make other people feel good by showing

solidarity. For instance, “Mark, I know you are a genius; would you know how

to solve this mathematical problem here?’’

D. The Modesty maxim: This maxim states that “Minimize the expression of

praise of self; maximize the expression of dispraise of self. For instance, “Oh

I’m so stupid; I didn’t make a note of our lecture, did you?’’

E. The Agreement maxim: The agreement maxim runs as follows:

“Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and others; maximize

the expression of the agreement between self and others.

F. The Sympathy maxim: The sympathy maxim states that “Minimize

antipathy between self and others; maximize sympathy between self and

others’’. This includes a small group of speech acts such as congratulation,

commiseration and expressing condolences, all of which is in accordance with

Brown and Levinson’s positive politeness strategy of attending to the hearer’s

interests, wants and needs. For example, “I am sorry to hear about your

mother.

Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Theory of Politeness

The most influential theory of politeness was put forward by Brown and

Levinson (1978 and revised in 1987) (Thomas, 1995, p. 168). The concept of

‘politeness’ is an underlying social constraint governing the production and

interpretation of utterances. Central to Brown and Levinson’s theory of

politeness is the concept of ‘face’ as proposed by Goffman (1967). Goffman

(1967, p.5) defines face as:

The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line

others assume he has taken during a particular contact. The face is an image of

self delineated in terms of approved social attributes - albeit an image that

others may share, as when a person makes a good showing for his profession

or religion by making a good showing for himself.

However, politeness is the expression of the speaker’s intention to mitigate

face threats carried by certain face-threatening acts towards another (Mills,

2003, p.6). Within the politeness theory, ‘face’ is best understood as every

individual’s feeling of self-worth or self-image; this can be damaged,

maintained or enhanced through interaction with others (Thomas 1995, p.169).

The face is the public self-image that every adult tries to protect. Brown and

Levinson (1978) identified two types of faces: the positive and the negative

face. The positive face refers to one’s self-esteem, that is, the desire to be

liked, admired, ratified and related to positively, noting that one would

threaten a positive face by ignoring someone. The negative face on the other
hand is the want of every “competent adult member” that his actions be

unimpeded by others, or the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, right

to non-distraction i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition.

These two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social interaction, and so,

during any social interaction, cooperation is needed among the participants to

maintain each other’s faces (Mill, 2003).

Positive Politeness

Positive politeness is a strategy proposed by Brown and Levinson which

enhances solidarity and show friendliness towards the addressee. It involves

employing language that affirms and emphasizes shared interests, positive

qualities, or common goals. Positive politeness aims to create a sense of

camaraderie and build rapport between the speaker and the listener. Examples

of positive politeness include using expressions of appreciation, compliments,

and humour to establish a friendly and warm atmosphere.

Negative Politeness

Negative politeness is a strategy used to respect the autonomy and freedom of

the addressee. It involves employing language that mitigates potential threats

to the addressee's negative face, which is their desire for independence and

avoidance of imposition. Negative politeness strategies often involve being

indirect, using hedging, softening language, and showing deference to avoid

imposing on the addressee.

Presupposition

Presupposition derives from the verb presuppose, meaning 'assume

beforehand'. Presupposition refers to an assumption or belief taken for granted

or implied by a speaker in a conversation. It is an essential aspect of language

understanding because it involves the shared background knowledge between

speakers that helps them make sense of each other's utterances.

(Huang 2007: 65) says presupposition is "an inference whose truth is taken for

granted in the utterance of a sentence."

Levinson (1983:168) says, "presupposition describes any background

assumption against which an action, theory, expression or utterances makes

sense or is rational". He argues that presuppositions play a role in cooperative

communication and contribute to the overall effectiveness of the conversation.

Levinson's work emphasizes the importance of presupposition in maintaining

mutual understanding and successful communication.

Yule (1996:25) provides an overview of presupposition in his influential book

"Pragmatics." He discusses different types of presuppositions, such as

linguistic and structural presuppositions, and highlights their relevance in

everyday communication.

Types of Presupposition

Yule (1996:27-29) categorizes presuppositions into six distinct types: lexical,

non-factive, existential, structural, factive, and counterfactual presuppositions.

Lexical Presupposition

This presupposition is obtained through utterances which are interpreted

through assertions in the utterances.

Non Factive Presupposition

Non-factive presupposition refers to a type of presupposition triggered by

linguistic expressions that do not rely on the truth or factuality of a

proposition. Instead, they operate based on the speaker's belief, assumption, or

subjective perspective. Non-factive presuppositions can exist even if the

proposition is false or verified.

In other words, non-factive presuppositions are not dependent on the reality or

truthfulness of a statement but rather on the speaker's attitude, opinion, or

subjective stance. These presuppositions can be associated with words or

constructions that convey uncertainty, doubt, evaluation, or subjective

judgment.

Existential Presupposition

Existential presupposition is a type of presupposition that assumes or implies

the existence or presence of something or someone.

An existential presupposition presupposes that the entity or object referred to

exists or is present. It is independent of the truth or verifiability of the

proposition itself and focuses solely on the existence of the subject matter.

Structural Presupposition

Structural presupposition refers to a type of presupposition that arises from a

sentence's grammatical structure or form. It is based on how a sentence is

constructed and the syntactic relationships between its elements rather than

specific lexical choices.

