Conceptualizing and Defining Pedagogy

Etymological Background

Pedagogy, derived from French and Latin adaptations of the Greek "boy" + "leader," literally means a
man having oversight of a child, or an attendant leading a boy to school. This meaning is now
obsolete. Moreover, the gendering, appropriate in ancient Greece—where the formal education of
girls was unusual—is inappropriate for modern times. The limitations of the literal meaning of the
term have encouraged leading contemporary writers to invent broader terms, such as andragogy, for
adult education. The first pedagogues were slaves—often foreigners and the "spoils of war" (Young,
1987). They were trusted and sometimes learned members of rich households who accompanied the
sons of their "masters" in the street, oversaw their meals, etc., and sat beside them when being
schooled. These pedagogues were generally seen as representatives of their wards' fathers and literally
"tenders" of children (pais plus agögos, a "child-tender").

Children were often put in their charge at around seven years and remained with them until late
adolescence. Plato talks about pedagogues as "men who by age and experience are qualified to serve
as both leaders (hëgemonas) and custodians (paidagögous)" (Longenecker, 1982, p. 53). Their role
varied, but two elements were common (Smith, 2006). The first was to be an accompanist or
companion—carrying books and bags, and ensuring their wards were safe. The second and more
fundamental task concerning boys was to help them learn what it was to be men. This they did by a
combination of example, conversation, and disciplining. Pedagogues were moral guides who were to
be obeyed (Young, 1987, p. 156). The pedagogue was responsible for every aspect of the child's
upbringing, from correcting grammar and diction to controlling his or her sexual morals. Reciting a
pedagogue's advice, Seneca said, "Walk thus and so; eat thus and so; this is the proper conduct for a
man, and that for a woman; this for a married man and that for a bachelor" (Smith, 2006, p. 201).
Employing a pedagogue was a custom that went far beyond Greek society. Well-to-do Romans and
some Jews placed their children in the care and oversight of trusted slaves. As Young (1987) notes, it
was a continuous (and ever-widening) practice from the fifth century BC until late into imperial times
(as quoted in Smith, 2006). He further reports that brothers sometimes shared one pedagogue in Greek
society. In contrast, in Roman society, there were often several pedagogues in each family, including
female overseers for girls. This tradition of accompanying and bag carrying could still be found in
more recent systems of slavery, such as that found in the United States—as Booker T. Washington
recounted in his autobiography Up from Slavery (Washington, 1963).

The Relationship Between Pedagogue and Child

The relation of the pedagogue to the child is a fascinating one. It brings new meaning to Freire’s
(1970) notion of the "pedagogy of the oppressed"—this was the education of the privileged by the
oppressed. It was a matter that, according to Plato, did not go unnoticed by Socrates. In a conversation
between Socrates and a young boy, Lysis, Socrates asked, "Someone controls you?" Lysis replied,
"Yes, he is my tutor or pedagogue here." "Is he a slave?" Socrates queried. "Why, certainly; he
belongs to us," responded Lysis, to which Socrates mused, "What a strange thing, I exclaimed; a free
person controlled by a slave!" (Plato, 1925, as quoted in Smith, 2006).

Historical Development of Pedagogy

Pedagogy is also associated with the Greek tradition of philosophical dialogue, particularly the
Socratic method of inquiry. A more general account of its development holds that it emerged from the
active concept of man as distinct from a fatalistic one, and that history and human destiny are results
of human actions. This idea germinated in ancient Greece and was further developed during the
Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Enlightenment. In this context, I want to analyze the
etymological meaning of pedagogy.

In the modern context, pedagogy entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1571. Pedagogy is the term
that describes the relationships and "interactions between teachers, students, the learning environment,
and the learning tasks" (Murphy, 2008, p. 35). The Latin word "paidagogi" was used to describe the
slave who accompanied the young Roman boy to school. Plato described these pedagogues as both
leaders and custodians of children (Smith, 2006, p. 200). From this etymology, the term pedagogy has
developed to describe the methods and approaches used by teachers to lead students in their learning.
Alexander (2008, p. 6) outlines the difference between teaching and pedagogy by emphasizing that
"teaching is an act while pedagogy is both act and discourse... Pedagogy connects the apparently self-
contained act of teaching with culture, structure, and mechanisms of social control." Pedagogy is not
therefore simply describing the activity of teaching, but reflects the production of broader social and
cultural values within the learning relationship.

