Marina Romanovskaya

Test №1 on the discipline «Lexicology»

Section 1
Questions, page 9
№2

2. What does lexicology study?

Modern English Lexicology studies the relations between various layers of the English
vocabulary and the specific laws and regulations that govern its development at the
present time. The source and growth of the English vocabulary, the changes it has
undergone in its history are also dwelt upon. A section dealing with Lexicography,
the science and art of dictionary compiling, is also traditionally included in a course
of Lexicology. The course of Modern English Lexicology is of great practical
importance as the language learner will obtain much valuable information
concerning the English word stock and the laws and regulations governing the
formation and usage of English words and word groups.

What are the units of the national vocabulary?

The units of the national vocabulary are words, morphemes and word
groups.

The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of
any particular language, is known as General Lexicology. Special Lexicology is
the lexicology of a particular language (e. g. English, Russian, etc.), i. e. the study
and description of its words and vocabulary. Special Lexicology may be historical
and descriptive. The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements,
forms the object of Historical Lexicology. This branch of linguistics deals with the
origin of various words, their change and development, and investigates the
linguistic and extralinguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage. In
the past historical treatment was always combined with the comparative method.
Historical lexicology has been criticized for its atomistic approach, i.e. for treating
every word as an individual and isolated unit. This drawback is, however, not
intrinsic to the science itself.

Descriptive Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given

stage of its development. It studies the functions of words and their specific
structure as a characteristic inherent in the system. Lexicology has close ties with other
branches of linguistics as they also take into account words in one way or another approaching
them from different angles. There is a relationship between lexicology and phonetics since
phonetics is also concerned with the study of the word, i.e. with the sound-form of the word. A
close connection between lexicology and grammar is conditioned by the manifold ties between
the objects of their study. Even isolated words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation
to the grammatical system of the language because they belong to some part of speech and
conform to some lexico-grammatical characteristics of the word class to which they belong.
Lexicology is linked with the history of a language since the latter investigates the changes and
the development of the vocabulary of a language. There is also a close relationship between
lexicology and stylistics. Stylistics studies many problems treated in lexicology. These are the
problems of meaning, synonymy, differentiation of vocabulary according to the sphere of
communication and some other issues. Lexicology is bound up with sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics investigates the extra-linguistic or social causes of the changes in the vocabulary
of a language. The word-stock of a language directly and immediately reacts to changes in social
life. The intense development of science and technology, which is a social, i.e. an extra-linguistic
factor, has lately given birth to a great number of new words, e.g.: CD-ROM (‘compact disc
read-only memory: a CD on which large quantities of information can be stored to be used by a
computer, etc.’), e-mail (‘a system that allows you to send and receive messages by computer’),
SMS (‘technical short message service: a method of sending a text message to a mobile phone’);
pager (‘a small radio device, activated from a central point which emits a series of bleeps or
vibrates to inform the wearer that someone wishes to contact them or that it has received a short
text message’).

10. What are the principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of
language material?

There are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of language
material, namely the synchronic (or descriptive) and the diachronic (or historical)
approach.

What is the difference between them?

Synchrony (синхрони) is a description of the current/present (or
any fixed in the past) state of a language; diachrony is a
description of its history, the change of synchronous states.
Synchrony is a description of the current state of a language (or
any fixed in the past); diachrony is a description of its history, the
change of synchronous states.

The synchronic approach studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time. It refers

to Descriptive Lexicology as this branch of Linguistics deals with the vocabulary and
vocabulary units of language at a certain time. The diachronic approach refers to
Historical Lexicology that studies the development of language or languages over
time.

Синхрония – описание текущего/настоящего (или любого

фиксированного в прошлом) состояния языка; диахрония – это
описание его истории, смены синхронных состояний.
16. Why are the synchronic and the diachronic approaches interconnected
and interdependent? Give an example.

Every linguistic structure and system exist in a state of а constant development so

that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of
linguistic evolution, the result of the historical development of the language. A good
example illustrating both the distinction between the two approaches and their
interconnection is furnished by the words to beg and beggar. Synchronically, these
words are related as a simple word (to beg) and a derived word1 (beggar). The
noun beggar is derived from the verb to beg by means of the suffixаr.
Diachronically, however, we learn that the noun beggar was borrowed from Old
French and the verb to beg appeared in the English language as a result of back
derivation, i.e., it was derived from the noun beggar.

Questions, page 21
2. What are the three main trends in defining meaning?
There are three main categories of definitions of meaning which may be referred to
as:
Describe each of the approaches in detail, listing
their merits and drawbacks!
● Referential or analytical definitions of meaning
● Functional or contextual definitions of meaning
● Operational or information-oriented definitions of meaning

The essential characteristic of the referential approach is that it distinguishes

between the three components closely connected with meaning:

1) the referent, i.e. the part or aspect of reality to which the linguistic sign refers.
2) the concept underlying this sound-form;
3) the sound-form of the linguistic sign;

This is the order, because first we see the reference, then the concept appears in
our head and only then the sound form comes.

The referential model of meaning is the so-called 'basic triangle' which is

graphically represented on Diagram.

Concept

Sound-form Referent
[dʌv]

The sound-form of the linguistic sign [dʌv] is connected with our concept of
the bird which it denotes and through it with the referent, i.e, the actual bird.
The diagram implies that meaning is in a way a correlation between the
sound-form of a word, the underlying concept and the concrete object it
denotes. Hence, the questions arise: in what way does meaning correlate
with each element of the triangle and in what relation does meaning stand to
each of them?
1. It is easily observed that the sound-form of the word is not identical with its
meaning. There is no inherent connection between the sound-cluster [dʌv]
and the meaning of the word dove. The connection is conventional and
arbitrary. This can be easily proved by comparing the sound-forms of different
languages conveying one and the same meaning: English [dʌv] and Russian
 [golub']. The words have different sound-forms but express the same
meaning.

2. When we examine a word, we see that its meaning though closely connected
with the underlying concept or concepts is not identical with it or with them.
Concept is a category of human cognition (категория мышления). Concept
is the thought of an object that singles out its essential features. Concepts
are the results of abstraction and generalization. Thus they are almost the
same for the whole of humanity in one and the same period of its historical
development. The meanings of words, however, are different in different
languages. Compare the linguistic expression of one and the same concept in
different languages.
This comparison proves the fact that the concepts expressed by one and the same
word in one language (in Russian), can be expressed by two different words in the
other language (in English).

3. Distinguishing meaning from the referent, i.e. from the thing denoted by the
linguistic sign, is of the utmost importance. To begin with, meaning is linguistic
whereas the denoted object or the referent is beyond the scope of language. One
and the same object can be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning.
For example, in speech the referent can be denoted by the word cat,
animal, pussy. Tom, this, pet, etc. All these words have the same referent, but
different meanings. Besides, there are words that have distinct meaning but do not
refer to any existing thing. e.g. mermaid - ‘an imaginary sea creature that has the
upper body of a woman and a fish's tail’; angel — ‘a spirit that in some religions is
believed to live in heaven with God’; in pictures, angels are shown as people with
wings'; phoenix - 'in ancient stories, an imaginary bird which set fire to itself every
500 years and was born again, rising from its ashes (= the powder left after its body
has been burnt)’ ; etc.
The conclusion is that meaning is not to be identical with any of the three points of
the triangle - the sound-form, the concept and the referent, but is closely connected
with them.
The referential definitions of meaning are usually criticized on the ground
that: 1) they cannot be applied to sentences; 2) they cannot account for
certain semantic additions emerging in the process of communication; 3)
they fail to account for the fact that one word may denote different objects
and phenomena (polysemy) while one and the same object may be denoted
by different words (synonymy).

The functional approach to meaning maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit
can be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units. According to the
given approach the meanings of the words to move and movement are different
because these words function in speech differently, i.e. occupy different positions in
relation to other words. To move can be followed by a noun (to move a chair) and
preceded by a pronoun (we move). Movement may be followed by a preposition
(movement of a car) and preceded by an adjective (slow movement). The position
of a word in relation to other words is called distribution of the word. As the
distribution of the words to move and movement is different, they belong to
different classes of words and their meanings are different.
The same is true of different meanings of one and the same word.
Analyzing the function of a word in linguistic contexts and comparing these
contexts, we conclude that meanings are different. For example. we can observe
the difference of meanings of the verb to take if we examine its functions in
different linguistic contexts, to take a seat ('to sit down') as opposed to to take to
smb. ('to begin to like someone").
The term 'context' is defined as the minimum stretch of speech necessary and
sufficient to determine which of the possible meanings of a polysemantic word is
used.
The functional approach is sometimes described as contextual as it is based on the
analysis of various contexts. In the functional approach which is typical of structural
linguistics semantic investigation is confined to the analysis of the difference or
sameness of meaning: meaning is understood as the function of a linguistic unit.

The operational or information-oriented definitions of meaning are centered on

defining meaning through its role in the process of communication. Thus, this
approach studies words in action and is more interested in how meaning works than
in what it is. The information-oriented approach began to take shape with the
growing interest of linguistics in the communicative aspect of the language when
the object of study was shifted to relations between the language we use and the
situations whithin which it is used, thus exploring the capacity of human beings to
use the language appropriately.
Within the framework of the trend described meaning is defined as information
conveyed from the speaker to the listener in the process of communication. This
definition is applicable both to words and sentences and thus overcomes one of the
alleged drawbacks of the referential approach. The problem is that it is more
applicable to sentences than to words and even as such fails to draw a clear
distinguishing line between the direct meaning and implication (additional
information).
Thus, the sentence John came at 6 o'clock besides the direct meaning may imply
that John 'was two hours late: failed to keep his promise; came though he did not
want to; was punctual as usual. etc. In each case the implication would depend on
the concrete situation of communication and discussing meaning as information
conveyed would amount to the discussion of an almost infinite set of possible
communication situations. The distinction between the two layers in the information
conveyed is so important that two different terms may be used to denote them. The
direct information conveyed by the units constituting the sentence may be referred
to as meaning while the information added to the extralinguistic situation may be
called sense.

Сначала идет референт, потом в голове возникает концепт, и

только после этого звуковая форма.

Существенной характеристикой референциального подхода

является то, что он проводит различие между тремя
компонентами, тесно связанными со значением:

1) звуковая форма языкового знака;

2) концепция, лежащая в основе этой звуковой формы;
3) референт, т.е. часть или аспект реальности, к которым
относится языковой знак.

Референциальная модель значения - это так называемый

"базовый треугольник", который графически представлен на
диаграмме.
Звуковая форма языкового знака [дв] связана с нашим
представлением о птице, которую он обозначает, и через нее
с референтом, то есть с самой птицей. Диаграмма
подразумевает, что значение - это своего рода корреляция
между звуковой формой слова, лежащим в его основе
понятием и конкретным объектом, который оно обозначает.
Отсюда возникают вопросы: каким образом значение
соотносится с каждым элементом треугольника и в каком
отношении значение находится к каждому из них?
1. Легко заметить, что звуковая форма слова не совпадает с
его значением. Между сочетанием звуков [дв] и значением
слова голубь нет внутренней связи. Эта связь условна и
произвольна. Это можно легко доказать, сравнив звуковые
формы разных языков, передающие одно и то же значение:
английский [dʌv] и русский [голубь]. Слова имеют разные
звуковые формы, но выражают одно и то же значение.

2. Когда мы исследуем слово, мы видим, что его значение,

хотя и тесно связано с лежащим в его основе понятием или
концепциями, не тождественно ему или им подобным.
Понятие - это категория человеческого познания (категория
мышления). Концепт - это мысль об объекте, которая
выделяет его существенные признаки. Концепты являются
результатом абстрагирования и обобщения. Таким образом,
они практически одинаковы для всего человечества в один и
тот же период его исторического развития. Однако значения
слов различны в разных языках. Сравните лингвистическое
выражение одного и того же понятия в разных языках.
Это сравнение доказывает тот факт, что понятия,
выраженные одним и тем же словом в одном языке (в
русском), могут быть выражены двумя разными словами в
другом языке (в английском).

3. Чрезвычайно важно отличать значение от референта, то

есть от предмета, обозначаемого лингвистическим знаком.
Начнем с того, что значение является лингвистическим,
тогда как обозначаемый объект или референт находятся за
пределами языка. Один и тот же объект может обозначаться
более чем одним словом с разным значением. Например, в
речи референт может обозначаться словом кошка,
животное, киска. Том, это, домашнее животное и т.д. Все эти
слова имеют один и тот же референт, но разные значения.
Кроме того, есть слова, которые имеют различное значение,
но не относятся к какой-либо существующей вещи. например,
русалка — "воображаемое морское существо с верхней
частью тела женщины и рыбьим хвостом"; ангел - "дух,
который, как считается в некоторых религиях, живет на
небесах с Богом’; на картинках ангелы изображены в виде
людей с крыльями'; феникс - "в древних сказаниях
воображаемая птица, которая каждые 500 лет поджигала
себя и рождалась заново, восставая из пепла (= порошка,
оставшегося после того, как ее тело было сожжено)" и т.д.
Отсюда следует вывод, что значение не должно быть
идентичным ни одной из трех точек треугольника - звуко-
форме, понятию и референту, но должно быть тесно связано
с ними.
Референциальные определения значения обычно
подвергаются критике на том основании, что: 1) они
неприменимы к предложениям; 2) они не могут объяснить
определенные семантические дополнения, возникающие в
процессе общения; 3) они не учитывают тот факт, что одно
слово может обозначать разные объекты и явления
(многозначность), в то время как другое слово может быть
многозначным. один и тот же объект может обозначаться
разными словами (синонимия).

Функциональный подход к значению утверждает, что

значение языковой единицы может быть изучено только
через ее связь с другими языковыми единицами. Согласно
данному подходу, значения слов двигаться и movement
различны, поскольку эти слова по-разному функционируют в
речи, т.е. занимают разные позиции по отношению к другим
словам. За словом To move может следовать
существительное (двигать стул), а перед ним - местоимение
(мы двигаемся). За словом Move может следовать предлог
(движение автомобиля), а перед ним - прилагательное
(медленное движение). Положение слова по отношению к
другим словам называется распределением слова. Поскольку
распределение слов "перемещать" и "movement" различно,
они принадлежат к разным классам слов и их значения
различны.
То же самое верно для разных значений одного и того же
слова.
Анализируя функцию слова в лингвистических контекстах и
сравнивая эти контексты, мы приходим к выводу, что
значения различны. Например. мы можем заметить разницу в
значениях глагола to take, если рассмотрим его функции в
разных языковых контекстах, например, to take a seat
("садиться") в отличие от to take to smb. ("начинать кому-то
нравиться").
Термин "контекст" определяется как минимальная часть
речи, необходимая и достаточная для определения того,
какое из возможных значений многозначного слова
используется.
Функциональный подход иногда называют контекстуальным,
поскольку он основан на анализе различных контекстов. При
функциональном подходе, который характерен для
структурной лингвистики, семантическое исследование
ограничивается анализом различия или сходства значений:
значение понимается как функция языковой единицы.

Операциональные или информационно-ориентированные

определения значения сосредоточены на определении
значения через его роль в процессе коммуникации. Таким
образом, этот подход изучает слова в действии и больше
интересуется тем, как работает значение, чем оно является
на самом деле. Информационно-ориентированный подход
начал формироваться с ростом интереса лингвистики к
коммуникативному аспекту языка, когда объект изучения
был перенесен на отношения между языком, которым мы
пользуемся, и ситуациями, в которых он используется, тем
самым исследуя способность людей использовать язык
надлежащим образом.
В рамках описанной тенденции значение определяется как
информация, передаваемая от говорящего к слушающему в
процессе коммуникации. Это определение применимо как к
словам, так и к предложениям и, таким образом, устраняет
один из предполагаемых недостатков референциального
подхода. Проблема в том, что он больше применим к
предложениям, чем к словам, и даже как таковой не
позволяет провести четкую границу между прямым
значением и подтекстом (дополнительная информация).
Так, предложение Джон пришел в 6 часов, помимо прямого
значения, может подразумевать, что Джон "опоздал на два
часа: не сдержал своего обещания; пришел, хотя и не хотел;
был пунктуален, как обычно" и т.д. В каждом случае смысл
будет зависеть от конкретной ситуации общения, и
обсуждение смысла передаваемой информации будет
равносильно обсуждению почти бесконечного множества
возможных ситуаций общения. Различие между двумя
уровнями передаваемой информации настолько важно, что
для их обозначения можно использовать два разных
термина. Непосредственная информация, передаваемая
единицами, составляющими предложение, может быть
названа значением, в то время как информация, добавленная
к экстралингвистической ситуации, может быть названа
смыслом.

