Computer - Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table,
approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally
accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.

Sl.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

First Generation Computers

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation
used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central
Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the
installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large
organizations were able to afford it.
13
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards,
paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in
this generation used machine code as the programming language.

The main features of the first generation are:

Vacuum tube technology

Unreliable
Supported machine language only
Very costly
Generated a lot of heat
Slow input and output devices
Huge size
Need of AC

14
 Non-portable
Consumed a lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

ENIAC
EDVAC
UNIVAC
IBM-701
IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors
were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more
reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape
and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like

FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system.

15
The main features of second generation are:

Use of transistors
Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
Faster than first generation computers
Still very costly
AC required
Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM 1620
IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation
used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors,
resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-
programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

16
The main features of third generation are:

IC used
More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
Smaller size
Generated less heat
Faster
Lesser maintenance
Costly
AC required
Consumed lesser electricity
Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM-360 series
Honeywell-6000 series
PDP (Personal Data Processor)
IBM-370/168
TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors
and
other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable.
As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time
sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-
level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

VLSI technology used

Very cheap
Portable and reliable
Use of PCs
Very small size
Pipeline processing
No AC required
Concept of internet was introduced
Great developments in the fields of networks
Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

DEC 10

18
 STAR 1000
PDP 11
CRAY-1(Super Computer)
CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial

Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets
the means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

AI includes:

Robotics
Neural Networks
Game Playing
Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
Natural language understanding and generation

The main features of fifth generation are:

19
 ULSI technology
Development of true artificial intelligence
Development of Natural language processing
Advancement in Parallel Processing
Advancement in Superconductor technology
More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

Desktop
Laptop
NoteBook
UltraBook
ChromeBook

Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and
size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is
continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can
say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such
as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

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Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of
transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their
effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To
perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another
rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It
performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time,
the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the
length of the day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals
flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the
mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical
signal generates the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1)
and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern
computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office
are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program
without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,
humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert
them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications
where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in
petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price.
Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions
in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such

as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first
supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run
in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute
any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring
the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they
can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires integer
operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If
any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information
and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in
order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or
disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data
related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated
schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches
use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and
can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes
and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:

o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs
two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in
the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific
applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed
graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great expertise;
accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation
and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
 o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or
can be used as a workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors
before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard
drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be
multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than
other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so
the chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less
work while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer
that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit,
memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are
examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that may be making
an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
 o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer

2 Workstation
however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

3 Mini Computer
users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

4 Main Frame users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of

5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers
for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are
normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to
form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers
are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following
five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing
2 Store Data
as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data
them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user,
4
Information such as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
5
workflow are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This
unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the
information into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from
the computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices
translate the computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
  CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory
are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
  It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.