UNIT 4 (1)

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 44

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

SMTB1101 - MATRICES AND CALCULUS


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

UNIT IV
INTEGRAL CALCULUS-I

Introduction
The idea of the definite integrals arose from the problems of calculating lengths areas and volume of
curvilinear geomatric figures. These problems were first solved with some success by the mathematicians of
ancient Greece.
John wallis (1616-1703) an English Mathematician derived an integration procedure and introduced the
new idea of limit which laid the basis for the concept of definite integrals.
Unlike the indefinite integral which is a function, the definite integral is a numerical value. Applications
of definite integrals include computations involving area, arc, length, volume and surfaces of the solid gener-
ated.
b

Geometrically, Definite integrals



 f ( x)dx represents the area enclosed between the curve y  f ( x) ,

the x  axis in the integral (a,b)


y

y=f(x)

x=a x=b x

Definition of Definite Integrals

Given a continuous function f ( x ) on the interval [a, b] we divide the interval into n subintervals of equal

length with  x and from each interval choose a point x i . Then the definite integral of f ( x ) from the lower
limit ‘a’ to the upper limit ‘b’ is defined as
b n

 f ( x) dx  lim  f ( xi )   x
n 
a i 1

 f ( x)dx   ( x)
b
ie a
  ( b)   ( a )
a

Definite integrals can be found out easily with the help of the following results.
Properties
b b
Property 1:
 f ( x)dx   f ( z )dz
a a

b
  f ( x ) dx   F ( x ) a
b
Proof: L.H.S
a

 F [b]  F[a]

61 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

b
  f ( z ) d z   F ( x ) a
b
R.H.S
a

 F [b]  F[a]
L.H.S = R.H.S
b a
Property 2:
 f ( x ) dx    f ( x ) dx
a b

b
  f ( x)dx   F ( x )a  F [b]  F [a]
b
Proof : L.H.S
a

a
  f ( x)dx   F (x)b
a
R.H.S
b

  F(a)  F(b)

  F (b)  F(a )
L.H.S. = R.H.S
b c b

Property 3 : 
a
f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx
a c
Where acb

Proof : L.H.S 
a
f ( x )dx

 [ F ( x )]ba  F (b)  F ( a)
c b

R.H.S  f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx
a c

 [ F ( x )]ca  [ F ( x )]bc

 F (c )  F(a)  F(b)  F(c)


 F (b )  F ( a )
Hence L.H.S = R.H.S
a a

Property 4: 
0
f ( x ) dx   f (a  x ) dx
0

Proof Put x az


dx  dz
If x0 z a
If xaz 0

62 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Consider, LHS
a 0

 f ( x)dx   f (a  z )(dz )
0 a

0
   f (a  z )dz
a

a
  f (a  z ) dz [by property 2]
0

a
  f (a  x) dx [by property 1]
0

= R.H.S
a a
  f ( x) dx   f (a  x)dx
0 0

a a a

Property 5: 
a
f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx   f (  x )dx
0 0

a 0 a

Proof:
a
 f ( x) dx   f ( x ) dx   f ( x)dx
a 0

In the first integral put x  z


 dx   dz
If x  0  z  0 & If x   a  z  a
0 a
  f (  z )( dz )   f ( x )dx
a 0

0 a
   f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx
a 0

a a
  f (  z )dz   f ( x )dx [by Property 2]
0 0

a a
  f (  x) dx   f ( x)dx [by Property 1]
0 0

a a a
  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx
a 0 0


Property 6 :
f ( x )dx  0 if f(x) is odd
a  a

2 f ( x )dx if f(x) is even
 0

63 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Proof:
a a a
Consider

a
f ( x )dx   f ( x )dx   f ( x )dx
0 0

a a
 
0
f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx
0
[if f(x) is odd then f(-x) = -f(x)]