10. What is the difference between the semasiological and

onomasiological approach to linguistic phenomena?
The study will consist in considering different meanings of the world, determining
interrelations between them, as well as discovering semantic relations between
different words. Such approach is called semasiological. The second approach is the
reverse of the first: it starts from an object and consists in analyzing different words
correlated with it. This approach is called onomasiological. The
onomasiological approach helps to discover how meaning is formed, considering its
basic properties and peculiarities.

Исследование будет заключаться в рассмотрении различных

значений мира, определении взаимосвязей между ними, а
также выявлении семантических связей между различными
словами. Такой подход называется семасиологическим.
Второй подход является обратным первому: он начинается с
объекта и заключается в анализе различных слов,
соотнесенных с ним. Такой подход называется
ономасиологическим. Ономасиологический подход помогает
выявить, как формируется значение, учитывая его основные
свойства и особенности.
Если семасиология идёт от обозначения к значению, то ономасиология ведёт
исследования от вещи или явления к мысли об этой вещи, явлении и к их
обозначению языковыми средствами.

14. What is meant by the grammatical meaning, the lexical meaning, the
part-of-speech meaning?
The grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech
of relationship between words. Grammatical meaning is the
component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual
forms of different words, as, for example, the tense meaning in
the word-forms of the verbs: asked, thought, walked; the case
meaning in the word-forms of various nouns: girl’s, boy’s, night’s;
the meaning in the word-forms is found in the word-forms of
nouns: joys, tables, places.

The lexical meaning of the word is the meaning proper to the

given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions. The word-
forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical
meanings of tense, person, number, but in each form they have
one and the same semantic component denoting “the process of
movement”. Both the lexical and grammatical meanings make up
the word-meaning as neither can exist without the other. That can
be observed in the semantic analysis of correlated words in
different languages. The Russian word сведения is not
semantically identical with the English equivalent information
because unlike the Russian сведения the English word does not
possess the grammatical meaning of plurality which is part of the
semantic structure of the Russian word.

The essence of the part-of-speech meaning of a word is revealed

in the classification of lexical items into major word-classes
(nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and minor (майнор)-
classes (articles, prepositions, conjunctions). All members of a
major word-class share a distinguishing semantic component
which, though very abstract, may be viewed as the lexical
component of part-of-speech meaning. Example??? For
example, the meaning of thingness or substantiality may be
found in all the nouns, e.g. table, love, sugar, though they
possess different grammatical meaning of number and case. The
grammatical aspect of part-of speech meaning is conveyed as a
rule by a set of forms. If we describe the word as a noun, we
mean to say that it is bound to possess a set of forms expressing
the grammatical meaning of number (table-tables) and case (boy-
boy’s). The part-of-speech meaning of the words that possess
only one form (prepositions, some adverbs) is observed only in
their distribution (to come in (here, there); in (on, under) the
table.

Грамматическое значение определяется как выражение в

речи взаимосвязи между словами. Грамматическое значение
- это компонент значения, повторяющийся в идентичных
наборах отдельных форм разных слов, как, например,
значение времени в словоформах глаголов: спрашивал,
думал, ходил; падежное значение в словоформах различных
существительных: девичий, мальчишеский, ночной’s;
значение в словоформах содержится в словоформах
существительных: радости, столы, места.

Лексическое значение слова - это значение, присущее данной

языковой единице во всех ее формах и проявлениях.
Словоформы go, goes, отправился, отправляясь в путь,
унесенные обладают разными грамматическими значениями
времени, лица, числа, но в каждой форме они имеют один и
тот же семантический компонент, обозначающий “процесс
движения”. Как лексическое, так и грамматическое значения
составляют значение слова, поскольку ни одно из них не
может существовать без другого. Это можно наблюдать при
семантическом анализе коррелирующих слов в разных
языках. Русское слово "свадьба" семантически не идентично
английскому эквиваленту, поскольку, в отличие от русского
"свадьба", английское слово не обладает грамматическим
значением множественности, которое является частью
семантической структуры русского слова.

Сущность частеречного значения слова раскрывается в

классификации лексических единиц на основные классы слов
(существительные, глаголы, прилагательные и наречия) и
второстепенные классы (артикли, предлоги, союзы). Все
члены основного класса слов имеют общий отличительный
семантический компонент, который, хотя и является очень
абстрактным, может рассматриваться как лексический
компонент значения части речи. Например, значение
вещности или субстантивности можно найти во всех
существительных, например, стол, любовь, сахар, хотя они
имеют разное грамматическое значение числа и падежа.
Грамматический аспект значения части речи передается, как
правило, набором форм. Если мы описываем это слово как
существительное, то имеем в виду, что оно обязательно
должно обладать набором форм, выражающих
грамматическое значение числа (table -таблицы) и падежа
(boy - мальчик). Значение части речи у слов, имеющих только
одну форму (предлоги, некоторые наречия), проявляется
только в их распределении (входить (сюда, туда); в (на, под)
столом.
15. What aspects of lexical meaning can be singled out?
● The denotational aspect of lexical meaning is the part of lexical meaning
which establishes correlation between the name and the object,
phenomenon, process or characteristic feature of concrete reality, which is
denoted by the given word. For example, the denotational meaning of
booklet is “a small thin book that gives information about something”. The
denotational aspect of lexical meaning expresses the notional content of a
word.
● Денотационный аспект лексического значения - это та часть лексического
значения, которая устанавливает корреляцию между названием и объектом,
явлением, процессом или характерной чертой конкретной действительности,
обозначаемой данным словом. Например, денотационное значение буклета -
“небольшая тонкая книга, в которой содержится информация о чем-либо”.
Денотационный аспект лексического значения выражает смысловое
содержание слова.
 ● The connotational aspect of lexical meaning is the part of meaning which
reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about.
Connotation conveys additional information in the process of communication.
Connotation includes:
1. the emotive charge (daddy as compared father)
2. evaluation, which may be positive or negative (clique – group)
3. intensity (expressiveness) (adore - love)
4. imagery (wade – walk with an effort (through mud6 water or anything that
makes progress different)
● Коннотационный аспект лексического значения - это та часть значения,
которая отражает отношение говорящего к тому, о чем он говорит.
Коннотация передает дополнительную информацию в процессе общения.
Коннотация включает в себя:
1. эмоциональный заряд (папа в сравнении с отцом).
2. оценка, которая может быть положительной или отрицательной (клика –
группа)
3. интенсивность (выразительность) (обожать - любить)
4. образность (пробираться – идти с усилием (по грязи, воде или чему-либо,
что отличает прогресс)
● The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning is the part of meaning, that conveys
information on the situation of communication. Like the connotational aspect,
the pragmatic aspect falls into four closely linked together subsections:
1) information on the "time and space" relationship of the participants. Some
information which specifies different parameters of communication may
be conveyed not only with the help of grammatical means (tense forms,
personal pronouns, ete.), bur through the meaning of the word. For
instance, the words come and go can indicate the location of the Speaker
who is usually taken as the zero point in the description of the situation of
communication
The time element when related through the pragmatic aspect of meaning
is fixed indirectly. Indirect reference to time implies that the frequency of
occurrence of words may change with time and in extreme cases words
may be out of use or become obsolete. Thus. the word behold – ‘take
notice’, see (esp. something unusual or striking)' as well as the noun
beholder – ‘spectator' are out of use now but were widely used in the 17 th
century;
2) information on the participants and the given language community. To
illustrate this type of pragmatic information in the word meaning one can
cite an example analysed by G. Leech in "Semantics Discussing two
sentences
● Прагматический аспект лексического значения - это та часть значения,
которая передает информацию о ситуации общения. Как и коннотационный
аспект, прагматический аспект подразделяется на четыре тесно связанных
между собой подраздела:
1) информация о "пространственно-временных" отношениях участников.
Некоторая информация, определяющая различные параметры коммуникации,
может быть передана не только с помощью грамматических средств (формы
времени, личные местоимения и т.д.), но и через значение слова. Например,
слова приходят и уходят могут указывать на местоположение говорящего,
которое обычно принимается за нулевую точку в описании ситуации общения
Элемент времени, связанный с прагматическим аспектом значения,
фиксируется косвенно. Косвенная ссылка на время подразумевает, что
частота употребления слов может меняться со временем, а в крайних случаях
слова могут выйти из употребления или устареть. Таким образом. слово
"созерцать" – "обращать внимание", видеть (особенно что–то необычное или
поразительное), а также существительное "бехолдер" - "зритель" сейчас
вышли из употребления, но были широко распространены в 17 веке;
2) информация об участниках и данном языковом сообществе. Чтобы
проиллюстрировать этот тип прагматической информации в значении слова,
можно привести пример, проанализированный Г. Личом в "Семантике,
обсуждающей два предложения
(1) They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot. (2)
After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.
G. Leech points out that sentence (1) could be said by two criminals talking
casually about the crime afterwards; sentence (2) might be said by the chief
inspector in making his official report. Thus, the language used may be
indicative of the social status of a person. his education. profession or
occupation, etc. The pragmatic aspect of the word may also convey
information about the social system of the given language community, its
ideology, religion, system of norms and customs;
3) information on the tenor of discourse. The tenors of discourse reflect how
the addresser (the speaker or the writer) interacts with the addressee (the
listener or the reader). Tenors are based on social or family roles of the
participants of communication. A mother will talk in a different way (a) with
her small child and (b) about her children There may be a situation of a
stranger talking to a stranger, or two friends discussing matters of interest, or
a teacher talking to a student, or a student interviewed by the dean, etc.;
4) information on the register of communication. The conditions of
communication form another important group of factors. The register defines
the general type of the situation of communication grading the situations in
formality (variations ranging from extreme degrees of formality through norm
to extreme non-formality). Three main types of the situations of
communication are usually singled out: formal. neutral and informal.
Practically every word in the language is register oriented. Thus, the
pragmatic aspect of meaning refers words like cordial, fraternal, anticipate,
aid, sanguinary, celestial to the formal register while units like cur it out, to
be kidding, hi, stuff are to be used in the informal register.

Areconnotational and pragmatic components of the

word-meaning its speech or language
characteristics?
Pragmatics encompasses phenomena including implicature,
speech acts, relevance and conversation, as well as
nonverbal communication. Theories of pragmatics go hand-
in-hand with theories of semantics, which studies aspects of
meaning, and syntax which examines sentence structures,
principles, and relationships. Pragmatic language refers to
the social language skills that we use in our daily
interactions with others. This includes what we say, how we
say it, our non-verbal communication (eye contact, facial
expressions, body language etc.) and how appropriate our
interactions are in a given situation.
The connotational and pragmatic components relate to
speech characteristics.
 Прагматика охватывает такие явления, как
импликатура, речевые акты, релевантность и диалог, а
также невербальное общение. Теории прагматики идут
рука об руку с теориями семантики, которая изучает
аспекты значения, и синтаксиса, который изучает
структуры предложений, принципы и отношения.
Прагматический язык относится к навыкам общения,
которые мы используем в нашем повседневном общении
с другими людьми. Это включает в себя то, что мы
говорим, как мы это говорим, наше невербальное
общение (зрительный контакт, мимика, язык тела и т.д.)
и то, насколько уместно наше взаимодействие в данной
ситуации.
Коннотативный и прагматический компоненты связаны с
речевыми характеристиками.
Questions, page 34
3. What is the phonetical motivation?
The phonetical motivation implies a direct connection between the phonetic
structure of the word and its meaning. For instance, the word cuckoo (cf. in
Russian кукушка) denotes a bird whose call is like its name. Thus, there is a
certain similarity between the sound-form of the word and the sounds the
bird produces. It is also suggested that sounds themselves can be
emotionally expressive which accounts for the phonetical motivation in
certain words. For example, the sound-cluster|-in| is imitative of sound or
swift movement as can be seen in the words a ring (bell sound), to sing (to
make musical sounds), to swing (to move quickly round to the opposite
directions), to fling (to move suddenly or violently).

4. What is implied by the term ‘morphological motivation’?

The morphological motivation implies a direct connection between the lexical
meaning of the component morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the
meaning of the word. Thus. the main criterion in morphological motivation is the
relationship between morphemes. For example, the derived word to rethink is
motivated through its morphological structure which suggests the idea of thinking
again'. The direct connection between the order of the arrangement of morphemes
in words and their meaning can be illustrated by the semantic analysis of different
words composed of phonetically identical morphemes with identical lexical
meaning. The difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes in the
words finger-ring (кольцо) and ring finger (безымянный nалец) accounts for the
difference in the meaning of these words.

5. What does the semantic motivation mean?

The semantic motivation implies a direct connection between the central and
marginal meanings of the word. For example, the compound noun eyewash has two
meanings: 1) a lotion for the eyes (примочка для глаз); 2) something said or done
to deceive a person so that he thinks what he sees is good though in fact it is not
(cf. Russian очковтирательство). The first meaning is based on the literal
meanings of the components, i.e. the meanings of the morphemes eye- and-wash.
Thus, the motivation of the noun eyewash in its first meaning is morphological. The
second meaning of the word eyewash is metaphoric or figurative. In this case the
motivation is semantic. Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct
and figurative meanings within the semantic structure of the word. Mouth, for
instance, continues to denote a part of human face, and at the same time it can
mean metaphorically any opening or outlet, as in the mouth of a river.
6. What linguistic causes of semantic change can be singled out?
Causes of Semantic Change. The factors accounting for semantic changes
may be roughly subdivided into two groups: a) extra-linguistic: b) linguistic.
By extra-linguistic causes various changes in the life of the speech
community are meant, i.e. changes in economic and social structure.
changes in scientific concepts. For example, changes in the way of life of the
British brought about changes in the meaning hlaford. Originally the word
meant 'bread-keeper (‘хранитель хлеба’), and later on master, ruler'
(‘повелитель, лорд’).
Some changes of meaning occur due to purely linguistic causes, i.e. factors
acting within the language system. The commonest form which this influence
takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these
is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. For example, the verb
to starve in Old English (OE) meant to die and was habitually used in
collocation with the word hunger. In the 16 th century the verb to starve itself
acquired the meaning 'to die of hunger’.

Another linguistic cause is discrimination/differentiation of synonyms which

can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. In OE
the word land meant both 'solid part of earth's surface and the territory of a
nation'. In the Middle English period the word country was borrowed as its
synonym. The meaning of the word land was somewhat altered and the
territory of a nation' came to be denoted by the borrowed word country
Fixed context may be regarded as another linguistic factor in semantic
change. For example, the word token, when brought into competition with
the loan word sign, became restricted in use to a number of set expressions,
such as love token, token of respect and also became specialized in meaning.

7. What are the basic types of association involved in various semantic

changes?
Nature of Semantic Change. A necessary condition of any semantic change is some
connection, some association between the old meaning and the new one. There are
two kinds of association involved in various semantic changes:
a) similarity of meanings;
b) contiguity of meanings
Similarity of meanings or metaphor may be described as the semantic process of
associating two referents, one of which in some wav resembles the other. The word
hand, for instance, acquired in the 16 th century the meaning of 'a pointer of a clock
or a watch’ because of the similarity of one of the functions performed by the hand
('to point to smth.’) and the function of the clock-pointer. See the expression hands
of the clock (watch).
Contiguity of meanings or metonymy may be described as the semantic process of
associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely
connected with it. This can be illustrated by the use of the word tongue ‘the organ
of speech' in the meaning of ‘language' (as in mother tongue). The word bench
acquired the meaning judges' because it was on the bench that ‘judges’ used to sit
in law courts, similarly the House acquired the meaning of 'members of the House
(Parliament).

8. What are the results of the change of the denotational aspect of

lexical meaning?
Results of Semantic Change. Results of semantic change can be generally observed
in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word, i.e. in restriction or
extension of meaning. Restriction of meaning can be illustrated by the semantic
development of the word hound which used to denote 'dog of any breed’ but now
denotes only ‘a dog used in the chase’. If the word with a new restricted meaning
comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group within the
speech community it is usual to speak of the specialization of meaning.
Extension of meaning may be illustrated by the word target which originally meant
'a small round shield’ but now means 'anything that is fired at". If the word with the
extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, the
result of the semantic change is described as the generalization of meaning.
9. What are the results of the change of the connotational aspect of
lexical meaning?
Results of semantic change can be also observed in the alteration of the
connotational aspect of meaning, i.e. in amelioration or deterioration of meaning.
Amelioration of meaning implies the improvement of the connotational component
of meaning. For instance, the word minister originally denoted ‘a servant' but now –
‘a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state’.
Deterioration (or the pejorative development) of meaning implies the acquisition by
the word of some derogatory emotive charge. For example, the word boor was
originally used to denote ‘a peasant' and then acquired a derogatory connotational
meaning and came to denote ‘a clumsy or ill-bred fellow'.

