EVAPORATION

CHE 461 LECTURE MATERIAL 2024

BY
F.O. Oshomogho
EVAPORATION
This is a process of vaporizing a portion of the solvent to produce a concentrated solution of thick liquor.
Evaporators are the devices used for conducting evaporation. The objective of evaporation is to concentrate a
solution consisting of a non-volatile solute and a volatile solvent. Generally, the solvent is water

Liquid characteristics
The following are the effects of liquid characteristics in evaporation:
- Temperature: evaporation speed increases with higher temperatures
- Concentration: a higher concentration of the evaporating substance in the surrounding gas slows down
evaporation
- Intermolecular forces: stronger intermolecular forces between molecules of the liquid lead to lower
evaporation rates
- Vapor pressure: evaporation proceeds more quickly in liquids with higher vapor pressure
- Humidity: higher humidity in the surrounding air slows down evaporation
- Flow rate: higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phases increase evaporation speed
- Surface tension: evaporation is influenced by surface tension, with higher surface tension leading to
lower evaporation rates
- Kinetic energy: molecules with higher kinetic energy are more likely to evaporate
- Atmospheric pressure: lower atmospheric pressure leads to higher evaporation rates
- Air movement: increased air movement increases evaporation speed

EVAPORATOR
An evaporator is a device or system used to evaporate a liquid, typically to concentrate a solution, remove a
solvent, or purify a substance. Evaporators are commonly used in various industries, including:
1. Chemical processing
2. Food processing (e.g., desalination, fruit juice concentration)
3. Pharmaceuticals
4. Water treatment (e.g., wastewater evaporation, distillation)
5. HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
6. Refrigeration
7. Laboratory settings

Single Effect and Multiple Effect Evaporation

Single Effect Evaporation (SEE) and Multiple Effect Evaporation (MEE) are two common types of
evaporation processes used to concentrate a solution or remove a solvent.
The vapour from the boiling liquid condenses and is disposed of when only one evaporator is being used in a
single-effect evaporation, and while it is straightforward, it makes inefficient use of steam. One to three
kilograms of steam are needed to evaporate one kilogram of water from a solution. The operation has two
effects if the vapour from one evaporator is fed into the steam chest of another evaporator, and the vapour
from the second evaporator is subsequently supplied to a condenser. The second effect recycles the heat from
the first effect, and the amount of evaporation obtained from a unit mass of steam delivered to the first effect
is nearly twice. In the same way, further effects can be added. Multiple effect evaporation is the general
technique for increasing the amount of evaporation per kilogram of steam by using a number of evaporators
between the condenser and the steam supply.

Single Effect Evaporation (SEE):

- One stage of evaporation
- Feed is heated, and vapor is removed, resulting in a concentrated solution
- Simple and less expensive design
- Lower capital and operating costs
- Limited concentration achievable (typically up to 30-40% solids)

Multiple Effect Evaporation (MEE):

- Multiple stages of evaporation
- Vapor from one stage is used to heat the next stage, increasing efficiency
- Higher concentration achievable (typically up to 50-60% solids)
- Lower specific steam consumption (SSC)
- Higher capital and operating costs due to more complex design

MEE advantages over SEE:

- Higher concentration achievable
- Lower energy consumption
- Reduced water usage
- However, MEE also has higher capital and operating costs.

Applications:
- SEE: suitable for small-scale applications, simple concentration processes, and when high
concentration is not required
- MEE: commonly used in large-scale applications, such as desalination, chemical processing, and food
processing, where high concentration and energy efficiency are important.
 Figure 1. Single Effect Evaporation

Figure 2. Multiple effect evaporation

Types of evaporators
Types of evaporators include:
a) Heat exchangers (e.g., plate, shell, and tube)
b) Flash evaporators
c) Spray evaporators
d) Falling film evaporators
e) Rising film evaporators
f) Forced circulation evaporators
g) Natural circulation evaporators
h) Solar evaporators
The evaporation process involves:
a. Heat transfer
b. Mass transfer
c. Phase change (liquid to vapor)

Evaporators are designed to optimize these processes, ensuring efficient and effective evaporation. Based on
method of operation evaporators can also be classified as;
i. Single effect evaporators
ii. Multiple effect evaporators

Falling film long tube vertical evaporator:

It takes a minimum amount of time to be exposed to a warm surface for highly heat-sensitive materials like
orange juice to concentrate.
With falling film evaporators, which remove the liquid from the bottom after it enters at the top and moves
downstream as a film inside the heated tubes, this can be completed all at once. 50 to 250 mm in diameter, the
tubes are huge. Most of the time, the liquid and the evaporated vapour are transported downhill and exit the
unit from the bottom. With a liquid-vapour separator at the bottom and a liquid distributor at the top, these
evaporators have a similar look to long, vertical tube exchangers.
The chief problem in a falling film evaporator is that of distributing the liquid uniformly as a film inside the
tubes, this is done by a set of perforated metal plates above a carefully leveled tube sheet, by inserts in the tube
ends to cause the liquid to flow evenly into each tube, or by spider distributors with radial arms from which
the feed is sprayed at a steady rate on the inside surface of each tube. Still another way is to use an individual
spray nozzle inside each tube. When recirculation is allowable without damaging the liquid, distribution of
liquid to the tubes is facilitated by a moderate recycling of liquid to the top of the tubes. This provides a larger
volume of flow through the tubes than is possible in once through operation. For good heat transfer the
Reynolds number of the falling film should be greater than 2000 at all the points in the tube. During
evaporation, the amount of liquid is continuously reduced as it flows downward, and too great a reduction can
led to dry spots near the bottom of the tubes. Thus, the amount of concentration that can be done in a single
pass is limited.
 Figure 3 Long Tube vertical evaporator

Forced circulation Evaporator

In a natural circulation evaporator, the liquid enters the tubes at 0.3 to 1.2 m/s. The linear velocity increases
greatly as vapour is formed in the tubes, so that in general the rates of heat transfer are satisfactory. With
viscous liquids, however, the overall coefficient in a natural circulation unit may be uneconomically low.
Higher coefficients are obtained in forced circulation evaporators, an example of which is shown in fig.5.5.
Here a centrifugal pump forces the liquid through the tubes at an entering velocity of 2 to 5.5m/s. The tubes
are under sufficient static head to ensure that there is no boiling in the tubes, the liquid becomes superheated
as the static head is reduced during flow from the heater to the vapor space, and it flashes into a mixture of
vapour and spray in the outlet line from the exchanger just before entering the body of the evaporator. The
mixture of liquid and vapour impinges on a deflector plate in the vapor space. Liquid returns to the pump inlet,
where it meets incoming feed; vapour leaves the top of the evaporator body to a condenser or to the next effect.
Part of the liquid leaving the separator is continuously withdrawn as concentrate.
In the design shown in figure 4 (b) the exchanger has horizontal tubes and is two pass on both tube and shell
sides. In others, vertical single pass exchangers are used (figure 4 (a)). In both types the heat transfer
coefficients are high, especially with thin liquids, but the greatest improvement over natural circulation
evaporators is with viscous liquids. With thin liquids the improvement with forced circulation does not warrant
the added pumping costs over natural circulation, but with viscous material the added costs are justified,
especially when expensive metals must be used. An example is caustic soda concentration which must be done
in nickel equipment. In multiple effect evaporators producing a viscous final concentrate the first effects may
be natural circulation units and the later ones handling viscous liquid, forced circulation units. Because of the
high velocities in a forced circulation evaporator, the residence time of the liquid in the tubes is short about 1
to 3 s so that moderately heat sensitive liquids can be concentrated in them. They are also effective in
evaporating salting liquors or those that tend to foam.

(a) (b)
Figure 4 Forced circulation Evaporator

Agitated –film evaporator

The principal resistance to overall heat transfer from the steam to the boiling liquid in an evaporator is on the
liquid side. One way of reducing this resistance, especially with viscous liquids, is by mechanical agitation of
the liquids film, as in the evaporator shown in figure 5 This is a modified falling film evaporator with a single
jacketed tube containing an internal agitator. Feed enters at the top of the jacketed section and is spread out
into a thin, highly turbulent film by the vertical blades of the agitator. Concentrate leaves from the bottom of
the jacketed section, vapour rises from the vapourising zone into an unjacketed separator, which is somewhat
larger in diameter than the evaporating tube. In the separator the agitator blades throw entrained liquid outward
against stationary vertical plates. The droplets coalesce on these plates and return to the evaporating section.
Liquid free vapour escapes through outlets at the top of the unit.
The chief advantage of an agitated film evaporator is its ability to give high rates of heat transfer with viscous
liquids. The product may have a viscosity as high as 1000P at the evaporation temperature. As in other
evaporators, the overall coefficient falls as the viscosity rises, but in this design the decrease is slow. With
highly viscous materials the coefficient is appreciably greater than in forced
circulation evaporators and much greater than in natural circulation units. The agitated film evaporator is
particularly effective with such viscous heat sensitive products as gelatin, rubber latex, antibiotics and fruit
juices. Its disadvantage is high cost; the internal moving parts, which may need considerable maintenance and
the small capacity of single units, which is far below that of multi tubular evaporators.
 Figure 5 Agitated film evaporator