=0
a
 
a
f ( x) dx  0

a a a

Consider 
a
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f (  x)dx
0 0

a a
  f ( x ) dx   f ( x) dx [if f(x) is even then f(-x) = f(x)]
0 0

a
 2  f ( x ) dx
0

2a a a

Property 7: 
0
f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx   f (2a  x)dx
0 0

2a a 2a

Proof 
0
f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx 
0

a
f ( x ) dx [by property 3]

a 0
  f ( x )dx   f (2a  z )(  dz )
0 a

In 2nd integral

Put x  2a  z  dx  dz

If x  a z a&
x  2a  z  0
a a
  f ( x )dx   f (2a  z )(  dz )
0 0

a a
  f ( x) dx   f (2a  x) dx [by property (1)]
0 0

2a a a
  f ( x )dx   f ( x ) dx   f (2a  x )dx
0 0 0

2a
 a
Property 8:

0
f ( x )dx  2  f ( x)dx
 0
if , f (2a - x )  f ( x )

0 If , f (2 a - x )  - f ( x )

64 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

2a a a
Proof : 
0
f ( x)dx   f ( x )dx   f (2 a  x)dx
0 0
a a
  f ( x ) dx   f ( x) dx [if f(2a-x)=f(x)]
0 0
a
 2  f ( x ) dx
0
2a a a

Now, 
0
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f (2a  x)dx
0 0
a a
  f ( x ) dx     f ( x)  dx [if f(2a-x) = -f(x)]
0 0

=0

 2

Property 9 : 
0
f (sin x )dx  2  f (sin x )dx
0


 2 

Proof : 0
f (sin x ) dx  
0
f (sin x ) dx  

f (sin x ) dx ______(1)
2

Put x    y; then
dx  dy and sin x  sin(  y )  sin y

when x   , y   and
2 2
when x   , y  0
Second integral of (1) is
 0
  f (sin x)dx   f (sin y)(dy)
 
2 2

0
   f (sin y )dy

2


2
 
0
f (sin y )dy [by Property 2]

Now equation (1) becomes,


 
 2 2


0
f (sin x )dx  
0
f (sin x )dx  
0
f (sin x )dx


2
 2  f (sin x )dx
0
Hence LHS.
Similarly we can have 
 2

 0
f (cos x )dx  2  f (cos x)dx
0

65 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Beta and Gamma Integrals


Loui’s Franois Antonic Arbogast (1759-1803) a french mathematician is generally credited with being the
first to introduce the concept of the factorial as a product of a fixed number of terms in arithmetic progression.
In an effort to generalize the factorial function to non-integer values, the Gamma function was later presented
in its traditional integral form by swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). In fact, the integral form
of the Gamma function is referred to as the second Eulerian integral. Later, because of its great iomportance, if
was studied by other eminent mathematicians like Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752-1833), Carl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855), Cristoph Gudermann (1798-1850), Joseph Liouville (1809-1882), Karl weieostrass (1815-1897),
Charles Hermite (1822-1901), as well as many others.
The first reported use of Gamma symbol for this function was by Legendre in 1839. The first Eulerian
integral was introduced by Euler is typically referred to by its more common name, the Beta function. The use
of Beta symbol for this function was first used in 1839 by Jacques P.M.Binet (1786-1856).
Beta and Gamma functions are useful in the evaluateion of certain improper and proper integrals.
Most of the functions that we have studied are such as polynominals, rational functions, trignometric
function exponential function and logarithmic functions which belong to a class of functions known as el-
ementary functions. Boyond the elementary functions there are several familier of special functions which
arise in a natural way called special functions. Evaluation of the integrals for these function using Beta and
Gamma functions are very useful in Mathematics physics and several areas of applied sciences.