11.Why is important to difference between ‘meaning’ and ‘usage?

A great contribution to the development of the problem of polysemy was made by
the Russian linguist V.V.Vinogradov. The scientist admitted the importance of
differentiating the meaning from the usage (a contextual variant). Meanings are
fixed and common to all people, who know the language system. The usage is only
a possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word, sometimes
very individual, sometimes more or less familiar. Meaning is not identical with
usage.
12. What are lexico-semantic variants?
A further development of V.V.Vinogradov's theory was A.I.Smirnitsky's work in the
linguistic field under consideration. According to this scholar all the meanings of the
word form identity (тождество) supported by the form of the word A.I. Smirnitsky
introduced the term ‘a lexico-semantic variant" (LSV). A lexico-semantic variant is a
two-facet unit (двусторонняя единица), the formal facet of which is the sound-
form of a word, while the content facet is one of the meanings of the given word,
i.e. the designation (обозначение) of a certain class of objects. Words with one
meaning are represented in the language system by one LSV, polysemantic words -
by a number of LSVs. Example: Monosemantic word - a word having
only one meaning: hydrogen, molecule. Polysemantic word - a
word having several meanings: table, yellow, etc.

All lexico-semantic variants of a word form a homogenous semantic

structure ensuring the semantic unity of the given word. All LSVs are united
together by a certain meaning - the semantic pivot of the word called the semantic
center of the word. Thus, the semantic center of the word is the part of meaning
which remains constant in all the lexico-semantic variants of the word.

A lexico–semantic variant is a word in one of the meanings. (The

term " lexico – semantic variant " belongs to A. I. Smirnitsky)
The basic unit in lexicology is the word, the elementary one is the
lexico–semantic variant – this is a word in one of the meanings.
This is one of the meanings of the polysemantic word.
Лексико–семантический вариант – это слово в одном из значений.
(Термин « лексико – семантический вариант » принадлежит А. И.
Смирницкому)
Основной единицей в лексикологии является слово, элементарной –
лексико–семантический вариант – это слово в одном из значений. Это
одно из значений полисемантического слова.

15. What types of meaning in terms of the synchronic approach to

polysemy can be singled out?
Synchronically polysemy is understood as the coexistence of various meanings of
the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English
language. In the course of a synchronic semantic analysis of the word table the
following question arises: do all the nine meanings of the word table equally
represent the semantic structure of this word? The meaning that first occurs to us
whenever we hear or see the word table is ‘an article of furniture'. This emerges as
the central (or basic) meaning of the word, and all other meanings are marginal (or
minor) meanings. The central meaning occurs in various and widely different
contexts, marginal meanings are observed only in certain contexts. There is a
tendency in modern linguistics to interpret the concept of the central meaning in
terms of the frequency of occurrence of this meaning. As far as the word table is
concerned the meaning 'piece of furniture' possesses the highest frequency of value
and makes up 52 % of all the uses of this word.

What types of meaning in terms of the diachronic

approach to polysemy can be singled out?

If polysemy is viewed diachronically it is understood as the growth

and development or as a change in the semantic structure of the
word.
Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its
previous meaning or meanings and at the same time acquire one
or several new ones. Thus, according to the diachronic approach
in the semantic structure of a word two types of meaning can be
singled out: the primary meaning and the secondary meaning.
The polysemantic word table, for example, has at least nine
meanings in Modern English (ModE). In the course of a diachronic
semantic analysis it is found that of all the meanings this word
has in ModE the primary meaning is 'a flat slab of stone or wood’
which is proper to the word in the OE period.
All other meanings are secondary as they are derived from the
primary meaning. Semantic changes result as a rule in new
meanings which are added to the ones already existing in the
semantic structure of the word.
Some of the old meanings may become obsolete or even
disappear but the bulk of English words tend to an increase in the
number of meanings.
Синхронная многозначность понимается как
сосуществование различных значений одного и того же слова
в определенный исторический период развития английского
языка. В ходе синхронного семантического анализа слова
"стол" возникает следующий вопрос: все ли девять значений
слова "стол" в равной степени отражают семантическую
структуру этого слова? Значение, которое первым делом
приходит нам на ум, когда мы слышим или видим слово
"стол", - это "предмет мебели". Это проявляется как
центральное (или базовое) значение слова, а все остальные
значения являются второстепенными. Центральное значение
встречается в самых разных контекстах, маргинальные
значения наблюдаются только в определенных контекстах. В
современной лингвистике существует тенденция
интерпретировать понятие центрального значения с точки
зрения частоты встречаемости этого значения. Что касается
слова "стол", то значение "предмет мебели" обладает
наибольшей частотностью и составляет 52 % от всех
употреблений этого слова.

Если рассматривать многозначность диахронически, то она

понимается как рост и развитие или как изменение
семантической структуры слова.
Многозначность в диахроническом плане подразумевает, что
слово может сохранять свое прежнее значение или смыслы и
в то же время приобретать один или несколько новых. Таким
образом, согласно диахроническому подходу, в
семантической структуре слова можно выделить два типа
значений: первичное значение и вторичное значение.
Многозначное слово table. например, в современном
английском языке имеет как минимум девять значений
(ModE). В ходе диахронического семантического анализа
было обнаружено, что из всех значений, которые это слово
имеет в ModE, основным значением является "плоская плита
из камня или дерева", которое было присуще этому слову в
эпоху OE.
Все остальные значения вторичны, поскольку они являются
производными от основного значения. Семантические
изменения, как правило, приводят к появлению новых
значений, которые добавляются к тем, которые уже
существуют в семантической структуре слова.
Некоторые из старых значений могут устареть или даже
исчезнуть, но основная масса английских слов имеет
тенденцию к увеличению числа значений.

18. What types of linguistic contexts do you know?

The term 'context denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each
individual meaning of the word. Contexts may be of two types: linguistic (verbal)
and extra-linguistic (non-verbal) extra-linguistic (non-verbal)(Example?) The
extralinguistic context is the setting, time and place to which the
utterance refers (аттеренс рефёрс), as well as the facts of
reality, knowledge of which helps the receptor to correctly
interpret the meanings of linguistic units in the utterance. (In
order to correctly understand the phrase “The table is on the
wall”, it is enough to have basic knowledge that objects such as
tables are not hung (ханг) on walls, therefore, the noun table
must be translated as 'table'. Context is very important in
understanding what is being discussed)
Экстралингвистический контекст - это обстановка, время и
место, к которым относится высказывание, а также факты
действительности, знание которых помогает
воспринимающему правильно интерпретировать значения
языковых единиц в высказывании. (Чтобы правильно понять
фразу “Стол находится на стене”, достаточно обладать
базовыми знаниями о том, что такие предметы, как столы, не
вешаются на стены, поэтому существительное table следует
переводить как "стол". Контекст очень важен в понимании
того, о чем идет речь)
Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical. In lexical
contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the
polysemantic word under consideration. This can be illustrated by the results of the
analysis of different lexical contexts in which a polysemantic word is used. For
example, the adjective heavy used with the words load, table means ‘of great
weight’. When combined with the words denoting natural phenomena such as rain,
storm, snow, wind the adjective heavy is understood as denoting "abundant,
striking, falling with force'. If used with the words industry, artillery, arms and the
like, heavy has the meaning ‘the larger kind of smth’.
It can be easily observed that the main factor in bringing out the individual
meanings of the adjective heavy is the lexical meaning of the words with which this
adjective is combined. Thus, the meanings of heavy may be analyzed through its
collocability with the words weight, safe, table, snow, wind, industry, artillery, etc.
The meaning at the level of lexical contexts is sometimes described as meaning by
collocation. In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure of
the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic
word. The meaning of the verb to make – ‘to force, to induce’ is found only in the
grammatical context possessing the syntactic structure to make + prn. + verb (to
make smb. laugh, to make smb. work, to make smb. sit). Another meaning of this
verb – ‘to become’ is observed in the context of a different syntactic structure - to
make +adj. +noun (to make a good wife, to make a good teacher). Such meanings
are sometimes described as grammatically bound meanings.
 Questions, page 46
1. What are the basic types of intralinguistic relations of words?
Intralinguistic relations of words are basically of two types: syntagmatic and
paradigmatic.
Syntagmatic relations are the relationships that a linguistic unit has with other
units in the stretch of language in which it occurs. Syntagmatic relations define
the meaning the word possesses when it is used in combination with other
words. For example, the meanings of the verb to get can be understood from the
following contexts: He got a letter ('to receive'); He got tired (‘to become'); He
got to London (‘to arrive') He could not get the piano through the door ('to move
smth. to or from a position or place'). So syntagmatic relations are linear
(simultaneous) relationships between words.
Paradigmatic relations are the relationships that a linguistic unit has with units
by which it may be replaced. Paradigmatic relations exist between words which
make up one of the subgroups of vocabulary units. e.g. sets of synonyms, lexico-
semantic groups. Paradigmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses
through its interrelation with other members of the subgroup in question. For
example, the meaning of the verb to get can be fully understood in comparison
with other units of the synonymic set: to obtain, to receive, to gain, to acquire,
etc. So paradigmatic relations are associative (non-simultaneous) relationships
between words.

4.What are the main types of semantic relations?

There are four basic types of semantic relations: proximity equivalence,
inclusion and opposition.
Words very seldom are the same semantically, i.e. they are not identical in
meaning and show a certain semantic difference as well as similarity.
Meaning similarity is seldom complete and is nearly always partial which
makes it possible to speak about the semantic proximity of words and, in
general, about the relations of semantic proximity Compare the words used
for describing a female appearance from the point of view of similarity and
dissimilarity in their content side (beautiful – pretty – attractive – striking –
handsome)
An obvious conclusion is that the adjectives discussed are characterized by
certain features of semantic dissimilarity which shows that they are not
absolutely identical in meaning.
Semantic proximity implies that two (or more) words however different may
enter the semantic relations of proximity if they share certain semantic
features, e.g. the words red and green share the semantic features of colour,
basic or rainbow colour, complementary colour', etc.
The words may be graded in semantic proximity. A higher degree of semantic
proximity helps to single out synonyms while a lower degree of proximity
provides for a description of broader and less homogeneous semantic groups.
For example. the degree of proximity will be much lower in the words red and
green which share the semantic feature of colour than in red vs scarlet or
green vs emerald. The words table and chair share the semantic features of
'thingness", ‘object’, ‘piece of furniture' that forms a good basis for grouping
them together with other nouns denoting 'pieces of furniture.

8. What does the term ‘hyperonym’ mean? What does the term
‘hyponym’ denote?
Another type of semantic relations is the relationship of inclusion which exists
between two words if the meaning of one word contains the semantic
features constituting the meaning of the other word. The semantic relations
of inclusion are called hyponymic relations. Thus, for example, vehicle
includes car, bus, taxi, tram and flower includes daffodil, carnation,
 snowdrop, lily. The hyponymic relation may be viewed as the hierarchical
relationship between the meanings of the general and the individual terms.
The general term - vehicle, tree, animal - is referred to as the classifier or the
hyperonym. The more specific term is called the hyponym (car, tram, oak,
ash; cat, tortoise). The more specific term (the hyponym) is included in the
more general term (the hyperonym), e.g the classifier move and the
members of the group - walk, run, saunter. The individual terms contain the
meaning of the general term in addition to their individual meanings which
distinguish them from each other.

10. What types of semantic opposition can be singled out?

The contrast of semantic features helps to establish the semantic relations of
opposition. Thus, the meaning of the word black is contrasted to that of the word
white. The relations of opposition imply the exclusion of the meaning of one word
by another, which, in fact. implies that the referential areas of the two (or more)
words are opposed. Thus, black is opposed to white but it is not opposed to either
red or yellow. In the latter case we can speak about contrast of meaning, but not
the semantic relations of opposition.
There are two types of relations of semantic opposition: polar oppositions and
relative oppositions. Polar oppositions are those which are based on the semantic
feature uniting two linguistic units by antonymous relations, e.g. rich-poor, dead -
alive, young – old. Relative oppositions imply that there are several semantic
features on which the opposition rests. For example, the verb to leave means ‘to go
away from' and its opposite, the verb to arrive denotes 'reaching a place, esp. the
end of a journey'. It is quite obvious that the verb to leave implies certain finality
and movement in the opposite direction from the place specified. The verb to arrive
lays special emphasis semantically on ‘reaching smth.". i.e. attaining a point which
is set as an aim and implies effort in achieving the goal. Thus, it is not just one
semantic feature the presence of which in one case accounts for the polarity of
meaning, but a whole system of semantic features which underlies the opposition of
two words in the semantic aspect.

12.What are synonyms?

Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part of speech, close in
meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Synonyms are
characterized by either the semantic relations of equivalence or by the semantic
relations of proximity. As the degree of semantic proximity may be different,
different types of synonyms can be singled out. Full (total) synonyms, i.e. words
characterized by semantic equivalence, are extremely rare.

14. According to what principles are synonyms classified? What are the
main types of synonyms?
Taking into account the difference of synonyms by the three aspects of their
meaning they may be classified into stylistic, ideographic and ideographic-
stylistic synonyms.
Stylistic synonymy implies no interchangeability in context because he
underlying situations are different, e.g. children - infants, dad - father. Stylistic
synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the
pragmatic (and connotational) aspect. Substituting one stylistic synonym for
another results in an inadequate presentation of the situation of communication.
Ideographic synonymy presents a still lower degree of semantic proximity and is
observed when the connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but
there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words,
e.g. forest-wood, apartment-flat, shape - form. Though ideographic synonyms
correspond to one and the same referential area, i.e. denote the same thing or a
set of closely related things, they are different in the denotational aspect of their
 meanings and their interchange would result in a slight change of the phrase
they are used in.
Ideographic-stylistic synonymy is characterized by the lowest degree of
semantic proximity. This type of synonyms includes synonyms which differ both
in the denotational and the connotational and/or the pragmatic aspects of
meaning, e.g. ask-inquire, expect-anticipate. If the synonyms in question have
the same patterns of grammatical and lexical valency, they can still hardly be
considered interchangeable in context.
Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is
the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all
the other members of the synonymic group. In the series leave -depart-quit-retire-
clear out the verb leave, being general and both stylistically and emotionally
neutral, can stand for each of the other four terms. The other four can replace leave
only when some specific semantic component prevails over the general notion. For
example, when it is necessary to stress the idea of giving up employment and
stopping work quit is preferable because in this word this particular notion
dominates over the more general idea common to the whole group.

18. What is a semantic field?

If the underlying notion is broad enough to include almost all-embracing sections of
vocabulary we deal with semantic fields. For example, the words cosmonaut (n.),
spacious (adj.), to orbit (v.) belong to the semantic field of 'space". These broadest
semantic groups are sometimes referred to as conceptual fields which might be in
many cases misleading. The members of the semantic fields are joined together by
some common semantic component. i.e. the component common to all the
members of the semantic field, which is sometimes described as the common
denominator of meaning.
The starting point of the theory of semantic fields and lexico-semantic groups was J.
Trier's work (a German linguist: the beginning of the 20 th century) on intellectual
terms in Old and Middle High German. J. Trier showed that they form an
interdependent lexical sphere where the significance of each unit is determined by
its neighbours. The semantic areas of the units limit one another and cover up the
whole sphere.

What is the difference between the semantic field and the

lexico-semantic group?
The lexical and semantic field is singled out by one common seme
(сим) (it includes the words of one part of speech); the lexical and
semantic group is singled out by several common semes.

A lexico-semantic group is an association (асоушиэйшн) of words

of one part of speech with a common main component of
meaning. For example, warm, cold, icy, hot. LSG stands out within
semantic fields.

The semantic field is the largest semantic paradigm (пэрэдайм)

that unites words of different parts of speech, the meanings of
which have one common semantic feature. For example, the
words cosmonaut (козмоноут) (n.), spacious (спейшс) (adj.), to
orbit (v.) belong to the semantic field of 'space".
Лексико-семантическая группа — объединение слов одной части
речи с общим основным компонентом значения. ЛСГ выделяется
внутри семантических полей.

Семанти́ ческое по́ ле — самая крупная смысловая парадигма,

объединяющая слова различных частей речи, значения которых
имеют один общий семантический признак.

Лексико-семантическое поле выделяется одной общей семой

(в него входят слова одной части речи); лексико-
семантическая группа выделяется несколькими общими
семами.