Specific grammatical constructions or linguistic phenomena trigger structural

presuppositions and typically involve the assumption or implication of certain

background information. These presuppositions are often inherent to the

structure itself and persist even if the specific words or content of the sentence

change. Factive presupposition refers to a type of presupposition that assumes

or implies the truthfulness or reality of a proposition. It is triggered by specific

linguistic expressions or verbs that inherently presuppose the truth or veracity

of a certain statement.

Factive Presupposition

This presupposition refers to a linguistic phenomenon where certain

statements presuppose the truthfulness or reality of a specific proposition. In

other words, when a sentence with a factive presupposition is uttered or

written, it assumes the existence of an underlying fact or situation as

unquestionably true.

Counterfactual Presupposition

Counterfactual presupposition refers to a linguistic phenomenon where certain

statements assume the falsity or non-reality of a specific proposition. In other

words, when a sentence with a counterfactual presupposition is expressed, it

presupposes that the discussed proposition is invalid or did not happen.

Counterfactual triggers, such as verbs like "if only," "wish," or "had," often

indicate the presence of a counterfactual presupposition.

Context

Bronisław Malinowski, a prominent British anthropologist, initially introduced

the concept of context in the complementary of "The Sense of Sense" by

Ogden and Richards in 1923. Malinowski says context is crucial in

interpreting and comprehending human actions and behaviours. He argued that

studying culture requires considering the social and cultural context in which

individuals and groups exist. Malinowski believed that context provides the

necessary framework for understanding the meanings and functions of cultural

practices. His emphasis on context in understanding human behaviour and

culture was further developed and elaborated upon by Raymond Firth, a

prominent anthropologist and student of Malinowski.

Building on Malinowski's functionalist approach, Firth argued that culture

should be studied within specific social, economic, and historical contexts. He

believed context is not static but dynamic, constantly evolving and shaping

cultural practices and beliefs. Firth emphasized the need for anthropologists to

engage in detailed fieldwork, immersing themselves in the social context to

grasp the complexities of culture.

Firth introduced the "context of the situation," which refers to the immediate

social setting in which human actions and behaviours occur. He emphasized

that studying culture requires understanding the interplay between individuals

and their social environment. Firth's approach involved examining the specific

circumstances and interactions that give meaning to cultural practices.

Deixis

Deixis is a phenomenon in a language where the relationship between

language and context is revealed through deictic expressions. These

expressions, such as pronouns, adverbs of time and place, and demonstratives,

rely on the immediate physical context in which they are spoken for

interpretation. Without context, sentences containing deictic expressions can

be vague and difficult to understand.

According to Yule (1996), deixis is a term borrowed from Greek, and it

pertains to the act of "pointing" in linguistic expressions used by speakers

during communication. Yule emphasizes the notion of deixis as a technical

concept associated with indicating or directing attention through language.

Levinson (1983), on the other hand, agrees with Yule's understanding of

deixis. He suggests that the deictic nature of a linguistic expression can be

effectively determined by its truth or falsehood without necessarily

considering the speaker, addressee, time, or place of utterance. Levinson's

viewpoint aligns with Yule's concept of deixis, as both scholars recognize the

significance of linguistic expressions in pointing or referring to specific

entities or situations.

Deixis plays a significant role in studying context, representing the most

noticeable way contextual information is encoded in language structure.

Deictic expressions are present in all human languages and have unique

characteristics that differentiate them from other forms of communication.

Types of Deixis

Levinson (1983) classifies deixis into five distinct types. These types include:

Person Deixis

Deixis involves encoding the roles of participants in a speech while delivering

an utterance. According to Yule (1996: p. 10), there are three categories of

person deixis:

i. First person (I): This refers to the speaker.

ii. Second Person (You): This refers to the addressee.

iii. Third person (he, she, it, and they): This refers to the other participants

in the speech activity.

In many languages, the three deictic categories of the speaker, addressee, and

other(s) are expanded with markers showing relative social status. That is,

expressions which reflect higher status are referred to as honorifics.

Additionally, the discussion of the circumstances which cause the selection of

one of these forms rather than another is occasionally designated as social

deixis (Yule, 1996: p. 10).

Spatial Deixis

Levinson (1983: p. 79) mentions that spatial or place deixis concerns the

specification of locations relative to anchorage points in the speech event. In

general, the significance of locational specifications can be determined by the

fact that there are two basic ways of referring to objects, either by describing

or naming them or locating them. The most evident deictic expressions

pertaining to spatial deixis are the pair here and there. The language

discriminates between them, but the context gives them particular meaning.

Grounded on what the speaker is talking about, for example, here could be

employed to refer to this room, this house, this city or this country (Chapman,

2011: p. 41).

Temporal Deixis

There is a third category of deixis that signals temporal meanings such as now

and then. In this regard, time deixis resembles all aspects of deixis in making

ultimate reference to participant-role. Hence, as a first approximation, now can

be marked as ’the time at which the speaker’s producing the utterance

containing now’ (Levinson, 1983: p. 73).

Social Deixis

According to Levinson (1983: p. 89), social deixis pertains to those facets of

language structure that embody the social identities of participants or their

social relationships or the relations between one of them and the persons and

entities denoted. Numerous such aspects of language usage involve these

relations, but these are only applicable to the topic in question as long as they

are grammaticalized. Examples include polite pronouns and titles of address.