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

Boiling point elevation is a phenomenon where the boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point
of the pure solvent. This occurs when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, such as water.
The evaporators produce concentrated solution having substantially higher boiling point than that of the
solvent (of the solution) at the prevailing pressure. The increase in boiling point over that of water is known
as boiling point elevation (BPE) of the solution. As the concentration increases the boiling point of the solution
also increases. Therefore, in order to get the real temperature difference (or driving force) between the steam
temperature and the solution temperature, the BPE must be subtracted from the temperature drop. The BPE
may be predicted from the steam table (in case water is a solvent).
An empirical rule known as Dühring rule is suitable for estimating the BPE of strong solution. The Dühring
rule states that the boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point of the pure water
at the same pressure. Therefore, if the boiling point of the solution is plotted against that of the water at the
same pressure, a straight line results. Different lines are obtained at different concentrations. The figure 6
shows representative Dühring plots for a solution (non-volatile solute in water).
 Figure 6 Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium chloride solutions

The boiling point elevation is directly proportional to:

1. The concentration of the solute

2. The molecular weight of the solute
3. The intermolecular forces between the solute and solvent

The boiling point elevation can be calculated using the following equation:

ΔTb = Kb*m

where:
ΔTb = boiling point elevation (°C)
Kb = boiling point elevation constant (°C/m)
m = molality (moles of solute per kilogram of solvent)
Boiling point elevation is an important concept in various fields, including:

1. Chemistry: understanding solution properties and behavior

2. Chemical engineering: designing processes and equipment
3. Food science: understanding food processing and preservation
4. Pharmaceuticals: understanding drug formulation and stability

Some examples of boiling point elevation include:

a. Saltwater: adding salt to water increases its boiling point

b. Sugar solution: adding sugar to water increases its boiling point
c. Antifreeze: adding antifreeze to water increases its boiling point

Boiling point elevation is a valuable concept for understanding and predicting solution behavior.

Method of feeding in Multiple effect evaporators

The figure 7 a,b,c and d show the four different feeding arrangement of feed to the evaporators. In the figure
7li (a) the liquid feed is pumped into the first effect and the partially concentrated solution is sent to the second
effect and so on. The heating steam is also sent through the first effect to another effect. This particular strategy
is known as forward feed. In the forward feed the concentration of the liquid increases from first effect to the
subsequent effects till the last effect. It may be noted that the first effect is that in which the fresh steam is fed,
whereas the vapour generated in the first effect is fed to the next evaporator (connected in series with the first
effect) is known as second effect and so on. The forward feed requires a pump for feeding dilute solution to
the first effect. The first effect is generally at atmospheric pressure and the subsequent effects are in decreasing
pressure. Thus, the liquid may move without the pump from one effect to another effect in the direction of
decreasing pressure. However, to take out the concentrated liquid from the last effect may need a pump. The
backward feed arrangement is very common arrangement. A triple-effect evaporator in backward arrangement
is shown in the figure 7 (b). In this arrangement the dilute liquid is fed to the last effect and then pumped
through the successive effects to the first effect. The method requires additional pumps (generally one pump
in between two effects) as shown in the figure 7 (b). Backward feed is advantageous and gives higher capacity
than the forward feed when the concentrated liquid is viscous, because the viscous fluid is at higher
temperature being in the first effect. However, this arrangement provides lower economy as compared to
forward feed arrangement. The combination of forward-feed and backward-feed is known as mxed feed
arrangement. In mixed feed the dilute liquid enters in between effects, flows in forward feed to the end of the
effect and then pumped back to the first effect for final concentration. Figure 7 (c) shows triple effect mixed
feed arrangement. This mixed feed arrangement eliminates the need of a few of the pumps. Moreover, it still
passes the most concentrated liquid through the first effect, which is having higher temperature among all the
effect (being at highest pressure compared to other effects). Another common evaporator arrangements, which
is more common in crystallization is parallel feed where feed is admitted individually to all the effects. Figure
7 (d) shows such arrangement.
 Figure 7 Methods of feeding in Multiple Effect Evaporator