Если базовое понятие достаточно широкое, чтобы включать в

себя практически все разделы лексики, мы имеем дело с
семантическими полями. Например, слова "космонавт"
(существительное), "просторный" (прилагательное), "на
орбиту" (существительное) относятся к семантическому полю
"пространство". Эти самые широкие семантические группы
иногда называют концептуальными полями, что во многих
случаях может ввести в заблуждение. Члены семантических
полей объединены вместе некоторым общим семантическим
компонентом. то есть компонентом, общим для всех членов
семантического поля, который иногда описывается как
общий знаменатель значения.
Отправной точкой теории семантических полей и лексико-
семантических групп стала работа Й. Триера (немецкого
лингвиста, начало 20 века), посвященная интеллектуальным
терминам в древневерхненемецком и средневерхненемецком
языках. Й. Триер показал, что они образуют взаимозависимую
лексическую сферу, где значение каждой единицы
определяется его соседи. Семантические области единиц
ограничивают друг друга и охватывают всю сферу в целом.
Лексико-семантическое поле выделяется одной общей семой
(в него входят слова одной части речи); лексико-
семантическая группа выделяется несколькими общими
семами.

20. What structural types of antonyms do you know?

Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of the same root, e.g. to do-to
undo, cheerful-cheerless: and antonyms of different roots, e.g. day - night, rich -
poor.
21. What semantic types of antonyms do you know?
Semantically, antonyms may be classified into contradictories. contraries and
incompatibles.
1.Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs
like, for example, dead - alive, single - married. Contradictory antonyms are
mutually opposed, they deny one another Contradictories form a privative binary
opposition, they are members of two-term sets. To use one of the words is to
contradict the other and to use 'not' before one of them is to make it semantically
equivalent to the other: not dead = alive, not single =married.
2. Contraries are antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the
increasing difference in one of their qualities. The most distant elements of this
series will be classified as contrary notions. Contraries are gradable antonyms, they
are polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediate elements.
This may be observed in cold—hot and cold-warm which are intermediate members
Thus, we may regard as antonyms not only cold and hot but also cold and warm.
Contrary antonyms may also be considered in terms of degrees of the quality
involved. Thus, water may be cold or very cold, and water in one glass may be
colder than in another glass.
3. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of
exclusion. Semantic relations of incompatibility exist among antonyms with a
common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy.
For example, to say morning is to say nor afternoon, not evening, not night. The use
of one member of this set implies the exclusion of the other members of the set,
Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are members of the
multiple-term sets while contradictories are members of two-term sets A relation of
incompatibility may be also observed between colour terms since the choice of red,
for example, entails the exclusion of black, blue. yellow, etc.

22. What is the difference between: a) contradictories and contraries; b)

contradictories and incompatibles?
a) The difference between contradictories synonyms and contraries synonyms is
that in the second case there is an increasing degree, that is, words that may have
intermediate elements. In the first case, such words are used that do not have any
intermediate states.
b) Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are members of the
multiple-term sets while contradictories are members of two-term sets.

Разница между синонимами-контрадикторами и синонимами-

противоположностями заключается в том, что во втором случае наблюдается
возрастающая степень, то есть слова, которые могут иметь промежуточные
элементы. В первом случае используются такие слова, которые не имеют
промежуточных состояний.
б) Несовместимые элементы отличаются от противоречивых, поскольку
несовместимые элементы являются членами многозначных множеств, в то
время как противоречивые элементы являются членами двухчленных
множеств.

Questions, page 57
2. What is a morpheme?
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. Morphemes cannot be
segmented into smaller units without losing their constitutive essence, i.e. two-
facetedness - association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-pattern.
Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words but not
independently. Morphemes may have different phonetic shapes. In the word-cluster
please, pleasing, pleasure, pleasant the root morpheme is represented by the
phonetic shapes: [plitz-] in please, pleasing: [ple3-] in pleasure: [plez-] in pleasant.
All the representations of the given morpheme are called allomorphs or morpheme
variants.

4.What types of morphemes can be singled out semantically?

Semantically morphemes fall into two types: I) root-morphemes and 2) non-root
morphemes. Root-morphemes (or radicals) are the lexical nucleus of words. For
example, in the words remake, glassful, disorder the root-morphemes -make, glass-
and -order are understood as the lexical centers of the words. The root-morpheme
is isolated as the morpheme common to a set of words making up a word-cluster,
e.g. the morpheme teach- in to teach, teacher, teaching.
Non-root morphemes include inflectional morphemes (or inflections) and affixational
morphemes (or affixes). Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus
relevant only for the formation of word-forms, whereas affixes are relevant for
building various types of stems. Lexicology is concerned only with affixational
morphemes.
Affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. A prefix is a derivational morpheme
preceding the root-morpheme and modifying its meaning (cf. pronounce -mis-
pronounce, safe un-safe). A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the root and
forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class (cf. -
en, -y. -less in heart-en, heart-y, heart-less).

8. What structural types of morphemes can be singled out? Characterize

each type.
Structurally morphemes fall into three types: 1) free morphemes: 2) bound
morphemes; 3) semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes.
A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. For
example, the root-morpheme friend- of the noun friendship is naturally qualified as
a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the word friend.
A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are bound
morphemes for, they always make part of a word. For example. the suffixes -ness, -
ship, -ize in the words darkness, friendship, to activize; the prefixes im-, dis-, de- in
the words impolite to disregard, to demobilize.
Some root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes. These are, as
a rule, roots which are found in quite a limited number of words and never
independently or pseudo-roots, i.e. root-morphemes which have lost most of the
properties of "full" roots. Such are the root morphemes goose- in gooseberry, -ceive
in conceive. Combining forms, i.e. morphemes borrowed namely from Greek or
Latin in which they existed as free forms, are considered to be bound roots. For
example. the word tele-phone consists of two bound roots, whereas the word cycl-ic
- of a bound root and an affix
Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are morphemes that can function in a
morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the
morphemes well and half on the one hand occur as free morphemes that coincide
with the stem and the word-form in the utterances to sleep well, half an hour, on
the other hand well and half occur as bound morphemes in the words well-known,
half done.

12.What is the differential meaning of morphemes?

Differential meaning is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word
from all others containing identical morphemes. In words consisting of two or more
morphemes, one of the constituent morphemes always has differential meaning.
For example, in the word bookshelf the morpheme -shelf serves to distinguish the
word from other words containing the morpheme book-: bookcase, bookstall.

13. What is the distributional meaning of morphemes?

Distributional meaning is the meaning of the order and arrangement of morphemes
making up the word. It is found in all words containing more than one morpheme.
For example, the word singer is composed of two morphemes sing- and -er both of
which possess the denotational meaning – ‘to make musical sounds’ and 'the doer
of the action". A different arrangement of the same morphemes *ersing would make
the word meaningless.

14.What is meant by the part-of-speech meaning of morphemes?

Part-of-speech meaning. In most cases affixational morphemes are indicative of the
part of speech to which a derivational word belongs. For example, the affixational
morpheme -ment (movement) is used to form nouns, while the affixational
morpheme -less (careless) forms adjectives. Sometimes the part-of-speech meaning
of morphemes predominates. For example, the morpheme -ice in the word justice
serves principally to transfer the part-of-speech meaning of the morpheme just- into
another class and namely that of the noun.
16.What are polymorphic words? What types of polymorphic words can be
singled out?
Polymorphic words according to the number of root-morphemes are classified into:
a) monoradical (one-root morpheme) and b) polyradical (words consisting of two or
more roots).

17.What subtypes do monoradical words fall into?

Monoradical words fall into three subtypes:
1) radical-suffixal words, i.e. words consisting of one root morpheme and one or
more suffixal morphemes (e.g. acceptable, acceptability);
2) radical-prefixal words, i.e. words consisting of one root morpheme and a prefixal
morpheme (e.g. outdo, unbutton)
3) prefixo-radical-suffixal words, i. e. words which consist of one root, prefixal and
suffixal morphemes (e.g. disagreeable, misinterpretation).

18. What subtypes can polyradical words be divided into?

Polyradical words fall into two subtypes:
1) polyradical words which consist of two or more roots with no affixational
morphemes (e.g. book-stand, lamp-shade) 2) polyradical words which contain at
least two roots and one or more affixational morphemes (e.g. safety-pin, light-
mindedness, pen-holder).

19. What are the three types of morphemic segmentability?

Three types of morphemic segmentability of words are distinguished: complete,
conditional, defective.
Complete segmentability is characteristic of a great number of words, the
morphemic structure of which is transparent enough, as their individual morphemes
clearly stand out within the word and can be easily isolated. The morphemes
making up words of complete segmentability are called morphemes proper or full
morphemes. The transparent morphemic structure of the segmentable words
endless. useless is conditioned by the fact that their constituent morphemes recur
with the same meaning in a number of other words: an end, to end: use, to use and
nameless. powerless.
Conditional segmentability characterizes words whose segmentation into the
constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons. In the words retain. detain
or receive, deceive the sound clusters r-. di- seem to be singled out quite easily due
to their recurrence in a number of words. On the other hand, thev have nothing in
common with the phonetically identical morphemes re-, de- which are found in the
words rewrite, reorganize, decode, deorganize Neither the sound-clusters [ri-], [di-]
nor the [-tein], [-si:v] possess any lexical or part-of-speech meaning of their own.
The types of meaning that can be ascribed to them is differential and distributional:
the [ri- distinguishes retain from detain and the [-tein] distinguishes retain from
receive, whereas their order and arrangement point to the status of the re-, de- as
different from that of the -rain and -ceive within the structure of the words. The
morphemes making up words of conditional. segmentability do not rise to the status
of full morphemes for semantic reasons and that is why are called pseudo
morphemes or quasi-morphemes.
Defective segmentability is the property of words whose component morphemes
seldom or never recur in other words. One of the component morphemes of these
words is a unique morpheme in the sense that it does not recur in a different
linguistic environment. A unique morpheme is isolated and understood as
meaningful because the constituent morphemes display a more or less clear
denotational meaning. In the word hamlet (деревушка) the morpheme -let has the
meaning of diminutiveness. This morpheme occurs in the words ringlet, leaflet,
streamlet. The sound-cluster [hæm-] that is left after the isolation of the morpheme
-let does not recur in any other English word The morpheme ham- carries a
differential and distributional meaning as it distinguishes hamlet from streamlet,
ringlet. This morpheme is qualified as unique.

23. What is the procedure of morphemic analysis based on?

The procedure generally employed for the purposes of segmenting words into the
constituent morphemes is known as the method of Immediate and Ultimate
Constituents.
This method is based on a binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves
two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two
components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents (ICs). Each IC at the next
stage of analysis is in its turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis
is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e.
morphemes. These morphemes are referred to as the Ultimate Constituents (UCs)
For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs 1) friendly-
(recurring in the adjectives friendly and friendly-looking and 2) -ness (found in a
countless number of nouns, e.g. happiness. darkness). The IC -ness is at the same
time a UC of the noun, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing
both sound-form and meaning. The IC friendly-is next broken into the ICs 1) friend-
(recurring in friendship, unfriendly) and 2)-ly (recurring in wifely, brotherly). The ICs
friend- and -ly are both UCs of the word under analysis.

24. What are the two principles applied in the analysis based on?
The division into ICs and UCs can be carried out on the basis of two principles: 1)
the affix principle and 2) the root principle. According to the affix principle the
segmentation of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the
identification of an affixational morpheme within a set of words, e.g. the
identification of the morpheme -less leads to the segmentation of words like
useless, hopeless, merciless into the suffixational morpheme -less and the root-
morphemes use-, hope-, merci-, within a word-cluster. According to the root
principle the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable.
agreement, disagree makes it possible to split these words into the root agree- and
the affixational morphemes -able, -ment, dis-.
As a rule, the application of one of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic
segmentation of words.

Questions, page 66
2.What is the difference between the derivational structure and the
morphemic structure of a word?
The nature, type and arrangement of the immediate constituents of the word are
known as its derivational structure.
 Though the derivational structure of a word is closely connected with its
morphemic (or morphological) structure and often coincides with it, it differs
from the morphemic structure in principle.
The analysis of the derivational structure reveals the hierarchy of morphemes
making up the word, the way a word is constructed, the structural and the
semantic type of the word and how a new word of similar structure should be
understood. For example, the words unmistakable and discouraging
morphemically refer to one and the same type as they both are segmented into
three Ultimate Constituents-one prefixational, one root and one suffixational
morpheme. However, the nature and arrangement of morphemes in these words
indicate that these words belong to different derivational types. In unmistakable
the prefixational morpheme is added to the sequence of the root and the
suffixational morphemes. Thus, the meaning of the word is derived from the
relations between un- and -mistakable – not mistakable". In the word
discouraging the suffixational morpheme is added to the combination of the
prefixational and the root morphemes and the meaning of the word is
understood from the relations between discourage- and -ingsomething that
discourages. Hence, the word unmistakable refers to a prefixational derivative
and the word discouraging — to a suffixational one. The basic elementary units
of the derivational structure of words are: derivational bases, derivational affixes
and derivational patterns.

3. What are the basic elementary units of the derivational structure?

Not to the point!!!

The basic elementary units of the derivative structure are: derivational

bases, derivational affixes, derivational patterns.

The analysis of the derivational structure reveals (ревилс) the

hierarchy of morphemes making up the word, the way a word is
constructed, the structural and the semantic type of the word and
how a new word of similar structure should be understood. For
example, the words unmistakable and discouraging
morphemically refer to one and the same type as they both are
segmented into three Ultimate Constituents - one prefixational,
one root and one suffixational morpheme. However, the nature
and arrangement of morphemes in these words indicate that
these words belong to different derivational types. In
unmistakable the prefixational morpheme is added to the
sequence of the root and the suffixational morphemes. Thus, the
meaning of the word is derived from the relations between un-
and
-mistakable — not mistakable*
- In the word discouraging the suffixational morpheme is added to
the combination of the prefixational and the root morphemes and
the meaning of the word is understood from the relations
between discourage- and -ing - something that discourages.
Hence, the word unmistakable refers to a prefixational derivative
and the word discouraging - to a suflixational one. The basic
elementary units of the derivational structure of words are:
derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns.

A derivational pattern (DP) is a regular meaningful arrangement,

a structure that imposes rigid (риджит) rules on the order and
the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be
brought together. DPs are studied with the help of distributional
analysis at different levels. Patterns are usually represented in
terms of conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d, num stand
for the bases which coincide with the stems of the respective
parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs. numerals; Ved
Ving stand for the bases which are the past and the present
participles respectively.

Словообразовательный шаблон (ДП) - это регулярное

значимое расположение, структура, которая накладывает
жесткие правила на порядок и природу
словообразовательных основ и аффиксов, которые могут
быть объединены. ДП изучаются с помощью дистрибутивного
анализа на разных уровнях. Паттерны обычно представлены
в виде условных обозначений: маленькие буквы v, n, a, d, num
обозначают основы, которые совпадают с основами
соответствующих частей речи: глаголов, существительных,
прилагательных, наречий. числительные Ved Ving
обозначают основы, которые являются причастиями
прошедшего и настоящего времени соответственно.

Па́ ттерн — схема-образ, действующая как посредствующее

представление, или чувственное понятие, благодаря которому в
режиме одновременности восприятия и мышления выявляются
закономерности, как они существуют в природе и обществе. Паттерн
понимается в этом плане как повторяющийся шаблон или образец.

Анализ словообразовательной структуры позволяет выявить

иерархию морфем, составляющих слово, способ построения
слова, структурный и семантический тип слова и то, как
следует понимать новое слово аналогичной структуры.
Например, слова "безошибочный" и "обескураживающий"
морфемно относятся к одному и тому же типу, поскольку они
оба подразделяются на три конечные составляющие - одну
префиксальную, одну корневую и одну суффиксальную
морфему. Однако характер и расположение морфем в этих
словах указывают на то, что эти слова относятся к разным
словообразовательным типам. В слове "безошибочный"
приставочная морфема добавляется к последовательности
корневых и суффиксальных морфем. Таким образом,
значение слова определяется отношениями между
"безошибочный" и
"безошибочно узнаваемый".*
- В слове обескураживающий суффиксальная морфема
добавляется к сочетанию префиксальной и корневой
морфем, и значение слова понимается исходя из отношений
между обескураживающим- и -ing - чем-то, что
обескураживает. Следовательно, слово "безошибочный"
относится к префиксальному производному, а слово
"обескураживающий" - к суфиксационному. Основными
элементарными единицами словообразовательной структуры
слов являются: словообразовательные основы,
словообразовательные аффиксы и словообразовательные
схемы.