Discourse Deixis

Levinson(1983: p. 85) states that discourse deixis concentrates on using

expressions within a specific utterance to refer to some portion of the

discourse that encompasses that utterance. In this category, it is possible to

include several other ways an utterance signifies its relation to a surrounding

text. For instance, utterance-initial anyway denotes that the utterance is

addressed one or more steps back rather than the immediately prior discourse.

Reference

In communication, speakers employ language to refer to entities in a manner

that enables the addressee to identify them successfully. In modern linguistics,

the term "reference" encompasses two senses:

i. It may mean the relationship between a part of the sentence and an

entity that it identifies;

ii. It may mean the process of identifying an entity via assigning a name

to it.

In pragmatics, the concept of reference pertains to a speaker directing attention

to a specific entity within a given situation using linguistic forms that facilitate

the addressee's identification of that entity. The interactive reference process

involves two participants: the speaker, who selects the entity to be referred to,

and the addressee, who engages in the inference process to understand which

entity the speaker intended.

Reference is a two-way process that unfolds as follows: The speaker first

identifies an entity they want to refer to, then chooses appropriate linguistic
forms that aid the addressee in deducing or understanding the intended entity.

In this process, the speaker acts as the participant who initiates the reference.

At the same time, the addressee takes on the role of the participant who

engages in the decoding or inference of the reference.

Contextual Background of Zombie

Nigeria has long been plagued by corruption and its resulting social problems,

impeding socioeconomic and political progress. The military held power

during this time, marked by intolerance, dictatorship, corruption, and human

rights violations. Fela Kuti's "Zombie" reflects these circumstances,

metaphorically depicting the Nigerian military's methods through the concept

of zombies. He criticizes witless soldiers who mindlessly follow orders to the

detriment of the defenceless masses. He describes the soldiers as lacking

integrity and proclaims them mere instruments of abuse under their superiors'

commands. "Zombie" uses vibrant Afrobeat rhythms, infectious melodies, and

Fela's signature vocals to convey its message. Kuti's purpose in creating

"Zombie" was to criticize the atrocities committed by military leaders during

oppressive regimes. By creating "Zombie," Fela Kuti demonstrates that music,

like other art forms, can be a powerful tool for addressing and countering

antisocial issues in the country, ultimately contributing to national

development. The song serves as Kuti's documentation of the brutality and

dictatorship prevalent during military rule.

Contextual Background of Jaga Jaga

Eedris Abdulkareem's "Jaga Jaga" is a controversial and socially conscious

song released in 2004 during political and social unrest in Nigeria. The song

became an instant hit and sparked widespread discussions and debates.

"Jaga Jaga," which means "disorganized" or "messed up" in Nigerian slang, is

a scathing critique of the Nigerian government and society. The lyrics paint a

vivid picture of the prevailing issues in the country, including corruption,

poverty, injustice, and the neglect of the masses. Eedris Abdulkareem uses

sharp and direct language to express his frustration and anger at the state of

affairs. The song's lyrics touch on various social and political issues,

addressing topics such as the poor state of infrastructure, the struggling

economy, the decay of moral values, and the failure of leadership. Eedris

Abdulkareem calls out specific individuals and institutions, holding them

accountable for their actions or lack thereof.

The Concept of Nigerian Pidgin

For communication to be effective, it must be done on the assumption that

both the speaker and the hearer are on the same or similar linguistic plain and

that decoding of utterances takes more than just the actual words spoken. The

role of language, beyond its literal meaning, encompasses its socio-cultural

context, pragmatic nuances, and how its variations reflect the dynamics of the

society in which it is used. This notion is particularly relevant when

considering Fela Anikulapo Kuti and Eedris Abdulkareem's utilization of

"pidgin English" in their music."

Nigerian English, often referred to as "Nigerian Pidgin," is a linguistically rich

and contextually layered form of English that has evolved over time as a result

of Nigeria's diverse linguistic landscape, historical influences, and

sociopolitical interactions. This linguistic variety has found its place not only

in daily conversations but also in creative expressions such as music,

literature, and media.

Both Fela Kuti’s and Eedris Abdulkareem's choice to employ "pidgin English"

in "Jaga Jaga" and "Zombie" respectively can be seen as a conscious linguistic

strategy that taps into the shared cultural experiences of Nigerians across

various linguistic backgrounds. Nigerian Pidgin serves as a unifying linguistic

bridge, allowing the artist's message to resonate with a broad cross-section of

the population. By embracing this linguistic form, Kuti and Abdulkareem

enhances the accessibility of their commentary on societal issues, ensuring

that the message reaches and engages listeners from different walks of life.

Empirical Review

Pragmatics is a wide field of study with different theoretical frameworks, all

geared towards accounting for how language is used to pass and retrieve

information during a communicative exercise. In a recent study by Phillip U.

Effiong (2021), the song "Zombie" by Fela Kuti is examined within the

context of its lyrics, musical elements, and socio-political significance.

Effiong emphasizes the importance of aligning the song's message with the

powerful musical instruments that sustain the Afrobeat cadence. The study

acknowledges Michael Veal's description of "Zombie" as mocking soldiers,

but Effiong argues that the song goes beyond that, incorporating references to

standard military commands used by various organizations. Effiong also

challenges the notion that the song exclusively criticizes the armed forces,

highlighting the presence of similar commands in other contexts. While Fela

criticized military abuse of power, he also recognized flaws in other

institutions. The paper concludes that the interpretation of Fela's zombies as

solely military figures overlooks the broader themes of tyranny and mindless
conformity in his music, diminishing the appreciation of Fela's artistic and

ideological contributions (Effiong, 2021, p. 45).