Gamma Functions :

e
x
Gamma function is defined as  x n 1dx; n  0 and it is denoted by n
0


(i.e) n   e x  xn1dx; n  0
0
Beta function:

1
Beta function is defined as
x
m 1
 (1  x) n 1 dx; m  0, n  0 and it in denoted by  (m, n)
0

1
(i.e)  (m, n)   x m 1  (1  x ) n 1  dx; m  0, n  0
0

1
similarly  (n, m)   x n 1  (1  x) m1  dx; n  0, m  0
0

Properties of Gamma function

Result:1 Recurrence formula for n

n  1  n n

e
x
Proof: n 1   x n  dx (By definition)
0

using integration by parts rule

 udv  uv   vdu
where u  x n dv  e  x
n 1
du  n  x e x
v
1
90 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


   x n  e  x   n   x n 1  e  x dx
0
0


 0  n  x n 1e  x dx ( e  0, e 0  1 )
0

 n  1  n  n , by definition of Gamma functions.

Result: 2 1  1

Proof

e
x
we know that n   x n 1  dx
0

 
 e x 
Put n=1 1   e dx    .dx
x

0  1 0

 e     e 0 
    0  1 1
 1   1 
1  1
Result 3: when ‘n’ is a positive integer, then ( n  1)  n !

Proof: W.K.T ( n  1)  n n , by the property

( n  1)  n  ( n  1)  ( n  1)
 n( n  1)( n  2)  ( n  2)
 n( n  1)( n  2)( n  3)  ( n  3)
 .....................................
 n( n  1)( n  2)( n  3)........3.2.1. (1)
 n ! (1), ( (1)  1)
 ( n  1)  n !

It follows ( 2 )  (1  1)  1  (1)  1 !  1 , by  ( n  1)  n !

(3 )  ( 2  1)  2 !  2
( 4 )  (3  1)  3 !  6
(5 )  ( 4  1)  4 !  2 4
and so on.

Note: (0 )  

( n )   ; if n0

91 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Properties of Beta function:


1) Symmertric Property:  ( m, n)   ( n, m)
1
Proof: W.K.T  (m, n)   x m 1  (1  x ) n 1  dx
0

a a

W.K.T 
0
f ( x) dx   f (a  x)dx
0

1
  (m, n)   (1  x ) m1  1  (1  x) 
n 1
 dx
0

1
  (1  x ) m 1  x n 1  dx
0
1
  x n 1  (1  x) m1  dx
0

 ( m, n)   ( n, m) , by definition of Beta function.


2) Transformation of Beta function:

y m 1
 ( m, n)   n m
 dy
0 (1  y )

Proof: W.K.T  (m, n)   x m 1  (1  x ) n 1  dx


0

1
Put x  ; Differentiate on both sides w.r.t.’y’
1 y
1 1 1 y 1
dx  dy and 1 x  1  when x  0, y  
(1  y )2 1 y 1 y x  1, y  0
y
(ie) 1 x 
1 y
m1 n 1
 1 
0
 y   1 
  (m, n)        dy 

(1  y )  1 y   (1  y )
2


y n 1
 m n 2
 dy
0 (1  y )  (1  y )
2


y n 1
  ( n, m )   ( m, n )   m n
 dy
0 (1  y )

Using symmetric property of Beta function m & n can be interchanged in the integral.

y m 1
  ( m, n )   n m
 dy
0 (1  y )

Hence the proof.


92 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

3) Trigonometric form of Beta function:



2
 (m, n)  2  sin 2 m1   cos2 n 1  d
0

Proof
1
By definition  (m, n)   x m 1  (1  x ) n 1  dx
0

Put x  sin
2
 : dx  2  sin  (cos  ) d
when x 0 1


 0
2

2
 (m, n)   sin 2 m2   cos 2 n 2   (2sin   cos  ) d
0


2
 2  sin 2 m 1   cos 2 n 1  d ( a m  a n  a m  n )
0


2
  (m, n)  2 sin 2 m1   cos 2 n 1  d Hence the proof.
0

x m1  x n 1
1
4) Prove that  (m, n)   m n
 dx
0 (1  x )


x m 1
Proof: W.K.T  (m, n)   m n
dx (By Transformation of Beta Fucntion)
0 (1  x )


x m1 x m1
1
  ( m, n)   m n
dx  1 (1  x) m n dx
0 (1  x )


x m1
Consider  m n
dx _______(A)
1 (1  x )