Paradigms of Learning

Concepts of pedagogy reflect societal values and beliefs about learning, and usually draw from two
main paradigms: traditional notions of learning as a biological, cognitive acquisition of uncontested
knowledge, or alternatively notions of learning as a cultural and social construction within
communities of practice. The traditional learning paradigm that emerged in the early 1900s and
dominated the 20th century was based on beliefs of social efficiency, social Darwinist theories of
innate ability through individual heredity, and behaviorist learning theories (Shepard, 2000).
Principles drawn from the efficiency of industrialization and factories were applied to education and
educational building design. Fundamental building blocks of curriculum were taught in sequence so
skills could be mastered and measured by frequent testing, with motivation provided by reward and
positive reinforcement.

A new paradigm of learning emerged in the 1970s about the time when Vygotsky’s work was
rediscovered when translated into English. Within this emerging paradigm, "fixed, largely hereditarian
theories of intelligence have been replaced with a new understanding that cognitive abilities are
developed through socially supported interactions" (Shepard, 2000, p. 7). Freire (1970) also
challenged the notion of a banking model of education, in which the teacher "owns" knowledge and
"deposits" it in students. Instead, he promoted what is now known as critical pedagogy, in which
teachers and students learn together through dialogue, posing problems and investigating their own
worlds, leading to a "dialogical theory of praxis and knowledge and a revised relationship between
teacher and student" (Bartlett, 2005). The active role of the learner within cultural communities
created a greater focus on how learning occurs and appreciating the diversity of learners and their
preferred learning styles and modes. Sfard (1998) has noted that both "acquisition" and "participation"
approaches to learning are needed. Learner-centered principles from both paradigms, such as
flexibility, differentiation, adaptation, individualized, and active learning, are principles of pedagogy
that have significant implications for learning space design.

Defining Pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated, is the art or science of teaching children. In modern-day usage, it is a
synonym for teaching or education, particularly in scholarly writings. Throughout history, educators
and philosophers have discussed different pedagogical approaches to education, and numerous
theories and techniques have been proposed. Educators use a variety of research and discussion about
learning theories to create their personal pedagogy and are often faced with the challenge of
incorporating new technology into their teaching style. Successful education for all depends on
teachers being able to embrace both the art and science of pedagogy, acting as parents who understand
the needs, abilities, and experiences of their students while also being trained in the best methods of
communication and presentation of appropriate materials.
The term pedagogue was originally a term for a slave who was responsible for the care of children in
the household. Later, the meaning of the word expanded to mean educator and teacher. A pedagogic
theory deals with the nature and structure of educational action, teaching, and upbringing. Pedagogic
theories are connected with belief and value systems, concepts of man and society, and philosophies
of knowledge and political interests. Thus, it is rather difficult to define a pedagogic theory exactly. In
general, the concept of pedagogy refers to a systematic view of organizing education. It discusses the
issues of how to educate and what it means to be educated. In this sense, a pedagogic theory is a
theory of educational action or a systematic view and reflection of pedagogic practice. Pedagogic
theory is a systematic conceptualization of the process of education and conditions of human
development in both the individual and the societal life sphere. It deals with processes of upbringing,
teaching, learning, and social and cultural development. Aims and means, values and norms, and
objectives and methods of education are systematically reflected therein. Pedagogic theory building
starts with two fundamental anthropological questions: What is a human being, and what should he or
she be? Combining these questions, pedagogic theory examines educational aims and means of
helping human beings to develop toward what they should be. Pedagogic reflection and theory
building are based on the idea that—in the words of Immanuel Kant—a human being can become
human only through education. Studying childhood from the vantage point of pedagogic theories
focuses on the development of a pedagogic way of thinking over the course of time (DEEWR, 2009).