Similarly, Mbachaga Desen Jonathan (2010) undertook an examination of the

social message embedded in the music of Eedris Abdulkareem, with a specific

focus on his iconic work "Jaga Jaga." The research centered on highlighting

Eedris Abdulkareem's fearless and confrontational approach in criticizing the

prevailing societal norms. This was achieved through the use of powerful and

explosive pidgin lyrics, which vividly portrayed the narratives of

victimization, exploitation, oppression, and the extensive suffering endured by

the masses.

Within this context, the study found it particularly compelling to delve into

various dimensions of Abdulkareem’s lyrical content, emphasizing specific

nuances. The research recognized the reflective nature of art in mirroring

society and, in this capacity, acknowledged its ability to beckon individuals

toward new ideals and incite transformation within the society. The study

underscored that music, functioning as an art form, was harnessed to directly

confront prevailing societal challenges and norms, while accentuating the

underlying issues plaguing the nation, notably Nigeria.

Abdulkareem's approach was distinguished by his exploration of these issues

from the perspective of the common man. This informed his deliberate choice

to employ "pidgin English" as the language of expression, effectively shining

a spotlight on these matters. The study contended that Abdulkareem's music

held significant social relevance in the contemporary context of the nation. It

consequently posited that Abdulkareem, along with other contemporary

Nigerian musicians, exemplified a strong commitment to employing music as

a tool to dissect and address societal maladies.

Evidently, Abdulkareem emerged as an artist who harnessed the power of his

music to intellectually stimulate and educate the masses. His strategic

utilization of the pidgin form of expression further amplified this effect,

endearing him to the general populace. Thus, the study concluded that

Abdulkareem's work was not merely an artistic expression but a conscientious

effort to shed light on prevailing societal issues, contributing to the ongoing

discourse on social change and transformation within the Nigerian context.

A research gap that emerges from Effiong's study (2021) is the need to explore

the pragmatic elements employed within the song. While Effiong's study

explores the song's lyrics, musical elements, and socio-political significance,

there is a lack of detailed analysis regarding the pragmatic aspects employed

within the song. To further enhance his research findings, this paper will delve

deeper into Fela's incorporation of pragmatic elements like presupposition,

speech acts theory, politeness theory, implicature, reference, and context. This

in-depth exploration of the linguistic features would provide valuable insights

into how these pragmatic elements contribute to conveying the song's message

and how the listeners perceive them. A more profound comprehension of

Fela's artistic expression and ideological contributions can be achieved by

addressing this research gap.

While Mbachaga Desen Jonathan provided valuable insights into

Abdulkareem's use of pidgin English to address pressing societal concerns and

challenge the status quo, it left certain areas relatively unexplored. a detailed

examination of the pragmatic elements in these songs, their speech acts,

implicatures, deixis, and politeness strategies, and how these elements

contribute to the overall social commentary, is conspicuously lacking in the

existing literature.

The present study, however, differs from the two works reviewed due to its

inclusion of analyses on pragmatic elements like speech acts, deixis, context,

reference, presupposition, implicature and politeness strategy. In essence, this

study will make a contribution to the existing literature and the growing body

of research in pragmatics.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The main focus of this chapter is to outline the methodology and procedure

used in this study. It specifically highlights the method used and data analysis

technique.

Research Method

This study employs a descriptive qualitative approach to analyze the lyrics of

'Zombie' and 'Jaga Jaga'. The qualitative approach is a scientific method of

observation that aims to collect non-numerical data. By utilizing this approach,

the study generates comprehensive and valid processed data, facilitating a

profound understanding of the contextual aspects involved.

Method of Data Collection

Data collection for this study involved sourcing information from various

online platforms, including song lyrics, audio recordings, and interviews with

the selected artists. The internet served as a valuable resource for accessing

and analyzing these data sources, enabling a comprehensive examination of

the subject matter from multiple perspectives.

Analysis Technique

The primary data collected were analyzed, interpreted and described with a

specific emphasis on the elements of Pragmatics. The research approach

employed was primarily qualitative, adopting a descriptive nature. Key

pragmatic elements such as speech acts, presupposition, implicature, deixis,

context, politeness, and reference were considered during the analysis process.
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

This chapter contains the presentation and analysis of the data. The chosen

tracks are thoroughly examined and explored in terms of these pragmatic

elements; presupposition, implicature, deixis, context (socio-cultural),

politeness, and reference.

Discussion

Types of Speech Acts in the Selected Tracks

Directives

No Song Lyrics

Attention!, Quick march, Slow march, Left turn, Right turn,

1 Zombie About turn, Double up, Salute, Open your hat, Stand at ease,

Fall in, Fall out, Fall down, Get ready!, Go and die, Go and kill,

Halt, Order!

2 Jaga Jaga Turn up my microphone, Repeat bridge, Africa, make you love

your land, Repeat till fade

The lyrics above are directives realized by commands. The speaker is

prompting the listener to take a specific action. By examining the lyrics of

both songs through a pragmatic lens, it becomes evident that the artists, Eedris

Abdulkareem and Fela Kuti, employs these commands strategically to engage

the audience and provoke a response. The use of directives in the lyrics

reflects the artists intent to not only express their viewpoints but also to
encourage listeners to become more aware of the societal issues being

addressed and potentially take action.