6.What structural classes do derivational bases fall into?

Structurally derivational bases fall into three groups:
1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems, e.g. dutiful, dutifully; to day-
dream, daydreamer;
Stems that serve as this class of bases may be of different derivational types thus
forming derivational bases of different degrees of complexity:
a) simple stems, which consist of only one, semantically non motivated constituent,
e.g. pocket, motion, retain;
b) derived stems, which are semantically and structurally motivated. They are as a
rule binary (made up of two ICs), e.g. girlish, girlishness. The derived stem of the
word girlish is girl, whereas the derived stem of the word girlishness – girlish-;
c) compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated. but unlike the
derived stems both ICs of compound stems are stems themselves, e.g. match-box
(two simple stems), letter-writer (one simple and one derived stem) aircraft-carrier
(a compound and derived stem).
2. Bases that coincide with word-forms, e.g. unsmiling, paper-bound. This class of
bases is represented by verbal word-forms - the present and the past participles.
The collocability of this class of derivational bases is confined to: 1) a few
derivational affixes such as the prefix un- and the suffix -ly, e.g. unnamed,
unknown; smilingly, knowingly; 2) other bases which coincide only with nominal and
adjectival stems, e.g. mocking-bird, dancing-girl, ice-bound, easy going.
3. Bases that coincide with word-groups, e.g. flat-waisted, second-rateness. Bases
of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability. They are mostly combined
with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns: blue-eyed, long-
fingered, old-worldish. Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of
bases.
10.What are derivational affixes characterized by semantically?
Semantically derivational affixes are characterized by a unity of part of-speech
meaning, lexical meaning, differential and distributional meanings.
11.What can you say about the part-of-speech meaning proper to
derivational suffixes and derivational prefixes?
The part-of-speech meaning is proper to derivational suffixes and prefixes in
different degrees. It stands out clearly in derivational suffixes but it is less evident
in derivational prefixes. Prefixes like en-, de-, be- possess the part-of-speech
meaning and function as verb classifiers, e.g enslave, deice, befriend. The prefix
over- evidently lacks the part-of speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs
and adjectives, e.g. oversleep, overeat, over-confident, over-worried.
12.What are the peculiarities of the lexical meaning in derivational
affixes? What levels can the lexical meaning of derivational affixes be
viewed at?
The lexical meaning in derivational affixes also has its peculiarities and may be
viewed at different levels:
1) the lexical meaning of a generic type proper not to an individual affix but to a
set of affixes, forming a semantic subset. For example, the meaning of resemblance
found in the suffixes -ish, -like -y, -ly (boyish, ladylike, spidery, manly); the meaning
of abstract quality conveyed by the suffixes -ness, -ity (blindness. equality): the
meaning of absence conveyed by the prefix un- and the suffix -less (unclean.
unlucky, speechless. heartless).
2) an individual lexical meaning shared by no other affix. For instance, the suffixes -
ish, -like, -y all have the meaning of resemblance but -like conveys an overall
resemblance, -ish conveys likeness to the most typical qualities of the object; -
conveys likeness to outer shape, form, size of the object.
Derivational affixes may be monosemantic, e.g. the prefix omni meaning all
(omnipresence, omniscience), and polysemantic, e.g. the suffix -less meaning
"lacking something" (brainless. endless) and ‘exceeding a category’ (timeless,
countless).
There is a specific group of morphemes whose derivational function does not allow
one to refer them either to derivational affixes or to bases, e.g. half- in the words
half-done, half-broken; self- in the words self-made, self-interest; ill- in the words ill-
dressed, ill-behaved. Such morphemes are called semi-affixes, i.e. elements which
stand midway between roots and affixes. On the one hand, these morphemes retain
certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes of independent words, on the other
hand, they function as derivational prefixes.
13. What is a derivational pattern?
A derivational pattern (DP) is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that
imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes
that may be brought together. DPs are studied with the help of distributional
analysis at different levels. Patterns are usually represented in terms of
conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d, num stand for the bases which
coincide with the stems of the respective parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives,
adverbs. numerals; Ved Ving stand for the bases which are the past and the present
participles respectively.

15.What levels of generalization can derivational patterns represent the

derivational structure of a word at?
DPs may represent the derivational structure at different levels of generalization:
a) at the level of structural types.
b) at the level of structural patterns.
e) at the level of structural-semantic patterns.
16. What do structural formulas, structural patterns and structural-
semantic patterns specify?
a) at the level of structural types. Patterns of this level are known as structural
formulas. Structural formulas specify only the class membership of Immediate
Constituents and the direction of motivation, such as: a + sf → N, prf- + n → V, n + -
sf → N, n +-sf → V, v → N .
According to structural formulas all words may be classified into: 1) suffixal
derivatives: blackness; 2) prefixal derivatives: rewrite; 3) conversions: a cut; 4)
compound words: music-lover.
b) at the level of structural patterns. Structural patterns specify the base classes
and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical grammatical and lexical classes of
derived words. The affixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical
subsets. For example. the DP n +-ish →A signals a set of adjectives with the lexical
meaning of resemblance, whereas a+-ish → A signals adjectives meaning a small
degree of quality;
c) at the level of structural-semantic patterns. Structural-semantic patterns specify
semantic peculiarities of bases and individual meanings of affixes. For example. the
nominal bases in the pattern n + -ess → N are confined to nouns having in their
semantic structures a component ‘a male animate being": lioness, traitress, actress.
There are certain semantic constrains imposed on both the bases and the suffix in
the pattern +-y→ A. Nominal bases denoting living beings are collocated with the
suffix -y meaning 'resemblance', e.g. birdy, catty, but nominal bases denoting
material, parts of the body attract another meaning of the suffix -y that of
'considerable amount, size' resulting in adjectives like grassy, leggy, starry.
It follows that derivational patterns may be classified into two types structural
patterns (b) and structural-semantic patterns (c).

Part 2
Pages 21-27
№1
1. The word ‘renewal’ preceded by: an article, an auxiliary verb, a notional verb,
a preposition, an adjective. The word ‘renewal’ is followed by: a preposition,
an adverb. The meanings of this word: 1) when an activity, situation,
or process begins again after a period when it had stopped; 2) when you
make an agreement or official document continue for a further period of time
after it ends; 3) the act or process of making changes to something
in order to improve it so that it becomes more successful.
2. The word ‘to renew’ preceded by: an adjective, a noun, an auxiliary verb, a
modal verb. The word ‘to renew’ is followed by: an article, a noun, a
possessive pronoun. The meanings of this word: 1) to increase the life of
or replace something old; 2) If you renew a relationship with someone,
you start it again after you have not seen them or have not been friendly with
them for some time.; 3) to begin doing something again; 4)
to remove something that is old or broken and put a new one in its place or
to arrange for a document to continue for a further period of time.
№2
5.To insist:
● Meaning: to demand that something should happen.
● Sense: this means that she couldn't stay for certain reasons (maybe she had
things to do) and had to leave.

10.Red:
● Meaning: having the colour of blood.
● Sense: this means that the woman has worked so hard that her hands have
worn off and become red from possible damage.
№4
1) grammatical: go, went, think, thinking (lexical meaning), thought; wrote;
beautiful (lexical meaning), the most beautiful, near, nearer (lexical meaning),
nearest; boy’s, ship’s, friend’s;
2) lexical: boy, boys, boy’s; at, during, for;
3) part-of-speech: at, for; nouns: boy, lamp, man, table; drift, go, wrote, thought,
went (grammatical meaning), think; near, nearer (lexical meaning), beautiful,
nearest (grammatical meaning), tremendous, handsome.

The grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech

of relationship between words. Grammatical meaning is the
component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual
forms of different words, as, for example, the tense meaning in
the word-forms of the verbs: asked, thought, walked; the case
meaning in the word-forms of various nouns: girl’s, boy’s, night’s;
the meaning in the word-forms is found in the word-forms of
nouns: joys, tables, places.

The lexical meaning of the word is the meaning proper to the

given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions. The word-
forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical
meanings of tense, person, number, but in each form they have
one and the same semantic component denoting “the process of
movement”. Both the lexical and grammatical meanings make up
the word-meaning as neither can exist without the other. That can
be observed in the semantic analysis of correlated words in
different languages. The Russian word сведения is not
semantically identical with the English equivalent information
because unlike the Russian сведения the English word does not
possess the grammatical meaning of plurality which is part of the
semantic structure of the Russian word.

The essence of the part-of-speech meaning of a word is revealed

in the classification of lexical items into major word-classes
(nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and minor-classes
(articles, prepositions, conjunctions). All members of a major
word-class share a distinguishing semantic component which,
though very abstract, may be viewed as the lexical component of
part-of-speech meaning. Example??? For example, the meaning
of thingness or substantiality may be found in all the nouns, e.g.
table, love, sugar, though they possess different grammatical
meaning of number and case. The grammatical aspect of part-of
speech meaning is conveyed as a rule by a set of forms. If we
describe the word as a noun, we mean to say that it is bound to
possess a set of forms expressing the grammatical meaning of
number (table-tables) and case (boy-boy’s). The part-of-speech
meaning of the words that possess only one form (prepositions,
some adverbs) is observed only in their distribution (to come in
(here, there); in (on, under) the table.

Грамматическое значение определяется как выражение в

речи взаимосвязи между словами. Грамматическое значение
- это компонент значения, повторяющийся в идентичных
наборах отдельных форм разных слов, как, например,
значение времени в словоформах глаголов: спрашивал,
думал, ходил; падежное значение в словоформах различных
существительных: девичий, мальчишеский, ночной’s;
значение в словоформах содержится в словоформах
существительных: радости, столы, места.

Лексическое значение слова - это значение, присущее данной

языковой единице во всех ее формах и проявлениях.
Словоформы go, goes, отправился, отправляясь в путь,
унесенные обладают разными грамматическими значениями
времени, лица, числа, но в каждой форме они имеют один и
тот же семантический компонент, обозначающий “процесс
движения”. Как лексическое, так и грамматическое значения
составляют значение слова, поскольку ни одно из них не
может существовать без другого. Это можно наблюдать при
семантическом анализе коррелирующих слов в разных
языках. Русское слово "свадьба" семантически не идентично
английскому эквиваленту, поскольку, в отличие от русского
"свадьба", английское слово не обладает грамматическим
значением множественности, которое является частью
семантической структуры русского слова.

Сущность частеречного значения слова раскрывается в

классификации лексических единиц на основные классы слов
(существительные, глаголы, прилагательные и наречия) и
второстепенные классы (артикли, предлоги, союзы). Все
члены основного класса слов имеют общий отличительный
семантический компонент, который, хотя и является очень
абстрактным, может рассматриваться как лексический
компонент значения части речи. Например, значение
вещности или субстантивности можно найти во всех
существительных, например, стол, любовь, сахар, хотя они
имеют разное грамматическое значение числа и падежа.
Грамматический аспект значения части речи передается, как
правило, набором форм. Если мы описываем это слово как
существительное, то имеем в виду, что оно обязательно
должно обладать набором форм, выражающих
грамматическое значение числа (table -таблицы) и падежа
(boy - мальчик). Значение части речи у слов, имеющих только
одну форму (предлоги, некоторые наречия), проявляется
только в их распределении (входить (сюда, туда); в (на, под)
столом.

№5
Perfect:
Denotational & connotational aspects: complete and correct in every way, of
the best possible type or without fault.
Components of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning which specify the
difference between the words: evaluation (positive)
Flawless:
Denotational & connotational aspects: perfect or without mistakes.
Components of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning which specify the
difference between the words: evaluation (negative), intensity.

№7
Picture – photograph
Picture:
Register of communication: neutral;
Participants of the communicative situation: friends or well-known people.
Roles which tenors of discourse are based on: social roles.
Photograph:
Register of communication: formal;
Participants of the communicative situation: exhibitions, people at exhibitions and
museums.
Roles which tenors of discourse are based on: social roles.

Pages 35-38
№3
A) Morphologically motivated words: driver, careless, singlehood, hand-made,
blue-eyed, streamlet.
B) Semantically motivated words: leg, horse, wall, piggish, sound bite, leaflet.

№4
4)The wing of a bird – the wing of a building.
The kind association involved in the semantic change in the words ‘wing’ – the foot
is metaphor, since this word is used figuratively.
6) copper (metal)—crown (coin)
The kind association involved in the semantic change in the words ‘copper’ – copper
is known as metonymy or the contiguity of meaning.
7) the heart of a man— the heart of a city
The kind association involved in the semantic change in the words ‘heart’ – the
heart is metaphor, since this word is used figuratively.

№5
6) rugh: 'rough woolen stuff'—' a small carpet'
The result of the change of the denotational aspect of lexical meaning of the word
‘rugh’ is that the meaning of the word became restricted and more specialized in
meaning (restricted, specialization).
1) camp:' a place where troops are lodged in tents? — ' a place where people
live in tents or hunts
The result of the change of the denotational aspect of lexical meaning of the word
‘camp’ is that the meaning of the word became extended and more generalized in
meaning (extension meaning, generalization)
5) deer: 'any quadruped (четвероногое животное)' — ‘a hoofed grazing or
browsing animal, with branched bony antlers that are shed annually and typically
borne only by the male’
The result of the change of the denotational aspect of lexical meaning of the word
‘rugh’ is that the meaning of the word became restricted and more specialized in
meaning (restricted, specialization).

№6
 3) fond: 'foolish, infatuated (lost his mind) - 'loving, affectionate'
The result of the change of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning of
the word ‘fond’ is that the word has the improvement of the connotational
component of meaning (amelioration of meaning).
8) enthusiasm: 'a prophetic or poetic frenzy (безумие, бешенство)’ -
'intense and eager enjoyment, interest, or approval'
The result of the change of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning of
the word ‘enthusiasm’ is that the word has the improvement of the
connotational component of meaning (amelioration of meaning).
10) gossip: 'a godparent, a person related to one in God’ - 'the one who
talks scandal; tells
slanderous stories about other people'.
The result of the change of the connotational aspect of lexical
meaning of the word ‘gossip’ is that the word acquired а derogatory
emotive charge (deterioration of meaning).
№9
1) likely—'probable' (XIII c.)
In modern English the central meaning is 'probable". Thus, in the present-day
language the primary meaning of the word likely remains central.
2) revolution- ‘moving of a celestial body in an orbit' (XVI c.)
In modern English the central meaning is ‘a change in the way
a country is governed, usually to a different political system and often
using violence or war’. Thus, in the present-day language the primary meaning of
the word revolution is no longer central, it has gained secondary importance. (it has
become a marginal meaning)

№10
1) Homonyms proper:
Seal(n) Seal(n)
a large mammal that eats fish and live an official mark on a document,
s partly in sometimes made with wax,
the sea and partly on land or ice that shows that it is legal or has
been officially approved

Band(n) Band(n)
a group of musicians a thin, flat piece of cloth, elastic,
metal, or other material put
around something, or
a long, narrow piece of colour, ligh
t, etc. that is different from
what surrounds it
Base(n) Base(v)
the bottom part of an object, on which to make something, especially a
it rests, or the lowest part of building or something large
something
Fall(n) Fall(v)
to suddenly go down onto to come down onto the ground or
the ground or towards from a high position to a lower
the ground without intending to or position
by accident
Corn(n) Corn(n)
(the seeds of) plants, such a small, painful area of
as wheat, maize, oats, and barley, that hard skin that forms on
can be used to produce flour the foot, especially on the toes

2) Homophones:
 Made(adj) [meɪd] Maid(n) [meɪd]
made in a particular country or type a female servant, especially in a
of place large house or hotel
Week(n) [wi:k] Weak(adj) [wi:k]
A period of seven days not physically strong
Bread(n) [bred] Bred(adj) [bred]
a type of food made from flour and reared in a specified environment or
water that is mixed together and way
then baked
Sum(n) [sʌm] Some(pron) [sʌm]
an amount of money an amount or number of something
that is not stated or not known
Hare(n) [heə] Hair(n) [heə]
an animal like a large rabbit that the mass of thin thread-like
can run very fast and has long ears structures on the head of a person,
or any of these structures that grow
out of the skin of a person or animal:

3) Homographs:
Row(n) rəʊ Row(n) raʊ
a line of things, people, animals, a noisy argument or fight
etc. arranged next to each other
Tear(v) teə Tear(n) tɪə
to damage something a drop of salty liquid that comes out
of your eye when you are crying
Wind(n) [wind] Wind(n) [waind]
moving air, especially when it moving air, especially when it moves
moves strongly or quickly in strongly or quickly in a current
a current
Desert(v) dɪˈzɜːt Desert(n) dezət
to leave a place so that it is a large area of land where it is
completely empty always very dry, there are few
plants, and there is a lot
of sand or rocks
Sewer(n) səʊə Sewer(n) sjuːə
A person that sews a large pipe, usually underground,
that is used for carrying waste water
and human waste away
from buildings to a place where they
can be safely got rid of

Pages 47-51
№2
Vehicle

three-way

lorry bus motorcycle car bicycle train

heavy lorry
three-way
estate car three-door-hatchback cabriolet
light lorry dump truck

dump truck
 Animal

Mammal Reptilie

Seal
Turtle
Fox
Lizard
Wolf
Snake
Bear
Iguana
Squirrel
Feline

Tiger
Leopard
Panther

№6
Information (facts about a situation, person, event, etc.) – data (information in an electronic form
that can be stored and used by a computer) The connotational and the pragmatic aspects are
similar, but there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words.
(ideographic synonyms)
Associate (a person who is often in one's company, usually because of some work or pursuit in
common) – pal (a close friend) The connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there
are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words. (ideographic
synonyms) These are synonyms which differ both in the denotational and the connotational and
the pragmatic aspects of meaning. (ideographic-stylistic synonyms)
Infectious ((of a disease) able to be passed from one person, animal, or plant to another trough
the environment) – contagious (a contagious disease can be caught by touching someone who
has the disease or by touching an infected object, or by an infected person coughing, sneezing
near you) The connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are certain
differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words. (ideographic synonyms)
To ask (to put a question to someone) – to interrogate (to ask someone a lot of questions for a
long time in order to get information, sometimes using threats or violence). These are synonyms
which differ both in the denotational and the connotational and the pragmatic aspects of
meaning. (ideographic-stylistic synonyms)
To meet – to encounter (to come together with someone without intending to) Stylistic synonyms
are similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the pragmatic (and
connotational) aspect. (stylistic synonyms)
To reckon (to calculate an amount) – to estimate (to guess or roughly calculate the cost, size,
value, etc. of something). These are synonyms which differ both in the denotational and the
connotational and the pragmatic aspects of meaning. (ideographic-stylistic synonyms)
Mum – mother (a female parent) Stylistic synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of
meaning, but different in the pragmatic (and connotational) aspect. (stylistic synonyms)
Faculty (a natural ability to hear, see, think, move, etc.) – talent (a natural skill or ability to be
good at something, especially without being taught) The connotational and the pragmatic aspects
are similar, but there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words.
(ideographic synonyms)
To foretell – to predict (to say what is going to happen in the future) Stylistic synonyms are
similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the pragmatic (and connotational)
aspect. (stylistic synonyms)
To walk (to move along by putting one foot in front of the other, allowing each foot to touch the
ground before lifting the next) – to promenade (to walk slowly along a road or path for pleasure).
The connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are certain differences in the
denotational aspect of meaning of two words. (ideographic synonyms) These are synonyms
which differ both in the denotational and the connotational and the pragmatic aspects of
meaning. (ideographic-stylistic synonyms)
Blemish (a mark on something that spoils its appearance) – flaw (a fault, mistake, or weakness,
especially one that happens while something is being planned or made, or that causes something
not to be perfect) The connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are certain
differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words. (ideographic synonyms)
Heaven – sky (the area above the earth, in which clouds, the sun, etc. can be seen) Stylistic
synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the pragmatic (and
connotational) aspect. (stylistic synonyms)
Intelligent (showing intelligence, or able to learn and understand things easily) – smart
(intelligent, or able to think quickly or intelligently in difficult situations). The connotational and
the pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of
meaning of two words. (ideographic synonyms) These are synonyms which differ both in the
denotational and the connotational and the pragmatic aspects of meaning. (ideographic-stylistic
synonyms)
Affair – business (a person’s concern or responsibility) Stylistic synonyms are similar in the
denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the pragmatic (and connotational) aspect.
(stylistic synonyms)

Taking into account the difference of synonyms by the three aspects of their
meaning they may be classified into stylistic, ideographic and ideographic-
stylistic synonyms.

Stylistic synonymy implies no interchangeability in context because he

underlying situations are different, e.g. children - infants, dad - father. Stylistic
synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the
pragmatic (and connotational) aspect. Substituting one stylistic synonym for
another results in an inadequate presentation of the situation of communication.

Ideographic synonymy presents a still lower degree of semantic proximity and is

observed when the connotational and the pragmatic aspects are similar, but
there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning of two words,
e.g. forest-wood, apartment-flat, shape - form. Though ideographic synonyms
correspond to one and the same referential area, i.e. denote the same thing or a
set of closely related things, they are different in the denotational aspect of their
meanings and their interchange would result in a slight change of the phrase
they are used in.

Ideographic-stylistic synonymy is characterized by the lowest degree of

semantic proximity. This type of synonyms includes synonyms which differ both
in the denotational and the connotational and/or the pragmatic aspects of
meaning, e.g. ask-inquire, expect-anticipate. If the synonyms in question have
the same patterns of grammatical and lexical valency, they can still hardly be
considered interchangeable in context.

Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is

the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all
the other members of the synonymic group. In the series leave -depart-quit-retire-
clear out the verb leave, being general and both stylistically and emotionally
neutral, can stand for each of the other four terms. The other four can replace leave
only when some specific semantic component prevails over the general notion. For
example, when it is necessary to stress the idea of giving up employment and
stopping work quit is preferable because in this word this particular notion
dominates over the more general idea common to the whole group.

Стилистическая синонимия не подразумевает взаимозаменяемости в контексте, поскольку

основные ситуации различны, например, дети - младенцы, папа - отчим. Стилистические
синонимы схожи в денотационном аспекте значения, но различаются в прагматическом (и
коннотационном) аспекте. Замена одного стилистического синонима другим приводит к
неадекватному представлению ситуации общения.

Идеографическая синонимия представляет собой еще более низкую степень

семантической близости и наблюдается тогда, когда коннотационный и прагматический
аспекты схожи, но существуют определенные различия в денотационном аспекте
значения двух слов, например, forest - лес, apartment - квартира, shape - форма. Хотя
идеографические синонимы соответствуют одной и той же референтной области, т.е.
обозначают одну и ту же вещь или набор тесно связанных вещей, они различаются в
денотационном аспекте своих значений, и их замена привела бы к небольшому изменению
фразы, в которой они используются.

Идеографо-стилистическая синонимия характеризуется наименьшей степенью

семантической близости. К этому типу синонимов относятся синонимы, которые
различаются как в денотативном, так и в коннотативном и/или прагматическом аспектах
значения, например, ask- спрашивать, expect - ожидать. Если рассматриваемые синонимы
имеют одинаковую грамматическую и лексическую валентность, их все равно вряд ли
можно считать взаимозаменяемыми в контексте.
Каждая синонимическая группа содержит доминирующий элемент. Эта синонимическая
доминанта является наиболее общим термином, потенциально содержащим
специфические признаки, присущие всем остальным членам синонимической группы. В
словосочетаниях leave -удаляться-quit-retirement-clear out глагол leave, являясь общим и
стилистически и эмоционально нейтральным, может заменять каждый из четырех других
терминов. Остальные четыре могут заменить слово leave только в том случае, если какой-
то конкретный семантический компонент преобладает над общим понятием. Например,
когда необходимо подчеркнуть идею увольнения с работы и прекращения трудовой
деятельности, предпочтительнее бросить курить, потому что в этом слове это конкретное
понятие доминирует над более общей идеей, присущей всей группе.

№7
To cry; to think; to look; strange; fear; angry; to shine.
№9
Lexico-semantic groups:
1) 'education’: book, classmate, college, day-student, exercise, reader, knowledge, tuition,
course; intelligent, pedagogical, disciplined, methodological: to teach, to coach, to repeat a year,
to write, to supervise, to develop habits, to smatter of (in);
2) 'feeling': indifference, affection, hatred, passion, satisfaction, jealousy, unrest, shock;
displeased, frustrated, in a temper, calm (adj), wrathful, happy, angry; to bear malice, to adore, to
infuriate, to hurt.
Semantic fields:
1) 'education": book, to teach, intelligent, classmate, to coach, pedagogical, college, day-student,
to repeat a year, exercise, reader, to write, knowledge, tuition, course, to supervise, disciplined,
to develop habits, methodological, to smatter of (in);
2) 'feeling": to bear malice, displeased, indifference, to adore, affection, frustrated, hatred, in a
temper, passion, calm (adj), satisfaction, wrathful, jealousy, to infuriate, happy, unrest, shock, to
hurt, angry.

№10
a) Antonyms of the same root:
happy - unhappy, careful – careless, obedience - disobedience, regular - irregular, polite -
impolite, artistic - inartistic, appear - disappear, prewar - postwar, logical - illogical,
known - unknown;
b) Antonyms of different roots:
dwarf - gigantic, criticism - praise, above - below, asleep - awake, back - forth, triumph -
disaster, hope - despair, far - near, love - hate.

№11
Contradictories:
● Poetry – prose
● Man – woman
● Teacher – pupil
● To accept – to reject
● Clever – stupid
● Creditor – debtor
● Boy – man
● Inside – outside
● Open – shut
● Evil – good
Contraries:
● Old – young (middle, aged)
● Beautiful – ugly (pretty, lovely, scary)
● To adore – to loathe (to like, to dislike, to hate)
● Tremendous – tiny (big, small)
● Immaculate – filthy (impeccable, clean, dirty)
● Arid – awash (dry, wet)
● Boy – man (young man, grown man)
● Open – shut (semi-open, semi-shut)
Incompatibles:
● Inch – foot (not centimeter, not hand)
● Monday – Sunday (not Tuesday, not Saturday)
● One – thousand (not three, not five, not hundred)
● Iron – cupper (not gold, not platinum, not steel)
● Round – square (not triangular, not rectangular)
● Day – night (not morning, not evening)
● Red – brown (not yellow, not gray)
● November – March (not December, not September)

1.Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs
like, for example, dead - alive, single - married. Contradictory antonyms are
mutually opposed, they deny one another Contradictories form a privative binary
opposition, they are members of two-term sets. To use one of the words is to
contradict the other and to use 'not' before one of them is to make it semantically
equivalent to the other: not dead = alive, not single =married.

2. Contraries are antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the
increasing difference in one of their qualities. The most distant elements of this
series will be classified as contrary notions. Contraries are gradable antonyms, they
are polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediate elements.
This may be observed in cold—hot and cold-warm which are intermediate members
Thus, we may regard as antonyms not only cold and hot but also cold and warm.
Contrary antonyms may also be considered in terms of degrees of the quality
involved. Thus, water may be cold or very cold, and water in one glass may be
colder than in another glass.

3. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of

exclusion. Semantic relations of incompatibility exist among antonyms with a
common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy.
For example, to say morning is to say nor afternoon, not evening, not night. The use
of one member of this set implies the exclusion of the other members of the set,
Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are members of the
multiple-term sets while contradictories are members of two-term sets A relation of
incompatibility may be also observed between colour terms since the choice of red,
for example, entails the exclusion of black, blue. yellow, etc.

Какие семантические типы антонимов вы знаете?

Семантически антонимы можно разделить на противоречивые.
противоположные и несовместимые.

1.Противоречия представляют собой тип семантических отношений, которые

существуют между парами, такими как, например, мертвый - живой, холостой
- женатый. Противоречивые антонимы противопоставлены друг другу, они
отрицают друг друга. Противоречия образуют привативную бинарную
оппозицию, они являются членами двухчленных множеств. Использовать одно
из слов - значит противоречить другому, а использовать "не" перед одним из
них - значит сделать его семантически эквивалентным другому: не мертв =
жив, не холост = женат.

2. Противоположности - это антонимы, которые можно расположить в ряд в

соответствии с возрастающей разницей в одном из их качеств. Наиболее
удаленные элементы этого ряда будут классифицированы как
противоположные понятия. Противоположности - это градуируемые
антонимы, полярные члены постепенного противопоставления, которые могут
иметь промежуточные элементы. Это можно наблюдать в словах холодный—
горячий и холодный-теплый, которые являются промежуточными членами,
таким образом, мы можем рассматривать как антонимы не только холодный и
горячий, но также холодный и теплый. Противоположные антонимы также
могут рассматриваться с точки зрения степени их качества. Таким образом,
вода может быть холодной или очень холодной, и вода в одном стакане
может быть холоднее, чем в другом.

3. Несовместимые - это антонимы, которые характеризуются отношениями

исключения. Семантические отношения несовместимости существуют между
антонимами с общим компонентом значения и могут быть описаны как
обратная сторона гипонимии. Например, сказать "утро" - значит не сказать
"день", "вечер", "ночь". Использование одного элемента этого набора
подразумевает исключение других элементов набора, несовместимые
элементы отличаются от противоречивых, поскольку несовместимые
элементы являются членами многозначных наборов, в то время как
противоречивые элементы являются членами двухчленных наборов.
Отношение несовместимости может также наблюдаться между цветовыми
терминами, поскольку выбор красного, например например, влечет за собой
исключение черного, синего цветов. желтый и т.д.

Pages 58-61
№1
Beggarly:
a) Semantically beg(g) is a root-morpheme; -ar and -ly are affixes.
b) Structurally beg(g) is a free morpheme; -ar and -ly are bound morphemes.
Postman:
a) Semantically post- is a root-morpheme; -man is an affix.
b) Structurally post- is a free morpheme; -man is a bound (semi-bound) morpheme.
Shorten:
a) Semantically short- is a root-morpheme; -en is an affix.
b) Structurally short- is a free morpheme; -en is a bound morpheme.
Destabilize:
a) Semantically de- is an affix, -stabil- is a root-morpheme; -ize is an affix.
b) Structurally de- is a bound morpheme, -stabil- is a free morpheme; -ize is a bound
morpheme.
Sympathy:
a) Semantically sym- is an affix, -pathy is a root-morpheme (a combining form).
b) Structurally sym- is a bound morpheme; -pathy is a free morpheme (a bound root
morpheme).
Fruitfulness:
a) Semantically fruit- is a root-morpheme; -full- is an affix, -ness is an affix.
b) Structurally fruit- is a free morpheme; -full- is a bound morpheme, -ness is a bound
morpheme.
Maltreatment:
a) Semantically mal- is an affix (a combining form); -treat- is a root-morpheme; -ment is an
affix.
b) Structurally mal- is a bound (root) morpheme; -treat- is a free morpheme; -ment is a
bound morpheme.
Disaffected:
a) Semantically dis- is an affix; -affect- is a root-morpheme; -ed is an affix.
b) Structurally dis- is a bound morpheme; -affect- is a free morpheme; -ed is a bound
morpheme.
Overrule:
a) Semantically over- is an affix; -rule is a root-morpheme;
b) Structurally over- is a semi-bound morpheme; -rule is a free morpheme.
Photographic:
a) Semantically photo- is a combining form; -graph- is a root-morpheme (a combining
form); -ic is an affix.
b) Structurally photo- is a bound root morpheme; -graph- is a free morpheme (a bound root
morpheme); -ic is a bound morpheme.
Half-eaten:
a) Semantically half- is an affix; -eat- is a root-morpheme; -en is an affix.
b) Structurally half- is a semi-bound morpheme; -eat- is a free morpheme; -en is a bound
morpheme.
Theory:
 a) Semantically theor- is a root-morpheme (a pseudo-root-morpheme); -y is an affix.
b) Structurally theor- is a free morpheme (a bound morpheme); -y is a bound morpheme.
Rent-free:
a) Semantically rent- is a root-morpheme; -free is a root-morpheme.
b) Structurally rent- is a free morpheme; -free is a free morpheme.

What structural types of morphemes can be singled out? Characterize

each type.
Structurally morphemes fall into three types: 1) free morphemes: 2) bound
morphemes; 3) semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes.
A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. For
example, the root-morpheme friend- of the noun friendship is naturally qualified as
a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the word friend.

A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part o a word Affixes are bound
morphemes for, they always make part of a word. For example. the suffixes -ness, -
ship, -ize in the words darkness, friendship, to activize; the prefixes im-, dis-, de- in
the words impolite to disregard, to demobilize.
Some root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes. These are, as
a rule, roots which are found in quite a limited number of words and never
independently or pseudo-roots, i.e. root-morphemes which have lost most of the
properties of "full" roots. Such are the root morphemes goose- in gooseberry, -ceive
in conceive. Combining forms, i.e. morphemes borrowed namely from Greek or
Latin in which they existed as free forms, are considered to be bound roots. For
example. the word tele-phone consists of two bound roots, whereas the word cycl-ic
- of a bound root and an affix

Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are morphemes that can function in a

morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the
morphemes well and half on the one hand occur as free morphemes that coincide
with the stem and the word-form in the utterances to sleep well, half an hour, on
the other hand well and half occur as bound morphemes in the words well-known,
half done.