1
Put x  when x 1 
t
t 1 0
1
dx  dt
t2
From (A)

 1t 
m 1
 m 1 0
x  1 
 (1  x) dx    2 dt 
1  1t 
mn mn
1 1 t 

93 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 1t   1 
m 1
0  2 
  t   dt
 1t 
m n
1  (1  t ) m n

t n 1 x n 1
1 1
 m n
dt  0 (1  x)m  n  dx ( ’t’ is a dummy variable)
0 (1  t )

Substituting in equation (A)


we get

x m 1 x n 1
1 1
 (m, n)   m n
dx  0 (1  x)m n  dx
0 (1  x )

x m1  x n 1
1
 (m, n)    dx
0 (1  x ) m n
Hence the proof.

2
1  p 1 q 1 
 sin   cos q   d    
p
Result: , 
0
2  2 2 

2

 sin   cos2 n 1   d  (m, n)


2 m 1
Proof: W.K.T 2 (property (3) of Beta function)
0


2
1
 sin   cos 2 n 1   d    (m, n)
2 m 1
(ie) _____(A)
0
2
Put 2m - 1 = p and 2n - 1 = q in (A)
we get 2 m = p + 1 and 2 n = q + 1

p 1 q 1
m n
2 2
Subsititute in (A)

2
1  p 1 q 1 
 sin   cos q   d    
p
We get , 
0
2  2 2 
Hence the proof.
Relation between Beta and Gamma functions:

(m )  (n)
 (m , n) 
(m  n )

Proof: W.K.T ( n )   e  x  x n 1 dx
0

Put x  y
2

dx  2 ydy

( n )   e  y  ( y 2 ) n 1 2 y  dy
2

94 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


 2 e  y  y 2 n 2  y1dy
2

0

( n )  2  e  y  y 2 n 1  dy
2


2
Similarly ( m )  2 e  x  x 2 m 1  dx
0

 
 (m)  ( n )  2  e  x  x 2 m 1 dx  2  e  y y 2 n 1  dy
2 2

0 0


 4    e( x
2
 y2 )
x 2 m 1  y 2 n 1  dx  dy
0 0

Put x  r cos  ; y  r sin 

Hence J  r , by change of variables (jacobian)

dxdy  r  dr  d , where r  J (ie) r 2  x 2  y 2


The region of integration is the complete first quadrant.
In which r varies from 0 to 

 varies from 0 to
2
.


 2
 (m)  ( n )  4   e  r r 2 m  2 n  2 (cos  ) 2 m 1 (sin  ) 2 n 1  r  dr  d
2

0 0

 2

 4 e
r2
r 2 m  2 n  1 (c o s  ) 2 m  1 (s in  ) 2 n  1  d r  d 
0 0

 2
 4  e  r r 2 m  2 n  1 d r   (c o s  ) 2 m  1 ( s i n  ) 2 n  1  d 
2

0 0

 2
m  n 1 1
 4  e  r  r 2  d ( r ) 2   ( c o s  ) 2 m 1  ( s i n  ) 2 n 1 d 
2

0 2 0

1  1 
 4  (m  n )      (m , n )
2  2 
Using Beta & Gamma properties.

4
  ( m  n )    ( m, n )
4 

(m)  ( n)  ( m  n)   ( m, n)
(m )  ( n )
  (m , n) 
(m  n)
Hence the proof.
95 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

1
Result:   
2

2
Proof: W.K.T  (m, n)  2  (sin  ) 2 m1  (cos  ) 2 n 1 d
0

1
Put m  n 
2

2 1 1
1 1 2 1 2 1
  ,   2  (sin  ) 2
 (cos  ) 2 d
2 2 0

2
 2  1  d
0
 ______(*)