Expressives

No Song Lyrics

1 Zombie Zombie no go go unless you tell am to go (zombie)

Zombie no go stop unless you tell am to stop (Zombie)

Zombie no go turn unless you tell am to turn (Zombie)

Zombie no go think unless you tell am to think (Zombie)

2 Jaga Jaga Nigeria jaga jaga

Everything scatter scatter

Poor man dey suffer suffer

He dey live big life

The lyrics of Jaga jaga contain an illocutionary expressive type meaning

which is a kind of speech acts that states what the speaker feels. “Nigeria jaga

jaga” refers to the rubbish state of the country. Then in the second lyric

“everything scatter scatter” which means that everything is in disarray. The

third line states that the poor citizens are suffering.

Types of Deixis in the Selected Tracks

The analysis of deixis in the lyrics of both songs revealed the presence of five

types of deixis: person deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis, social deixis, and

discourse deixis. The findings and their discussion are presented below.

Person deixis
Person deixis designates the basic roles in a speech event, the speaker,

addressee, and the person or persons who are neither speaker nor addressee

(Cruse, 2000).

Personal Deictic Words

Song First Person Second Person Third Person

Zombie - You, Your Am, na

Jaga Jaga My, We You, Your Am, He, They,

Them

Based on the table above, it is seen that two types of personal deixis occur in

Zombie, while the three occur in Jaga Jaga. In the song Zombie, Fela

exclusively employed second-person and third-person deixis. In the song

Zombie, Fela consciously avoids using the first-person deixis as he never

refers to himself directly. Instead, he predominantly employs the second-

person personal deixis, using "you" and "your" to address the listeners.

Additionally, Fela incorporates the third-person personal deixis by employing

"am" and "na" to refer to individuals other than himself. The song Jaga Jaga

exhibits comprehensive personal deixis, incorporating a total of eight deictic

words: "My, We, You, Your, Am, He, They, and Them." Within the personal

deixis, there are two deictic words representing the first person, namely "My"

and "We"; two words representing the second person, which are "You" and

"Your"; and two words representing the third person: "Am, He, They, and

Them".

Spatial deixis
The spatial deixis in the songs refers to the use of words that indicate the
location in space with respect to the speaker, as explained by Cruse (2000).
 Both songs are categorized based on the presence of spatial deictic words
employed by the artists.

Spatial Deictic Words

SONG Distal Term Proximal Term Projected term
and specific
location
- - Straight, reverse
Zombie
Jaga Jaga There, that Here Here, Nigeria,
bedside, prison,
Africa

Based on the table provided, it is evident that the first song contains only the

projected term, specifically "straight" and "reverse." In contrast, the second

song encompasses all three spatial deictic terms. The table displays the

presence of distal terms such as "This" and "That," proximal term "Here," and

projected terms including "Here," "Nigeria," "bedside," "prison," and "Africa."

Temporal deixis

The temporal deictic word indicates the timing of an event relative to the time of

speaking (Cruse, 2006). The table categorizes both songs based on their temporal

deictic words, which can be classified into two types of time deictic: words

Based on the No Song Temporal or Time Deictic Words

table provided, Pure deictic word and Verb Tense
Specific Time
time deictic
1 Zombie Quick, slow
words are
2 Jaga Jaga Now, 2004, till fade
categorized

into pure deictic words and verb tenses. Upon examination, it is evident that in the

first song, "Zombie," the pure deictic words present are "Quick" and "Slow."

Social deixis
Social deixis indicates the position of the referent on the scales of social status

and intimacy relative to the speaker (Cruse, 2006). Social deictic words occur

in both songs as follows:

No Song Social Deictic Word

1 Zombie Attention, salute
2 Jaga Jaga You, Your wife, Poor man

Discourse deixis

Discourse deixis word is also called text deixis. Discourse deixis refers to such

matters as using some term pointing to discourse elements (Cruse, 2002). The

use of discourse deixis usually refers to specific text containing the utterance

as a signal and its relation to the surrounding text.

No Song Discourse Deictic Words

1 Zombie -
2 Jaga Jaga That

Types of Presupposition in the Selected Tracks

Existential Presupposition

No Song Lyrics

1 Zombie Zombie

2 Jaga Jaga Microphone, 2004, reality, Nigeria, Ikeja, Africa

Three (3) existential presupposition are found in the lyrics of Jaga Jaga, “your

house”, “your wife”, “your bedside”. Only one (1) existential presupposition is

found in the lyrics of Zombie. The lyrics of Zombie presupposes the existence

of zombies.

Factive Presupposition

Certain statements indicate that something is a fact.

No Song Lyrics

1 Zombie Nigeria jaga jaga

Poor man dey suffer suffer

Which armed robber no want money?

Na political armed robber be that

Na wetin dey kill Nigeria o

They lock am for jail for Nigeria

Kingsley Agbe sef dey for here

Adebende na he dey fit all of them

Gbosa, gbosa, gun shot inna the air

2 Jaga Jaga Armed robber came to your house

Eno thief money

Eno rape your wife

The factive presuppositions in the table above are information that are treated

as if it is a given, a fact that both the speaker and the listener are aware of or

believe to be true.