ENTHALPY BALANCE IN AN EVAPORATOR

SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR
The latent heat of condensation of the steam is transferred to the boiling solution through the heating surface
in order to vaporize the water. Thus, two enthalpy balances are required one for the liquid and another for the
steam. The following assumptions are required, in order to make the enthalpy balance,
1. Flow of non-condensable is negligible
2. The superheat and sub-cooling of the condensable steam is negligible
3. No solid precipitates out from the concentrating solution
The enthalpy balance for the steam side is,
𝑞𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑠 (ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑐 ) = 𝑚̇𝑠 𝜆𝑠 (1)

Where, qs = rate of heat transfer through heating surface from steam

𝑚̇𝑠 = flow rate of steam
λs = latent heat of condensation of steam
hs = specific enthalpy of steam
hc = specific enthalpy of condensate
Enthalpy balance for the liquor side is,

𝑞 = (𝑚̇𝑓 − 𝑚̇)𝐻𝑣 − 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐻𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝐻 (2)

Where,
q = Rate of heat transfer from heating surface to the liquid
Hv = specific enthalpy of vapour
H = specific enthalpy of thick liquor
Hf = specific enthalpy of feed
𝑚̇𝑓 = flow rate of liquid feed
𝑚̇ = flow rate of concentrated liquid

The enthalpy balance at steam side and liquid side will be same in the absence of any heat loss. Thus,

𝑞 = 𝑚̇𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = (𝑚̇𝑓 − 𝑚̇)𝐻𝑣 − 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐻𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝐻 (3)

The area of heat transfer A can be calculated from

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑠 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 (4)

Where

∆𝑇 = (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑠 )

Tb = Saturated temperature of steam in the shell

Ts = Boiling point of the solution at the prevailing pressure
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

Effect Of Heat of Dilution

Most of the solutions when mixed or diluted at constant temperature do not give significant heat effect. It is
generally true for organic solutions (like sugar). However, many of the inorganic solutions (like sulfuric acid,
potassium hydroxide, calcium carbonate etc.) evolve significant heat on dilution. Therefore, an equivalent
amount of heat is required (in addition to the latent heat of vaporization), when dilute solutions of these
inorganic chemicals are concentrated. Enthalpy-concentration diagram are helpful in order to find the enthalpy
of the solution at different concentration of these chemicals in the solution.

MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS

The steam goes into I-effect and heat the solution by the latent heat of condensation. The heating surface in
the I effect will transmit per hour an amount of heat given by the equation

𝑞𝑠 = 𝐴1̇ 𝑈1 ∆𝑇1

If the heat required to boil the feed is negligible, it follows that practically all this heat must appear as latent
heat in the vapor that leaves the I-effect and enter into II-effect as steam. The temperature of the condensate
leaving the II-effect will be very near the temperature T1 of the vapors from the boiling liquid in the I-effect.
Thus, in steady state operation all the heat that was expanded in creating vapor in the I-effect must be given
by when this same vapor condenses in the II-effect and so on. The heat delivered into the II-effect will be,
𝑞̇ 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑈2 ∆𝑇2

𝑞̇ 𝑣1 = 𝑞𝑠

Similarly, for all III-effects

𝐴1 𝑈1 ∆𝑇1 = 𝐴2 𝑈2 ∆𝑇2 = 𝐴3 𝑈3 ∆𝑇3 = 𝑞̇

It can be seen (eq.5.7) that the temperature drops in a multiple effect evaporator is approximately inversely
proportional to the heat-transfer coefficient. The total available temperature drop will be given by

∑ ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇1 + ∆𝑇2 + ∆𝑇3

= (𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑣3 ) − ∑ 𝐵𝑃𝐸

Where,
Ts =– Steam temperature (I-effects);
Tv3 =– Vapor temperature leaving III-effect
BPE =– Boiling point elevation in the solution in various effects