Какие структурные типы морфем можно выделить? Охарактеризуйте каждый

тип.
Структурно морфемы делятся на три типа: 1) свободные морфемы; 2)
связанные морфемы; 3) полусвязанные (полусвободные) морфемы.
Свободная морфема определяется как такая, которая совпадает с основой или
словоформой. Например, корень -морфема friend - существительного friendship
естественным образом квалифицируется как свободная морфема, поскольку
он совпадает с одной из форм слова friend.

Связанная морфема встречается только как составная часть слова, аффиксы -

это связанные морфемы, они всегда являются частью слова. Например.
суффиксы -ness, -ship, -ize используются в словах "темнота", "дружба",
"активизировать"; приставки im-, dis-, de- в словах "невежливо",
"игнорировать", "демобилизовать".
Некоторые корневые морфемы также относятся к классу связанных морфем.
Это, как правило, корни, которые встречаются в довольно ограниченном
количестве слов и никогда не встречаются самостоятельно, или псевдокорни,
т.е. корневые морфемы, утратившие большую часть свойств "полных" корней.
Таковы корневые морфемы goose- в крыжовнике, -ceive - в зачатии.
Сочетающиеся формы, т.е. морфемы, заимствованные именно из греческого
или латинского языков, в которых они существовали как свободные формы,
считаются связанными корнями. Например. слово tele-телефон состоит из
двух связанных корней, тогда как слово cyclic - из связанного корня и
аффикса

Полусвязанные (полусвободные) морфемы - это морфемы, которые могут

функционировать в морфемной последовательности как в качестве аффикса,
так и в качестве свободной морфемы. Например, морфемы well и half, с одной
стороны, встречаются как свободные морфемы, совпадающие с основой и
словоформой, в высказываниях to sleep well, half an hour, с другой стороны,
well и half встречаются как связанные морфемы в словах well-known, half done.

№4
1) The morphemes note-, copy-, exercise-, text- possess the differential meaning as each of
them may serve to distinguish the word it forms from the other words in the given set.
2) The morphemes -roads, -legged, -wind, -current possess the differential meaning as each
of them may serve to distinguish the word it forms from the other words in the given set.
3) The morphemes city-, hospital-, ocean-, foreign- possess the differential meaning as each
of them may serve to distinguish the word it forms from the other words in the given set.
4) The morphemes -foot, -head, -part, -ground possess the differential meaning as each of
them may serve to distinguish the word it forms from the other words in the given set.
5) The morphemes rasp-, elder-, straw-, cran- possess the differential meaning as each of
them may serve to distinguish the word it forms from the other words in the given set.

№5
Nouns: suitabil(-ity), combina(-tion), boy(-hood), bureaucra(-cy), break(-age);
Verbs: (be-)friend, hospital(-ize), (en-)large, clari(-fy), weak(-en);
Adjectives: hat(-less), congratulat(-ory), space(-ous), quarrel(-some), drink(-able);
Adverbs: according(-ly), side(-ways), north(-wards).

№6
The word house is monomorphic. The word cry is monomorphic. The word disappointment
is polymorphic, monoradical, prefixo-radical-suffixal. The word book-keeper is
polymorphic, polyradical. The word mistrust is polymorphic, monoradical, radical-prefixal.

№7
Complete segmentability: nameless, feminist, overload, under-estimate, amoral, unfriendly,
carefulness.
Conditional segmentability: perceive, discuss, contain, proceed, pretend, assist, obsess,
attract.
Defective segmentability: hostage, fraction, pocket, pioneer, athlete, mirror, gooseberry,
manic, attract, budget.

№8
independence:
1) in- (inactive, informal) (IC/UC) + -dependence (IC):
2) depend- (IC/UC) + -ence (presence, residence) (IC/UC).
The word consists of three UCs.
beautifulness:
1) beautiful- (IC) + -ness (kindness, darkness) (IC/UC):
2) beauty- (IC/UC) + -ful (joyful, graceful) (IC/UC).
The word consists of three UCs.
unforgettable:
 1) un- (unfair, unknown) (IC/UC) + -forgettable (IC);
2) forget - (IC/UC) + -able (declarable, creatable) (IC/UC).
The word consists of three UCs.
ultra-creative:
1) ultra- (ultra-high, ultramodern) (IC/UC) + -creative (IC):
2) creat(e)- (IC/UC) + -ive (constructive, collective) (IC/UC).
The word consists of three UCs.
spotlessness:
1) spotless- (IC) + -ness (happiness, sadness) (IC/UC):
2) spot - (IC/UC) + -less (homeless, fearless) (IC/UC).
The word consists of three UCs.

Pages 67-69
№1
Insensible – in + -sensible (a prefixal derivative); discouragement – discourage + -ment
(a suffixal derivative); unwomanly – un + -womanly (a prefixal derivative); impassioned
– impassion + -ed (a suffixal derivative); befriended – befriend + -ed (a suffixal
derivative).
№2
a) bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees of complexity:
illiterateness, friendliness, impossible, landlordism, brainless, broaden, livelihood,
acceptability, unimportance, familiarity, weekender;
b) bases that coincide with word-forms: unprotected, three-cornered, green-eyed, pains-
taking, understandingly, weather-beaten, long-legged, heart-breaking, seemingly,
uninspiring, laughingly, unimportance, unnamed, snow-covered, long-running;
c) bases that coincide with word-groups: waterskier, brainstruster, three-cornered,
allrightnik, green-eyed, absent-minded, long-legged, freestyler, back-bencher, do-
goodism, do-it-yourselfer, one-sided, allatonceness, whitefeathery, idletalker.

Structurally derivational bases fall into three groups:

1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems, e.g. dutiful, dutifully; to day-
dream, daydreamer;
Stems that serve as this class of bases may be of different derivational types thus
forming derivational bases of different degrees of complexity:
a) simple stems, which consist of only one, semantically non motivated
constituent, e.g. pocket, motion, retain;
b) derived stems, which are semantically and structurally motivated. They are as a
rule binary (made up of two ICs), e.g. girlish, girlishness. The derived stem of the
word girlish is girl, whereas the derived stem of the word girlishness – girlish-;
c) compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated. but unlike the
derived stems both ICs of compound stems are stems themselves, e.g. match-box
(two simple stems), letter-writer (one simple and one derived stem) aircraft-carrier
(a compound and derived stem).

2. Bases that coincide with word-forms, e.g. unsmiling, paper-bound. This class of
bases is represented by verbal word-forms - the present and the past participles.
The collocability of this class of derivational bases is confined to: 1) a few
derivational affixes such as the prefix un- and the suffix -ly, e.g. unnamed,
unknown; smilingly, knowingly; 2) other bases which coincide only with nominal and
adjectival stems, e.g. mocking-bird, dancing-girl, ice-bound, easy going.

3. Bases that coincide with word-groups, e.g. flat-waisted, second-rateness. Bases

of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability. They are mostly combined
with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns: blue-eyed, long-
fingered, old-worldish. Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of
bases.

К каким структурным классам относятся словообразовательные основы?

Структурно словообразовательные основы делятся на три группы:
1. Основы, совпадающие с морфологическими основами, например, dutiful,
покорный долгу; to day-мечтать, мечтатель;
Основы, которые служат в качестве этого класса основ, могут быть разных
словообразовательных типов, образуя таким образом словообразовательные
основы разной степени сложности:
а) простые основы, которые состоят только из одного семантически
немотивированного компонента, например, карман, движение, удержание;
б) производные основы, которые семантически и структурно мотивированы.
Они, как правило, бинарны (состоят из двух словосочетаний), например,
девичий, girlishness. Производная основа слова girlish – это девушка, в то
время как производная основа слова girlishness - девичья-;
в) составные основы всегда бинарны и семантически мотивированы. но в
отличие от производных основ, обе части сложных основ сами по себе
являются основами, например, спичечный коробок (две простые основы),
автор писем (одна простая и одна производная основа), авианосец (сложная и
производная основа).

2. Основы, совпадающие со словоформами, например, неулыбчивый, в

бумажном переплете. Этот класс основ представлен отглагольными
словоформами - причастиями настоящего и прошедшего времени.
Сочетаемость этого класса словообразовательных основ ограничивается: 1)
несколькими словообразовательными аффиксами, такими как префикс не- и
суффикс -ли, например, безымянный, неизвестный; улыбающийся,
понимающий; 2) другими основами, которые совпадают только с именными и
прилагательными основами, например, пересмешник, танцовщица Скованный
льдом, спокойный на подъем.

3. Основы, которые совпадают с группами слов, например, с плоской талией,

второсортность. Основы этого класса допускают довольно ограниченный
диапазон сочетаемости. В основном они сочетаются с деривационными
аффиксами в классе прилагательных и существительных: голубоглазый,
длиннопалый, старосветский. Свободные группы слов составляют большую
часть этого класса основ.

№4
The structural formula of the word to paper: n V The given word is a conversion word.

The structural formula of the word speechless: n + -sf A The given word is a suffixal derivative word.

The structural formula of the word pen-holder: n + (v + -sf) N The given word is a compound word.

The structural formula of the word irreplaceable: prf- + (n + -sf) A The given word is a prefixal deriva

The structural formula of the word nothingness: pn + -sf N The given word is a suffixal derivative wo

The structural formula of the word to winter: n V The given word is a conversion word.

The structural formula of the word age-long: n + a A The given word is a compound word.
 The structural formula of the word fearsomely: (n + -sf) + -sf D The given word is a suffixal derivativ

The structural formula of the word sharpen: a + -sf V The given word is a suffixal derivative word.
The structural formula of the word wind-driven: n + Ven
A The given word is a compound word.

The structural formula of the word independence: prf- + (v + -sf) N The given word is a prefixal deriva

The structural formula of the word ex-housewife: prf- + (n + n) N The given word is a prefixal derivat
№5
Yearly: n + -ly D. The DP signals a set of adverbs with the lexical meaning of 'frequency':

engineer: n + -eer N. The DP signals a set of nouns with the lexical meaning of ‘occupation’;

diseased: n+ -ed A. The DP signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning 'affected by':

completion: v+ -ion N. The DP signals a set of nouns with the lexical meaning of "a process";

incurable: in- + (v + -able) A. The DP signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of ‘impossib

№6

1) Londoner, villager, New Yorker, towner: n + -er N. In the DP the nominal bases are confined to nouns

2) tallish, thinnish, biggish, longish, lowish: a + -ish A. In the DP the adjectival bases are confined to adje

3) lungful, armful, mouthful, handful: n + -ful N. In the DP the nominal bases are confined to nouns deno

4) savagery, foolery, snobbery, roguery: n+ -ery N. In the DP the nominal bases are confined to nouns den

5) decency, complacency, obstinacy, hesitancy: a + -cy N. In the DP the adjectival bases are confined to a

Part 3
№1
Analyze the words into their ICs and UCs:

The procedure generally employed for the purposes of segmenting words into the
constituent morphemes is known as the method of Immediate and Ultimate
Constituents.
This method is based on a binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves
two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two
components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents (конституэнс) (ICs).
Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in its turn broken into smaller meaningful
elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of
further division, i.e. morphemes. These morphemes are referred to as the Ultimate
Constituents (UCs) For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs
1) friendly- (recurring in the adjectives friendly and friendly-looking and 2) -ness
(found in a countless number of nouns, e.g. happiness. darkness). The IC -ness is at
the same time a UC of the noun, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements
possessing both sound-form and meaning. The IC friendly-is next broken into the ICs
1) friend- (recurring in friendship, unfriendly) and 2)-ly (recurring in wifely,
brotherly). The ICs friend- and -ly are both UCs of the word under analysis.

Процедура, обычно используемая для разделения слов на составляющие их

морфемы, известна как метод непосредственных и конечных составляющих.
Этот метод основан на бинарном принципе, т.е. каждый этап процедуры
включает в себя два компонента, на которые непосредственно распадается
слово. На каждом этапе эти два компонента называются непосредственными
составляющими (ICS). Каждая ИК на следующем этапе анализа, в свою
очередь, разбивается на более мелкие значимые элементы. Анализ
завершается, когда мы получаем составляющие, не поддающиеся
дальнейшему разделению, то есть морфемы. Эти морфемы называются
конечными составляющими (ПСК). Например, существительное дружелюбие
сначала подразделяется на 1) friendly- (встречается в прилагательных
дружелюбный и дружелюбно выглядящий) и 2) -ness (встречается в
бесчисленном количестве существительных, например, счастье. темнота). В
то же время IC -ness является частью существительного, поскольку его нельзя
разбить на какие-либо более мелкие элементы, обладающие как звуковой
формой, так и значением. IC friendly- далее подразделяется на ICS 1)
дружеский (повторяющийся в дружеских, недружелюбных отношениях) и 2)-ly
(повторяющийся в супружеских, братских отношениях). ICs friendly - это оба
ПСК анализируемого слова.

Disinterestedness:
1) Disinterested- (IC) + -ness (darkness, weakness) (IC/UC)
2) Dis- (disaffect, disagree) (IC/UC) + -interested (IC)
3) interest- (IC/UC) + -ed (excited, fascinated) (IC/UC)
The word consists of four UCs.

Unimaginable:
1) Un- (unfriendly, unsuccessful) (IC/UC) + -imaginable (IC)
2) Imagin- (IC) + -able (remarkable, forgettable) (IC/UC)
3) Imag- (IC/UC) + -in (IC/UC)
The word consists of four UCs.

№2
State the cause, the nature and the result of the changes in meaning of the words in the following
sentences: A spaceship sails; I have never read Balzac in the original.
 1) Sails: the cause - extra-linguistic (to be more exact????) (technological progress),
the nature – metaphor, the result – extension; 2) Balzac: the cause – ellipsis (the word
‘books’ is omitted), the nature – metonymy, the result – extension.

The extralinguistic context is the setting, time and place to which

the utterance refers (аттеренс рефёрс), as well as the facts of
reality, knowledge of which helps the receptor to correctly
interpret the meanings of linguistic units in the utterance. (In
order to correctly understand the phrase “The table is on the
wall”, it is enough to have basic knowledge that objects such as
tables are not hung (ханг) on walls, therefore, the noun table
must be translated as 'table'. Context is very important in
understanding what is being discussed)
Экстралингвистический контекст - это обстановка, время и
место, к которым относится высказывание, а также факты
действительности, знание которых помогает
воспринимающему правильно интерпретировать значения
языковых единиц в высказывании. (Чтобы правильно понять
фразу “Стол находится на стене”, достаточно обладать
базовыми знаниями о том, что такие предметы, как столы, не
вешаются на стены, поэтому существительное table следует
переводить как "стол". Контекст очень важен в понимании
того, о чем идет речь)

Some changes of meaning occur due to purely linguistic causes, i.e. factors
acting within the language system. The commonest form which this influence
takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these
is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. For example, the verb
to starve in Old English (OE) meant to die and was habitually used in
collocation with the word hunger. In the 16 th century the verb to starve itself
acquired the meaning 'to die of hunger’.

Некоторые изменения значения происходят из-за чисто

лингвистических причин, т.е. факторов, действующих в рамках
языковой системы. Наиболее распространенной формой, которую
принимает это влияние, является так называемое многоточие. Во фразе,
состоящей из двух слов, одно из них опускается, и его значение
передается его партнеру. Например, глагол to starve в
древнеанглийском (OE) означал "умирать" и обычно использовался в
сочетании со словом "голодать". В 16 веке сам глагол to starve приобрел
значение "умирать от голода’.

Contiguity of meanings or metonymy may be described as the semantic

process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or
is closely connected with it.
Смежность значений или метонимия может быть описана как
семантический процесс ассоциирования двух референтов, один из
которых является частью другого или тесно связан с ним.
 №3
Find the synonymic dominant in the following groups of synonyms:

cry – weep – scream – shriek;

agree - approve – consent.

What is a synonymic dominant?