Reference
Fela Kuti use the term “zombie” to refer to individuals who act without critical

thinking, much like mindless automatons. This reference is extended

throughout the song, suggesting that the people being referred to are under

some form of control, unable to act independently or intelligently without

external direction. The repetition of the term “Zombie” emphasizes this

reference, reinforcing the concept of individuals being manipulated or

controlled in various ways. The actions described, such as “Zombie no go go,”

“Zombie no go stop,” and so on, consistently link back to the idea of people

behaving without personal agency.

In the lyrics of Jaga Jaga, numerous references are made to various concepts,

places, and individuals, contributing to the overall meaning and message of

the song. The song begins with a call to amplify the microphone, signaling an

intent to convey a message. The reference to “2004”, Abdulkareem”

establishes both the time frame and the artist behind the song, providing

context for the listener.

The recurring mention of “Nigeria jaga jaga” emphasizes the chaotic state of

the country, while the reference to a “poor man” suffering underscores the

challenges faced by the marginalized and economically disadvantaged.

The reference to “419 in Nigeria” alludes to scams and fraud, reflecting the

country’s reputation for such activities. The fare between “Agege to Ikeja na

100 naira” hints at transportation challenges and affordability concerns.

References to Africa as the “motherland” encourage a sense of national pride.

These references collectively provide a vivid depiction of Nigeria’s social,

economic, and political realities, offering critical insights into the challenges

faced by the nation.

Context

The lyrics of Fela’s “Zombie” can be deeply interpreted as a critique of blind

obedience, conformity, and societal manipulation. The context conveyed

through the imagery of “zombies” being controlled in various ways serve as a

powerful commentary on the consequences of surrendering individual agency

and autonomy to external influences.

The lyrics effectively portray the dangers of this kind of conformity. By

equating these behaviors to that of “zombies”, the song highlights the

dehumanizing effect of surrendering one’s free will. The commands to “think”

and “turn” reinforce the idea that even cognitive processes and personal

perspectives are controlled, resulting in a society that operates based on

external manipulation rather than genuine thought.

Similarly, the lyrics of “Jaga Jaga” offer a profound insight into Eedris

Abdulkareem’s perspective on the socio-political and economic landscape of

Nigeria during the early 2000s. The lyrics serve as a conduit for various

themes and concerns that were prevalent within the country at that time. The

word “jaga jaga” encapsulates the general sentiment of disorder that was

widely felt during that era.

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY

Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of the study in the preceding chapters. The

overview accounts for the summary of the study, the findings, conclusion and

the recommendations.

Summary

This study carried out a pragmatic analysis of Fela Anikulapo Kuti’s ‘Zombie’

and Eedris Abdulkareem’s “Jaga Jaga’, with the primary aim of examining the

pragmatic elements employed in the lyrics of the songs. To achieve this aim,

the study was structured to provide answers to three research questions that

include; What are the key pragmatic elements used by the artists in their lyrics

to convey their intended meanings; What role does cultural context play in the

interpretation of the pragmatic elements in the lyrics of the songs; and How do

the lyrics of the songs by the artists comment on or engage with the social-

political issues of Nigeria during the time they were released? This summary

will draw upon these three research questions.

Question 1. What are the key pragmatic elements used by the artists in

their lyrics to convey their intended meanings?

In accordance with the findings discussed in chapter four, both artists

incorporated various pragmatic elements, such as speech acts, deixis,

implicature, presupposition, reference, and context, into the lyrics of their

songs. Within the scope of speech acts, both artists deploy directives such as

orders and instructions. In "Zombie," Fela Kuti employs an assortment of

directives, including "Attention!," "Quick march," and "Salute," to intricately

choreograph the language of command, reflecting his confrontational stance

against oppressive military regimes. Similarly, "Jaga Jaga" by Eedris

Abdulkareem employs directives like "Turn up my microphone" and "Repeat

bridge," calling upon the audience's participation and prompting them to

perform specific actions in line with the proposition being stated.

Expressives, a subcategory of speech acts, are evident in the lyrics of "Jaga

Jaga" as Abdulkareem passionately expresses his sentiments about Nigeria's

state. Through lines like "Nigeria jaga jaga" and "Poor man dey suffer suffer,"

Abdulkareem conveys his deeply held emotions and reflects the prevailing

societal conditions. Deixis, a linguistic element present in both songs,

encompasses spatial, temporal, person, social, and discourse deixis. These

markers effectively bridge the gap between the lyrics and the audience's real-

world experiences. Fela Kuti employs personal deixis in "Zombie," using

second-person and third-person deictic words. Abdulkareem's "Jaga Jaga"

showcases a wide range of personal deixis, signifying his desire for active

listener involvement. Temporal deixis in "Zombie" and "Jaga Jaga" adds a

sense of timing and immediacy, helping the audience grasp the temporal

context of the songs. Social deixis is also present, reflecting the nuanced social

dynamics embedded within the lyrics. Furthermore, discourse deixis in "Jaga

Jaga" enhances the narrative and connects it to the broader textual context.

Presuppositions, both existential and factive, are skillfully integrated into these
songs. Abdulkareem's "Jaga Jaga" embodies existential presuppositions with

phrases like "Microphone" and "Nigeria," while Fela Kuti's "Zombie" subtly

presupposes the existence of "zombies." Factive presuppositions are evident in

both songs, presenting information as indisputable facts and immersing the

audience in the experience. Reference and context enhance the impact of these

songs. Fela Kuti's symbolic reference to "zombies" in "Zombie" serves as a

metaphor for the obedient masses, enabling the audience to connect with the

depiction of societal manipulation. In "Jaga Jaga," Abdulkareem references

Nigeria, its challenges, and the plight of the poor citizens, all within the

specific context of the early 2000s, creating a vivid portrayal of the nation's

socio-political landscape.