PROBLEMS
Example 1.
A single effect evaporator is used to concentrate 9070 kg/hr of 20% caustic soda solution to 50% solids. The
gauge pressure of steam is 1.37atm. The absolute pressure in the vapor space is 100 mmHg. There is a BPE of
22.78℃. The overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 1400 W/m2 C and the feed temperature is
37.8℃. Calculate the (a) Amount of steam consumed (b) Economy (c) Heating surface required.
Data:
Enthalpy of feed at 37.8℃ = 127.9245 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of thick liquor = 514.0239 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of vapour = 2672.46 kJ/kg
Heat of vaporization of steam at 1.37 atm = 2184.0201 KJ/ Kg
Condensation temperature of steam = 126.11℃

Solution:
Feed:
Feed:
𝑚̇𝑓 = 9070𝑘𝑔/ℎ
𝑥𝑓 = 0.2𝑇𝑓 = 37.8℃
𝐻𝑓 = 127.92𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Thick liquor:
𝑥 = 0.5
𝐻 = 514.02𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Vapour:
𝑃 = 100𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝐻𝑣 = 2672.46𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Steam:
𝑃 = 1.37𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝜆𝑠 = 2184.0201𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Condensate:
𝑇𝑠 = 126.11℃
̇ 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑄 = 𝑚̇ 𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = (𝑚̇𝑓 − 𝑚̇)𝐻𝑣 − 𝑚𝑓 𝐻𝑓 +

Component balance (solid)

𝑚̇𝑓 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑥
𝑚̇ = 3628𝑘𝑔/ℎ
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = 5442𝑘𝑔/ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑚̇ 𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = (𝑚̇𝑓 − 𝑚̇)𝐻𝑣 − 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐻𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑞 = 𝑚̇ 𝑠 𝜆𝑠 = (5442 × 2672.46) − (9070 × 127.92) + (3628 × 514.02)
𝑚̇ 𝑠 = 6981.69𝑘𝑔/ℎ = 1.9394𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑄 =∪ 𝐴∆𝑇
𝐴 = 𝑄/∪ ∆𝑇 = 57.94𝑚2
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
Steam economy
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑/𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 5442/6981.69 = 0.7795

Example 2.
A triple effect forward feed evaporator is used to concentrate a liquid which has marginal elevation in boiling
point. The temperature of the stream to the first effect is 105°C, and the boiling point of the solution within
third effect is 45°C. The overall heat transfer coefficients are,
2,200 W/m2: in the Ι-effect,
1,800 W/m2: in the ΙΙ-effect,
1,500 W/m2: in the ΙΙΙ-effect.
Find out at what temperatures the fluid boils in the Ι and ΙΙ effects.
Solution:
Assumptions
1. We may assume that there is no elevation in boiling point in the evaporators.
2. Area of all the three evaporators are same (AΙ = AΙI = AΙII = A)
Total temperature drop = (105 – 45) °C = 60 °C
The temperature-drop across Ι-effect,

1
∆𝑇𝐼 = 2200 × 56 = 15.2℃
1 1 1
2200 + 1800 + 1500

Similarly, the temperature drops across ΙΙ-effect,

1
∆𝑇𝐼𝐼 = 1800 × 56 = 18.6℃
1 1 1
+ +
2200 1800 1500

And the temperature drops across ΙΙΙ-effect,

1
∆𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 1500 × 56 = 22.3℃
1 1 1
2200 + 1800 + 1500
Therefore, the boiling point in the first effect will be = (105 – 15.2) °C = 89.8 °C
Similarly, the boiling point in the second effect will be = (89.8 – 18.6) °C = 71.2 °C.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. A single effect evaporator is to concentrate 12000kg/hr of 20% solution of sodium hydroxide to 60%
solid. Steam supplied for heating is saturated at 120°C. The absolute pressure in the vapor space is 10.34cm
Hg. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1250W/m2℃ and the feed temperature is 35℃, calculate the
steam consumption and the heating surface required. Assume, boiling point of water at 10.35cmHg = 72℃,
latent heat of water at 72℃ and 120℃ as 2320kJ/kg and 2190 kJ/kg respectively. Specific heat of NaOH
solution at 20% and 60% concentration as 3.7 and 3.1 kJ/kg℃ respectively.