Cultural Contexts of Pedagogy

Modern-day usage of the term pedagogy is more common in other European countries, particularly in
French, German, and Russian-speaking academic communities, than in English-speaking ones. In
continental Europe, pedagogical institutes are to be found alongside, and within, university
departments (DEEWR, 2009). Academic awards in pedagogy are also common. A scan of a European
journal seemingly addressing this area of work shows, however, that few articles actually focus on
what to many British readers would be central: classroom teaching. The boundaries of pedagogy in
mainland Europe, it appears, are defined very broadly. As one Swedish academic notes: "Pedagogy as
a discipline extends to the consideration of the development of health and bodily fitness, social and
moral welfare, ethics, and aesthetics, as well as to the institutional forms that serve to facilitate
society's and the individual's pedagogic aims" (Marton & Booth, 1997, p. 178). Even in France, a
country which has taught pedagogy since 1883, the director of its Institute National de Recherche
Pédagogique has described how the term is subject to changing connotations and pressures (Best,
1988).
Pedagogy means the method of teaching in the widest sense (Winch & Gingell, 2004), which might
include the philosophy, sociology, psychology, and methodology involved in teaching children as well
as the curriculum, school organization, and management (Lohithakshan, 2004). The Cambridge
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2003) gives the meaning of pedagogy as "the study of methods and
activities of teaching." Thus, the term generally refers to strategies of instruction or a style of
instruction. Pedagogy is also occasionally referred to as the correct use of instructive strategies.

Definitions of pedagogy are offered from time to time. A common example is "the science of
teaching." However, the brevity of this phrase may create its own difficulty since such a definition
depends on the reader's assumptions about "science" and their conceptions of "teaching." Arends
(2001) defines pedagogy as "the study of the art and science of teaching." The teacher, as an artist,
needs to be innovative, flexible, and imaginative so that he/she is not locked into any single teaching
style. A survey of the literature indicates that the term "pedagogy" is contested; defining it is
complicated because of its complex nature, so often the term is vague or broadly defined (Gipps &
MacGilchrist, 1999; Ireson et al., 1999; Watkins & Mortimore, 1999; Westbrook et al., 2013).
Pedagogy is sometimes used synonymously with teaching. As Loughran (2006, p. 2) puts it, pedagogy
is used as "a catch-all term" to talk about teaching procedures, teaching practice, and instruction.
However, Watkins and Mortimore (1999) and Murphy (2008) point out that there have been changing
perceptions of pedagogy over time in a complex way, besides having a fluctuating status in different
cultures. Therefore, understanding the definitions of pedagogy is important. Watkins and Mortimore
(1999) note that using the term pedagogy is less popular in English-speaking academic communities
than in other academic European communities such as the French, German, and Russian. Alexander
(2004) analyzes the reasons for the limited use of the term in England and points out that pedagogy
has been narrowly defined in England to connote the practice of teaching. Therefore, due to cultural
differences, England has been criticized for ignoring pedagogical studies (Watkins & Mortimore,
1999; Alexander, 2009).