Question 2: What role does cultural context play in the interpretation of

the pragmatic elements in the lyrics of the songs?

The cultural context in which these songs were created is crucial in

interpreting the pragmatic elements present in their lyrics. Both "Zombie" by

Fela Kuti and "Jaga Jaga" by Eedris Abdulkareem were influenced by specific

socio-cultural and political landscapes, which shape the perception and

understanding of these elements. The cultural context provides a lens through

which the directives found in the lyrics are interpreted. In "Zombie," the use of

commands like "Attention!" and "Salute" takes on significance when

considered within Nigeria's history of military rule. These commands mirror

the hierarchical structure of military regimes and the societal obedience

demanded by those in power. Similarly, in "Jaga Jaga," the directive to "Turn

up my microphone" holds cultural significance as a call to amplify voices and

address societal issues within a specific socio-political context. Expressives,

such as "Nigeria jaga jaga" and "Poor man dey suffer suffer," in "Jaga Jaga,"

are deeply embedded in the cultural fabric of Nigeria. The use of pidgin

English and colloquial phrases resonates with the everyday language spoken

by the masses, making the expressions relatable and impactful. These phrases

encapsulate sentiments shared by many Nigerians who have witnessed the

societal challenges depicted in the songs, tapping into a collective

consciousness.

The presence of deixis gains richer meaning when viewed through the lens of

cultural context. The choice of deixis serves to bridge the gap between the

artist's message and the audience's understanding in a society characterized by

diverse social hierarchies and linguistic nuances. Spatial deixis in "Jaga Jaga,"

mentioning locations like "Nigeria" and "Africa," connects the song's message

to specific geographical and cultural contexts, making the issues raised more

tangible for listeners. Temporal deixis, with references to specific years like

"2004" in "Jaga Jaga," grounds the songs in a particular time frame, allowing

listeners to trace the trajectory of social and political changes during those

years. Social deixis, encompassing references to "Your wife" and "Poor man,"

reflects the societal divisions and economic disparities prevalent in Nigeria's

socio-cultural landscape. Presupposition, implicature, and reference all derive

deeper significance from the cultural backdrop. The use of "Zombie" in Fela's

song refers to a concept of mindless obedience, while in "Jaga Jaga,"

references to "419 in Nigeria" allude to a form of scamming ingrained in the

nation's identity. These references gain resonance within the context of

Nigeria's struggles and realities. The socio-cultural context serves as a canvas

on which the artists paint their messages. The backdrop of political unrest,
corruption, and societal challenges gives the pragmatic elements within the

lyrics a profound and layered meaning, enriching the audience's understanding

and emotional connection. The cultural context amplifies the significance and

impact of these elements.

Question 3: How do the lyrics of the songs by the artists comment on or

engage with the social-political issues of Nigeria during the time they were

released?

"Fela's Zombie" stands as a musical embodiment of Fela Kuti's fearless

confrontation with the political turmoil and human rights abuses prevalent in

Nigeria during the 1970s. The song's lyrics operate as a masterful critique of

the Nigerian military regime led by General Yakubu Gowon, which was

marked by corruption, censorship, and the suppression of dissent.

The term "zombie" used in the song's lyrics is a potent metaphor that

encapsulates the dehumanization of soldiers and law enforcement personnel.

Fela depicts them as mindless automatons, echoing the chilling reality of

individuals stripped of their critical thinking faculties and reduced to mere

instruments of power. This portrayal serves as a blistering condemnation of

the government's manipulation and exploitation of these forces to suppress

opposition and maintain control.

Embedded within the lyrics is Fela's seething frustration with the systemic

oppression inflicted upon Nigerian citizens. The song serves as a mirror

reflecting the authoritarian tactics employed by the government, including

media censorship and political propaganda. The lyrics underline the plight of

the people who are denied a voice, showcasing Fela's deep concern for their

rights and freedom.

By juxtaposing the military's blind conformity with the historical traumas of

colonialism, Fela draws attention to the parallels between the two forms of

subjugation. He brilliantly exposes the colonial legacy that continued to haunt

the nation, portraying the military's actions as a continuation of the colonial

oppression that Nigeria had fought to overcome.

The release of "Zombie" sent shockwaves through the government's corridors

of power. The song's boldness in naming and shaming the military and its

leaders as "zombies" who mindlessly perpetuated injustice led to an aggressive

response. The brutal assault on Fela's Kalakuta Republic, including the murder

of his mother, was a grim reminder of the lengths to which the regime would

go to silence dissent and maintain its grip on power.

Fela's resilience in the face of such violent retaliation solidified his status as a

fierce advocate for change. The attack on his residence only underscored the

truth behind his lyrics and the urgency of his message. "Zombie" became more

than a song; it became an emblem of resistance, a symbol of hope for a better

Nigeria, and a rallying point for those who believed in fighting against

tyranny. The song's multifaceted critique of the military regime, its

exploration of conformity and agency, and its bold call for justice and change

have left an indelible mark on Nigeria's history, inspiring generations to

question authority and fight for a just society.