2. A single effect evaporator with a heating surface of 100m2 is used to concentrate 10000kg/h of a 20%
NaOH solution to 50% solids. The gauge pressure of steam is 1.5 atm. The absolute pressure in the vapour
space is 100mm Hg. The temperature of the feed is 40℃. Calculate
(i) Overall heat transfer coefficient
(ii) Amount of steam consumed
(iii) steam Economy
Data: Boiling point of solution at 100mm Hg = 90℃; enthalpy of feed at 40℃ = 31 kcal/h; enthalpy of thick
liquor at 90℃ = 124 kcal/h; heat of vaporization of steam at 1.5 atm = 530 kcal/kg; condensation
temperature of steam 126℃; enthalpy of superheated vapour at 90℃ and 100mm Hg = 644 kcal/kg

3. A single effect evaporator is to concentrate 1.25 kg/h of a 10% NaOH to 40% NaOH. Steam is available at
a temperature of 274℃.The evaporator operating pressure is 13kN/m2. Calculate
(i) amount of steam consumed
(ii) heating surface required.
Data: Cp of 10% NaOH = 4 kcal/kg K; Cp of 40% NaOH = 3.25 kcal/kg K; Uo = 1.5 kCal /h m2 K; Boiling
point elevation = 30K.

4. A forced circulation evaporator is to concentrate 20000kg/hr of 30% solution of sodium hydroxide to 50%
solid. The gauge pressure of steam is 1.56 atm. The absolute pressure in the vapor space is 100 mm Hg. The
temperature of the feed is 40℃. if the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2000W/m2 K,
calculate
(a) The heat transfer area
(b) The amount of steam consumed
(c) The steam economy
DATA: Enthalpy of feed at 40℃ = 40 Kcal / Kg
Boiling point of solution at 100 mm Hg =100 C
Enthalpy of thick liquor at 100℃ = 130 Kcal / Kg
Enthalpy of super-heated vapor at100℃ and 100mmHg=670Kcal/ Kg
Heat of vaporization of steam at 1.5 atm = 530 Kcal / Kg
Condensation temperature of steam = 130℃
5. It is desired to concentrate 5000kg/hr of a solution of sodium hydroxide from 10% to 25%solids in a single
effect evaporator. Steam is available at 110℃ and the vapor space is maintained at 410 mm of Hg. The boiling
point of water corresponding to the vapor space is 84℃. The solution has a boiling point elevation of 10℃.
The enthalpies of the feed and thick liquor are 90 and 80 kcal/kg respectively and the enthalpy of vapor is
650kcal/kg. The feed enters at its boiling point corresponding to the vapor space pressure λs = 534kcal/kg.
(a) Calculate the steam consumption per hour
(b) If the available heat transfer area is 35m2, estimate the heat transfer coefficient.

6. A single effect evaporator is used to concentrate 0.075kg/s of a 10% solution of caustic soda
(Enthalpy=70kJ/kg) to 30% (Enthalpy=237kJ/kg). The unit employs forced circulation in which the liquor is
pumped through the vertical tubes of the calendria evaporator which are 32mm OD by 28mm ID and 1.2 m
long. Steam is supplied at 394 k, dry and saturated (λ =2200kJ/kg) and the boiling point rise of the 30%
solution is 15k. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1.75 kw/m2k, how many tubes are required? Assume
atmospheric pressure. Enthalpy of superheated vapor may be taken as 2706 kJ/kg.

7. A triple effect evaporator concentrates a liquid with no appreciable elevation in boiling point. If the
temperature of the steam to the first effect is 395 K and the vacuum in the last effect brings down the boiling
point to 325 K, what are the approximate boiling points of liquid in first and second effect? Assume the overall
heat transfer coefficient as 3.1, 2.3 and 1.1 kW/m2 K in the first, second and third effects respectively.

8. It is desired to concentrate 22680 kg/h of a solution at 38℃ and 10% solids to a product that contains 50%
solids. Steam is available at 1.84 bar absolute and the last effect of a triple effect evaporator with nearly equal
heat transfer surface in each effect will be assumed to operate at a vacuum of 100mm vacuum. Assume
negligible BPE. Assume difference in pressure between effects to be equal. Calculate
(i) steam consumption
(ii) heating surface required for each effect. Data: Overall heat transfer coefficient
I effect = 3400 W/m2 K;
II effect = 1420 W/m2 K;
III effect = 710 W/m2 K; Cp = 4187 J/kg K.