Comprehensive Definitions of Pedagogy

Pedagogy is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "the science of teaching." Alexander (2000,
p. 540) states: "Pedagogy encompasses the performance of teaching together with the theories, beliefs,
policies, and controversies that inform and shape it." However, not many teachers use the term. Hayes
(2000) discusses those experienced teachers who maintain that teaching is a practical activity and that
the theoretical study of teaching in higher education is irrelevant once one enters the classroom.
Pedagogy was defined as "the science of teaching" or as only referring to teaching techniques and
strategies in schools, which Watkins and Mortimore (1999) and Hall et al. (2008) criticize as a narrow
definition of pedagogy that relies on readers' interpretations of "science" and "teaching." Watkins and
Mortimore (1999, p. 3) provide a definition of pedagogy that identifies it as "any conscious activity by
one person designed to enhance learning in another." From Watkins and Mortimore’s (1999)
perspective, this definition takes the learner into consideration while drawing attention to teaching. In
another definition of pedagogy, Alexander (2000) highlights the relationship between culture and
pedagogy, arguing that culture is a strong shaper of education. According to Alexander (2000), culture
influences everything that happens in classrooms, whether it is noticeable on the walls, for example,
or invisible in children’s heads. In line with Alexander (2000), there is much emphasis in the literature
on the importance of understanding pedagogy within the specific cultural and historical context where
it happens (Tabulawa, 2003, 2013; Sternberg, 2007; Vavrus, 2009; Guthrie, 2011; Schweisfurth, 2013,
2015; Guthrie, 2015; Schweisfurth & Elliott, 2019). Based on Alexander (2000, 2008b, 2009), many
components constitute pedagogy, such as teachers’ knowledge, skills and values, the purposes of
education, the learning processes, as well as the interaction between teachers, students, the learning
environment, and the world outside. Alexander (2000, p. 551) argues that "pedagogy contains both
teaching as defined there and its contingent discourses about the character of culture, the purposes of
education, the nature of childhood and learning, and the structure of knowledge." Therefore,
Alexander (2000) redefines pedagogy in a more comprehensive way, which I adopt in this research.
This is reflected in my methodology, which embraces teachers’ beliefs, the learning context, and a
wider understanding of positive practice. Alexander (2008b, p. 3) argues that teaching is "an act"
whereas pedagogy is "both act and discourse." In this perspective, pedagogy is a broad term that
includes the performance of teaching, the theories, beliefs, policies, and controversies that underlie,
influence, and explain teaching. Furthermore, pedagogy relates the act of teaching, which is
seemingly self-contained, to the culture, structure, and means of social control. Consequently, based
on Alexander (2008b), pedagogy is not only a technique, as it reflects the values of teachers and the
values of their culture.

Implications for Educational Practice

Pedagogy is an encompassing term concerned with what a teacher does to influence learning in
others. As the importance of high-quality school education and care services for learners has become
more clearly understood, so has the teacher/educator’s role in the provision of these services. This
demands a clear understanding of the meaning of pedagogy and how it plays out in individual
educators and services. The definitions below show a range of thinking around the term pedagogy, all
of which have what a teacher does and how they do it at their core. DEEWR (2009a, p. 42) defines
pedagogy as "the function or work of teaching: the art or science of teaching, education, instructional
methods."
Alexander (2008b) criticizes Watkins and Mortimore’s (1999) definition of pedagogy. According to
Alexander (2008b), Watkins and Mortimore’s perception of pedagogy, which focuses on the learner, is
part of his definition of "teaching," which excludes the theories, beliefs, policies, and controversies
from pedagogy. Alexander (2009) points out that as a field of practice, theory, and research, pedagogy
is multidimensional. Alexander (2009) stresses that pedagogy is related to the act of teaching, its
policies, supporting theories, and encompasses the knowledge, skills, and values that teachers have
and need to be equipped with to make and explain their different teaching decisions, which makes
pedagogy and teaching interdependent:

"I distinguish pedagogy as discourse from teaching as act, yet I make them inseparable. Pedagogy,
then, encompasses both the act of teaching and its contingent theories and debates. Pedagogy is the
discourse with which one needs to engage in order both to teach intelligently and make sense of
teaching—for discourse and act are interdependent, and there can be no teaching without pedagogy or
pedagogy without teaching" (Alexander, 2009, p. 4).

In Alexander’s (2009) definition, pedagogy is not restricted to understanding what happens inside the
classroom only because it requires an awareness of the interaction between teachers, students, the
learning environment, and the world outside. Along similar lines, Hall et al. (2008) define pedagogy
from a sociocultural perspective to broaden the definition of pedagogy to include the relationship
between methods and the cultural, institutional, and historical contexts in which the methods are used.
This deeper and broader view of pedagogy, as suggested by Alexander (2000, 2008b, 2009) and Hall
et al. (2008), emphasizes the identities that are valued, reproduced, and transformed in different ways
as people participate in activity. The implications that arise from the broader definition of pedagogy
are relevant to the purposes of this research regarding the ways different models of pedagogy are
perceived and promoted in different contexts