Eedris Abdulkareem's 'Jaga Jaga' is a socially charged song that directly

addresses the prevailing social and political issues of the country. The term

'jaga jaga' itself holds immense significance. Beyond its linguistic roots as

Nigerian slang, it encapsulates the collective frustration and disillusionment

felt by Nigerians due to the rampant corruption, inequality, and dysfunction

that seemed to characterize various aspects of society. This phrase becomes a

rallying point for the song's message, succinctly summarizing the chaos that

the artist perceives.

Eedris Abdulkareem's lyrics delve into a range of issues that affect the lives of

ordinary Nigerians. He highlights the inadequacies of essential services like

healthcare and education, drawing attention to the harsh reality that many

citizens face on a daily basis. By directly naming specific locations and

institutions, he grounds his critique in tangible examples that resonate with his

audience's lived experiences.

The song's direct references to political figures and government officials were

particularly controversial. Eedris Abdulkareem unapologetically names

individuals who, in his view, contributed to the challenges facing Nigeria. This

naming and shaming tactic served a dual purpose: it exposed alleged

wrongdoings while also placing a spotlight on the accountability that the artist

believed these figures should uphold.

The song's use of vivid imagery paints a vivid picture of the societal ills

Abdulkareem is addressing. Lines like "419 in Nigeria, Agege to Ikeja na 100

naira " evoke a visceral sense of the struggles faced by everyday Nigerians.

These lyrics create an emotional connection between the artist and his

audience, intensifying the impact of the message.

'Jaga Jaga' faced both praise and criticism. While some lauded the song for its

boldness and honesty, others accused it of being overly negative and painting

an incomplete picture of the country. However, the song undeniably succeeded

in sparking conversations about the issues it raised, prompting individuals to

reflect on their role in demanding accountability from their leaders.

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 APPENDIX I

LYRICS OF FELA ANIKULAPO’S ‘ZOMBIE’

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Zombie no go go, unless you tell 'em to go (zombie)

Zombie no go stop, unless you tell 'em to stop (zombie)

Zombie no go turn, unless you tell 'em to turn (zombie)

Zombie no go think, unless you tell 'em to think (zombie)

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Zombie no go go, unless you tell 'em to go (zombie)

Zombie no go stop, unless you tell 'em to stop (zombie)

Zombie no go turn, unless you tell 'em to turn (zombie)

Zombie no go think, unless you tell 'em to think (zombie)

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Zombie o, zombie (zombie o, zombie)

Tell them to go straight

A joro, jara, joro

No break, no job, no sense

A joro, jara, joro

Tell 'em to go kill

A joro, jara, joro

No break, no job, no sense

A joro, jara, joro

Tell them to go quench

A joro, jara, joro

No break, no job, no sense

A joro, jara, joro

Go and kill (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and die (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and quench (joro, jaro, joro)

Put 'em for reverse (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and quench (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and kill (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and die (joro, jaro, joro)

Put 'em for reverse (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and die (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and quench (joro, jaro, joro)

Go and kill (joro, jaro, joro)

Put 'em for reverse (joro, jaro, joro)

Uh-huh

Joro, jara, joro

Zombie wey na one way

Joro, jara, joro

Zombie wey na one way

Joro, jara, joro

Zombie wey na one way

Joro, jara, joro

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Fall down (zombie), get ready

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Halt (zombie)

Order

Whoa

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Fall down (zombie), get ready

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Fall down (zombie), get ready

Halt

Order

One more time, everybody

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Fall down (zombie), get ready

Attention (zombie), quick march

Slow march (zombie), left turn

Right turn (zombie), about turn

Double up (zombie), salute

Open your hat (zombie), stand at ease

Fall in (zombie), fall out

Fall down (zombie), get ready

Halt

Order

Dismiss
Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie

Zombie, zombie
 APPENDIX II

LYRICS OF EEDRIS ABDULKAREEM’S ‘JAGA JAGA’

Turn up my microphone

It 's time to hear some reality

2004, Abdulkareem, whad up

Nigeria jagajaga

Everything scatter scatter

Poor man dey suffer suffer

Gbosa, gbosa, gun shot inna di air

Armed robber came to your house

Eno thief money, eno rape your wife

Went straight up to your bedside (Gbosa)

Six feet, now you are down

Which armed robber no want money

Which armed robber no want joley

Na political armed robber be that

Na wetin dey kill Nigeria o

Repeat 2x

Ifesika iya biya biya

They lock am for jail for Nigeria

Kingsley Agbe sef dey for here

Adebende na he dey fit all of them

Here kpa, inside prison

Everything scatter scatter

Poor man dey suffer suffer

Gbosa, gbosa, gun shot inna di air

What you are say

Repeat Bridge

Africa, make you love your land

Africa is na motherland

We dey grow There is peace and wealth

We dey grow oh

There is peace and wealth

(Eedris, what about Ikoja now)

What he go go waja

NEPA, wose derebula

419 in Nigeria

Agege to Ikeja na 100 naira

West Class na popular

Come show film for Nigeria

(Eedris, where Charles Taylor dey now?)

He dey live big life

High estate for Calabar

That na Liberia mafia for Nigeria

Everything scatter scatter

Poor man dey suffer suffer

Gbosa, gbosa, gun shot inna di air

What you are say

Repeat till fade

Africa, make you love your land

Africa is na motherland

Gun shot inna di air