 2[ ]0  2   
2

2
1 1
  ,  
 2 2

W.K.T  ( m , n ) 
(m )  ( n )
(m  n )
1 1
   
1 1
  ,     
2 2
  2 2  1 1
  
2 2
2 2
  1    1 
     

  2     2  
By (*),    
(1) 1
2
1
  
2
1 Hence proved
   
2

96 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

PART - A
Worked Examples

1. Evaluate 

e
 x2
dx
0

Solultion

Put x  t ;
2
2xdx  dt
 
dt
  e  x dx   e  t
2

0 0 2 t
 1
1 

2 0
t
 e t 2
dt

 1
1 1

t 2
 e t dt
2 0
1 1

2 2
1
 
2

e
 x2
2. Evaluate x5 dx
0


I   e x x 5 dx
2
Solution : Given
0

Put x2  t when x  0, t  0
2 xdx  dt x  , t  
1
xdx  dt
2


1 t 2
2 0
 e t dt

1 [ ( n  1)  n ! is an integer]
 3
2

1
 2 1
2
1
  2!
2
1

97 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


3 Evaluate
e
 x2
x 4 dx
0

Solution

I   e x x 4 dx
2
Given
0

Put x2  t x 0 
2 xdx  dt t 0 

I   e x x 4 dx
2


3 dt
  ett 2

0 2

1 3
 1  n 1  n
2 2
13 3
  
22 2

3 1
 1
4 2

31 1
  
42 2

3  1
   
8 2


4. Evaluate 0
x e 4 x dx

Solution

Let 4 x  t
squaring on both sides

16 x  t 2 x 0 
16dx  2tdt t 0 

4 x
I   xe dx
0

98 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

t 2tdt
  e t 
0
4 16

1 2 t
32 0
 t e dt

1
 2 1
32
1
 3
32
1 1
  2! 
32 16
1 n 1
5. Show that  1 n0
0  log y  dy  n

Soln:

1
Put log t
y
1
 et
y

y  e t
y 0 1
dy  e t dt t  0
1 n 1 0
 1
   log  dy   t n 1  ( e  t )dt
0  y 

   t n 1e  t dt
  0 

  
 f ( x ) dx   f ( x)dx 
  e  t t n 1dt   0 
0

 n, n0
PART - B


n
e
 ax
1. Prove that x n 1dx 
0
a n where a and n are postivie. Henc e find the value of
1 p 1
q 1   1 
0 x log  x   dx

Proof

e dt
 ax
In x n 1dx , Put ax  t . so that dx 
0 a

99 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

  n 1
t dt
 e  ax
x dx   e  
n 1 t

0 0 a a


1
 n  e t t n 1dt
a 0
1 _____(1)
 n
an
1 p 1
1
In I   x q 1 log   dx
0  x

1 y
Put e
x
(ie) e y  x
Then dx  e y dy
Also the limits for y are  and 0.
0

 I   e  ( q 1) y  y p 1  ( e  y ) dy

0 
   e  q y y p 1dy   e  qy  y p 1  dy
 0

1
  p ____(1)
qp

x m1  x n 1
1
x m 1
2. Prove that  (m, n)  
0 (1  x )
m n
dx Hence deduce that  ( m , n )  0 (1  x)m  n dx
1
Proof: By defn.  ( m , n )   t m 1 (1  t ) n 1 dt _____(1)
0

x 1
In (1), Put t , then dt  dx
1 x (1  x) 2

 t 
when t  0, x  0 ; when t  1, x    x  
 1 t 
 m 1 n 1
 x   1  1
0  1  x 
Then (1) becomes,  ( m, n)    
1 x 

(1  x) 2
dx


x m1
 mn
dx _____(2)
0 (1  x )


x m1dx x m1
1
 m n
 1 (1  x)m  n dx _____(3)
0 (1  x )