This synonymic dominant is the most general term potential containing the specific features
rendered by all the other members of the synonymic group being general and both stylistically
and emotionally neutral

In the provided groups of synonyms:

1. cry – weep – scream – shriek: Synonymic dominant: cry
2. agree - approve – consent: Synonymic dominant: agree

№4
Classify the following antonyms :
man – woman; big – small; red – black
What is the difference?
a) The difference between contradictories synonyms and
contraries synonyms is that in the second case there is an
increasing degree, that is, words that may have intermediate
elements. In the first case, such words are used that do not have
any intermediate states.
b) Incompatibles differ from contradictories as incompatibles are
members of the multiple-term sets while contradictories are
members of two-term sets.

Разница между синонимами-контрадикторами и синонимами-

противоположностями заключается в том, что во втором
случае наблюдается возрастающая степень, то есть слова,
которые могут иметь промежуточные элементы. В первом
случае используются такие слова, которые не имеют
промежуточных состояний.
б) Несовместимые элементы отличаются от противоречивых,
поскольку несовместимые элементы являются членами
многозначных множеств, в то время как противоречивые
элементы являются членами двухчленных множеств.
 1. Man - woman: These are not contradictories; they're more accurately termed as
"complementary pairs" or "relational opposites" since they represent two sides of a binary
relationship. One concept cannot exist without the other in the context of gender.
2.Big - small: These are contraries, as they represent opposite ends of a spectrum or scale.
Something can be either big or small, but not both at the same time.

3.Red - black: These are incompatibles, meaning they are antonyms that cannot coexist in the
same context. For example, an object cannot be simultaneously both red and black.

№5
Classify the following antonyms:

Ball – ball (homonyms proper); air – heir (homophones); bow-bow (homographs)

Give your reasons!!!

1. Ball - ball: These are homonyms proper. They are spelled the same and pronounced the
same, but they have different meanings. In this case, "ball" can refer to a spherical object
used in various sports or games, while "ball" can also refer to a formal dance event.
2. Air - heir: These are homophones. They sound the same but have different meanings and
spellings. "Air" refers to the mixture of gases surrounding the Earth, while "heir" refers to
someone who inherits property, title, or rank.
3. Bow - bow: These are homographs. They are spelled the same but have different
meanings and may or may not be pronounced differently depending on the context.
"Bow" can refer to a gesture of respect or greeting, or to the front part of a ship. "Bow"
can also refer to a weapon used to shoot arrows or to play stringed instruments, such as a
violin.

№6
Give the generic terms for the following: wolf, dog, bulldog, collie, poodle (хайпероним)

Another type of semantic relations is the relationship of inclusion which exists

between two words if the meaning of one word contains the semantic features
constituting the meaning of the other word. The semantic relations of inclusion
are called hyponymic relations. Thus, for example, vehicle includes car, bus,
taxi, tram and flower includes daffodil, carnation, snowdrop, lily. The
hyponymic relation may be viewed as the hierarchical relationship between the
meanings of the general and the individual terms.
The general term - vehicle, tree, animal - is referred to as the classifier or the
hyperonym. The more specific term is called the hyponym (car, tram, oak, ash;
cat, tortoise). The more specific term (the hyponym) is included in the more
general term (the hyperonym), e.g the classifier move and the members of the
group - walk, run, saunter. The individual terms contain the meaning of the
general term in addition to their individual meanings which distinguish them
from each other.
 Другим типом семантических отношений является отношение включения,
которое существует между двумя словами, если значение одного слова
содержит семантические признаки, составляющие значение другого слова.
Семантические отношения включения называются гипонимическими
отношениями. Так, например, транспортное средство включает в себя
автомобиль, автобус, такси, трамвай, а цветок - нарцисс, гвоздику,
подснежник, лилию. Гипонимическую связь можно рассматривать как
иерархическую связь между значениями общего и индивидуального
терминов.
Общий термин - транспортное средство, дерево, животное - называется
классификатором или гиперонимом. Более конкретный термин называется
гипонимом (автомобиль, трамвай, дуб, ясень; кошка, черепаха). Более
конкретный термин (гипоним) включается в более общий термин
(гипероним), например, классификатор "двигаться", а члены группы -
"ходить", "бегать", "прогуливаться неспешной походкой". Отдельные
термины содержат значение общего термина в дополнение к их
индивидуальным значениям, которые отличают их друг от друга.

Canine (hyperonym)

Wolf (hyponym) Dog (hyponym)

Bulldog
Collie
wolf, dog, bulldog, collie, poodle – canine. Poodle

1. Wolf: Canine (or wild canine)

2. Dog: Domestic canine (or domestic dog)
3. Bulldog: Breed of dog
4. Collie: Breed of dog
5. Poodle: Breed of dog
So, the generic term for all of them would be "dog," but "canine" encompasses both wild and
domestic dogs.

№7
Define the shared meaning of the synonyms: firm, hard, solid; lucky, fortunate, happy (что
такое seme)

Not to the point!!! What is a seme?

Seme is a (differential) semantic feature, a component of meaning that is

revealed when comparing the meanings of different words. It is an
indispensable component of the lexical meaning. For example: the words good
and bad differ in terms of negation.
 Се́ма — дифференциальный семантический признак, компонент значения,
который выявляется при сопоставлении значений разных слов. Является
незаменимой составной частью лексического значения. Например: слова
хороший — нехороший различаются семой отрицания.

1. Firm, hard, solid: The seme here is "resistance to pressure or force." Each of these
words describes something that is not easily compressed or deformed.
2. Lucky, fortunate, happy: The seme here could be "favorable outcomes or
circumstances." Each of these words describes a state of positivity or favorable events
happening to a person.

№8
Explain the meaning of the derivatives: greyish adj.; girlish adj. (деривационная модель)

Give the derivational patterns of the words and explain, if the suffixes
are homonyms or lexico-semantic variants of the same suffix?

Both instances of "-ish" convey a sense of approximation or resemblance

(резембленс).
"Greyish" suggests something is close to but not entirely (энтайрели) grey,
while "girlish" implies characteristics similar to those associated with girls.
Thus, these suffixes (сафиксес) are lexico-semantic variants of the same
suffix.
Homonyms are words which identical in sound form, spelling but different in
meaning, distribution and in many cases in origin.

Оба варианта "-иш" передают ощущение приближения или сходства.

"Сероватый" предполагает, что что-то близко к серому, но не совсем, в
то время как "девичий" подразумевает характеристики, сходные с
теми, которые ассоциируются с девушками. Таким образом, эти
суффиксы являются лексико-семантическими вариантами одного и
того же суффикса.
Омонимы - это слова, которые идентичны по звуковой форме,
написанию, но различаются по значению, распространению и во
многих случаях по происхождению.

Derivatives are secondary motivated words made up of two immediate

constituents. The basic units are derivational basis, derivational affixes and
derivational patterns.
Derivatives can be of three types: suffixal, prefixal, conversion
Distinction between prefixal and suffixal derivatives: according to the last
stage of derivation.
The name, type and arrangement of immediate constituents of the words
are known as its derivative structure. It shows the hierarchy of morphemes
forming one and the same word.
A polysemantic word is used in one of its meanings, which is described as
a lexico-semantic variant.

Производные - это вторично мотивированные слова, состоящие из

двух непосредственных составляющих. Основными единицами
являются словообразовательная основа, словообразовательные
аффиксы и словообразовательные схемы.
Производные могут быть трех типов: суффиксальные,
префиксальные, конверсионные
Различие между префиксальными и суффиксальными производными
зависит от последней стадии словообразования.
Название, тип и расположение непосредственных составляющих
слова называются его производной структурой. Это показывает
иерархию морфем, образующих одно и то же слово.
Многозначное слово используется в одном из своих значений, которое
описывается как лексико-семантический вариант.

A derivational pattern (DP) is a regular meaningful arrangement,

a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of
the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.
DPs are studied with the help of distributional analysis at different
levels. Patterns are usually represented in terms of conventional
symbols: small letters v, n, a, d, num stand for the bases which
coincide with the stems of the respective parts of speech: verbs,
nouns, adjectives, adverbs. numerals; Ved Ving stand for the
bases which are the past and the present participles respectively.

Словообразовательный шаблон (ДП) - это регулярное значимое

расположение, структура, которая накладывает жесткие правила на
порядок и природу словообразовательных основ и аффиксов, которые
могут быть объединены. ДП изучаются с помощью дистрибутивного
анализа на разных уровнях. Паттерны обычно представлены в виде
условных обозначений: маленькие буквы v, n, a, d, num обозначают
основы, которые совпадают с основами соответствующих частей речи:
глаголов, существительных, прилагательных, наречий. числительные
Ved Ving обозначают основы, которые являются причастиями
прошедшего и настоящего времени соответственно.

Let's analyze the derivational patterns of the words "greyish" and "girlish" and discuss whether
the suffixes are homonyms or lexico-semantic variants:
 Greyish (adj.):
a + -ish → A The DP signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning
having a color between black and white"

 Derivational pattern: Adjective formation from a noun root "grey" with the suffix
"-ish".
 Explanation: The suffix "-ish" in "greyish" indicates a slight or partial
resemblance to the base noun "grey." It doesn't signify a decrease in quality but
rather a similarity in color to grey, but not fully or purely grey.
 Girlish (adj.):

n + -ish → A The DP signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning

"like a girl; of a girl"

 Derivational pattern: Adjective formation from a noun root "girl" with the suffix
"-ish".
 Explanation: Similar to "greyish," the suffix "-ish" in "girlish" indicates a
resemblance to the base noun "girl." It suggests characteristics or qualities
typically associated with girls, such as youthfulness, innocence, or femininity.

№9
Comment on the meanings of the words with the suffix -er: consumer n., greengrocer n.,
boiler n. (деривационная модель)
Give the derivational patterns of the words and explain, if the suffixes
are homonyms or lexico-semantic variants of the same suffix?
The suffixes are lexico-semantic variants. The "-er" suffixes exhibit
(экзибит) a clear semantic connection through the shared core meaning of
association with an action.
In the words "consumer" and "greengrocer" the "-er" suffix indicates the
agent or person performing the action of consuming or selling groceries
and in the word "boiler" the "-er" suffix refers to the instrument or object that
performs the action of boiling. Thus, these suffixes are lexico-semantic
variants.

Эти суффиксы являются лексико-семантическими вариантами.

Суффиксы "-er" демонстрируют (эkzibit) четкую семантическую связь
через общее основное значение ассоциации с действием.
В словах "потребитель" и "зеленщик" суффикс "-er" указывает на
агента или лицо, осуществляющее действие по потреблению или
продаже продуктов, а в слове "котел" суффикс "-er" относится к
инструменту или предмету, который выполняет действие по
кипячению. Таким образом, эти суффиксы являются лексико-
семантическими вариантами.
Let's analyze the derivational patterns of the words "consumer," "greengrocer," and "boiler" and
discuss whether the suffixes are homonyms or lexico-semantic variants:
1. Consumer (n.):

v + sf → N The suffix -er has the denotational meaning "the doer of the
action".

Derivational pattern: Noun formation from a verb root "consume" with the suffix
"-er."
 Explanation: The suffix "-er" in "consumer" indicates a person who performs the
action of consuming or using goods or services. It doesn't necessarily imply the
duration of the action but rather the role or function of the person in relation to
consumption.
2. Greengrocer (n.):

a + n + sf → N The given word is a suffixal derivative. The suffix -er

denotes a profession or occupation.

 Derivational pattern: Noun formation from a noun root "green" (indicating fresh
produce) and "grocer" (a seller of goods) with the suffix "-er."
 Explanation: In "greengrocer," the suffix "-er" indicates a person engaged in the
activity of selling fresh produce. It specifies the occupation or role of the
individual as a seller of fruits and vegetables.
3. Boiler (n.):

v + sf → N The "-er" suffix in this word does not denote a person but rather
the object itself.

 Derivational pattern: Noun formation from the verb root "boil" with the suffix "-
er."
 Explanation: The suffix "-er" in "boiler" doesn't indicate a person performing an
action but rather denotes an object or device that performs the action of boiling or
heating liquids or generating steam. In this case, it serves to create a noun
referring to a specific type of equipment or apparatus.
Regarding the suffix "-er," it serves different functions in each of these words. In "consumer"
and "greengrocer," the suffix "-er" denotes a person or agent involved in an activity or
occupation, while in "boiler," it signifies an object or device capable of performing a specific
action. Therefore, the suffix "-er" in these cases can be considered lexico-semantic variants of
the same suffix, as they share a common semantic role in forming nouns.

№10
Analyze the meanings of the prefixes in the following words:
to reconsider, prehistoric, overactive

Reconsider – the prefix re- indicates the repetition of an action.

Prehistoric – the prefix pre- is used when something happens before a certain event or action.
Overactive - the prefix over- is used when it comes to the excess or redundancy of something.
 №11
Give the derivational patterns of the following words: friendship, rewrite.

Friendship: n + -ship N. The given word is a suffixal derivative word. The DP signals a

Rewrite: re- + v V. The given word is a prefixal derivative word. The DP signals a set o

№12
Analyze the derivational structure of the words:
nothingness, non-acceptance, oil-rich, one-sided

1. Nothingness:
 Derivational structure: pn (pronoun) + sf (suffix) → N (noun).
 Explanation: The word "nothingness" consists of the pronoun "nothing" and the
suffix "-ness" added to form a noun indicating the state or quality of being
nothing.
2. Non-acceptance:
 Derivational structure: prf- + v + -sf (suffix) → N (noun).
 Explanation: The word "non-acceptance" is formed by combining the prefix
"non-" (indicating negation) with the verb "accept" and the suffix "-ance" to
create a noun denoting the act or state of not accepting.
3. Oil-rich:
 Derivational structure: n + a → A (adjective). The given word is a
compound word.
 Explanation: The word "oil-rich" is a compound adjective formed by combining
the noun "oil" with the adjective "rich," indicating abundance or wealth.
4. One-sided:
 Derivational structure: n + n → A. The given word is a compound
word.
 Explanation: The word "one-sided" is a compound adjective formed by
combining the numeral "one" with the noun "side" and adding the suffix "-ed" to
indicate the past participle form, describing something that has only one side.

The name, type and arrangement of immediate constituents of the words are known
as its derivative structure. It shows the hierarchy of morphemes forming one and
the same word.
The basic units are derivational basis, derivational affixes and derivational
patterns.
The relations between words with the common root but of different derivative
structure are known as derivative relations.

Название, тип и расположение непосредственных составляющих слова

известны как его производная структура. Она показывает иерархию морфем,
образующих одно и то же слово.
Основными единицами являются словообразовательная основа,
словообразовательные аффиксы и словообразовательные паттерны.
Отношения между словами с общим корнем, но разной производной
структурой называются производными отношениями.

№13
Analyze the meanings added by the suffixes to the same stems: social, socialist, socialism,
socialize

Social - the suffix -al forms adjectives. This suffix indicates the properties of objects.
Socialist - the suffix -ist in English is used to form nouns denoting a profession, occupation,
or belonging to a certain group.
Socialism - the suffix -ism indicates either the sphere of specifically physical, mental activity
of a person or theories/ideological directions.
Socialize - the suffix -ize is used to form verbs from nouns. These verbs denote actions or
processes related to the original nouns.

№14
Add negative prefixes to the following words: to approve, visible, logical, moral, resistible.
(алломорфы или разные приставки)

Allomorph is a linguistic term denoting a variant of a morpheme that may have different
pronunciation variants.
Алломо́рф (алломорфа) — лингвистический термин, обозначающий вариант морфемы,
которая может иметь разные варианты произношения.

The prefixes "dis-," "in-," "il," "im-," "ir," all serve the same function but are spelt differently,
therefore, they are allomorphs of the negative morpheme.
An allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or, a unit of meaning that varies in
sound and spelling without changing the meaning.
Identical morphemes may have different sound forms.
E.g. please; pleasure; pleasant (different sound form)
The same is true for words: divide; division; divisible;
Such morpheme variants are called allomorphs or morpheme variants.

Префиксы "дис-", "ин-", "ил-", "им-", "ир-" выполняют одну и ту же функцию, но пишутся
по-разному, следовательно, они являются алломорфами отрицательной морфемы.
Алломорф - это разновидность фонетической формы морфемы, или смысловая единица,
которая варьируется по звучанию и написанию без изменения значения.
Одинаковые морфемы могут иметь разные звуковые формы.
Например, пожалуйста; удовольствие; приятный (различная звуковая форма).
То же самое верно для слов: делить; division; divisible;
Такие варианты морфем называются алломорфами или вариантами морфем.

1. To approve - to disapprove:
 Different prefix: "dis-"
2. Visible - invisible:
 Different prefix: "in-"
3. Logical - illogical:
 Different prefix: "il-"
4. Moral - immoral:
  Different prefix: "im-"
5. Resistible - irresistible:
 Different prefix: "ir-"