100 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


x m1 1 1
In 1 (1  x)mn dx , Put x
y
, Then dx 
y2
dy

when x = 1, y = 1 when x = , y = 0
1
 0
x m1 y m1  1 
 m n
dx   
m n  2 
dy
1
(1  x) 1  1 y 
1  y 
 

y mn
1
 dy
0
(1  y ) m n  y m 1
y n 1
1
 m n
dy
0 (1  y )

x n 1
1
 mn ____(4) [Since y is a dummy variable]
0 (1  x )

x m 1  x n 1
1
Using (4) in (3), we have  (m, n)   dx
0
(1  x)m  n
1 1
dx
Evaluate  x (1  x ) dx in terms of Gamma functions and hence find 
m n p
3.
0 0 1  xn
Solution
1
Given I  x (1  x n ) p dx
m

Put x n  t , nx n 1dx  dt
dt 1 dt
 dx  n 1

nx n 1 1n
t
when x  0, t  0 ; when x  1, t  1
1 m 1
1 1
 I   t n (1  t ) p   t n dt
0 n
1 m 1
1 n  n 1
n 0
 t (1  t ) p dt

1 mn1 1
1

n 0
 t (1  t ) p dt

1  m 1 
   p  1
n  n 

m 1
p 1
1 n
I
n m 1 ______(1)
 p 1
n
101 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

1 1
dx 1
Now, 
0 1 x n
  x 0 (1  x n )
0
2
dx Here m  0, n  n
1
p
2
1 1
1
dx 1 n 2
 
1  xn n 1 1
0

n 2
1
 n
 
n 1 1

n 2

 n 1  1
4. Prove that  (n, n)  or  ( n, n )  2 n 1
   n, 
1 2  2
2 2 n 1 n 
2
Proof
 2

 (n, n)  2  sin 2n 1   cos 2n 1  d [using trignometric form]


0

 2

 2  (sin  cos )2 n1 d [ 2sin A cos A  sin 2 A ]


0

 2
 2  (sin  cos  )2 n1 d
0
 2 2 n1
 sin 2 
2   d
0 
2 
 2
sin 2n1 2
2 d
0
22n1
 2
2
 sin 2 d
2 n1
 2n1
2 0
 2
1
 sin 2 d
2 n1
 2n 2
2 0

Put   2 , d  2d  0  2
 0 

1 d
 (n, n)   sin 
2 n 1
(ie) 2 n2
2 0
2

 2  2
1 d   
 2  sin 2 n 1   
 f (sin  ) d   2  f (sin  ) d 
22 n 2 0
2  0 0 

102 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 2
1
 sin  d
2 n 1
 2n  2
2 0

1 1  1  2
    n,  [using  (m, n)  2  sin 2m 1  cos 2 n1  d ]
2 2 n 2 2  2
0

 2
1  1 1
 sin  cos 2 n1  d   (m, n)
2 m 1
 2 n 1
  n,  (ie)
2  2 0
2

1 n 12
 2 n 1

2 11 2
 n
 2 n 1
2 n 1 2
 
1 n 1 
Show that  x e e
n  a2 x2  a 2 x2
5. dx  n 1 Deduc e that dx 
0
2a 2 0
2a . Henc e show that
 
1 
 cos( x )dx   sin( x )dx 
2 2

0 0
2 2
Solution :

x e
n  a2 x 2
Given I  dx
0

Put ax  t
1
a  dx  dt
2 t
dt
(ie)dx 
2a t

x 0 
t 0 
n
 t

dt
 I     et
 a  2a t
0 

 t
n

dt
 n
e t
0 a 2a t


1
 t
n1
 n1  et dt
2a 0

103 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


n 1
1
2a n 1 0
2 t
 t e dt

1 n 1
 ______(1)
2 a n 1 2

In (1), Put n=0


12 
e
 a2 x2
Then dx   _____(2)]
0
2a 2a

1 i
In (2), Put a ; then a 2  i
2



  eix dx 
2

0 2(1  i )


 (1  i )
2 2



 [cos(x )  i sin(x )]dx  2 (1  i)
2 2

0 2

Equating the real parts on both sides


1 
 cos  x  dx  2
2

0
2

Equating the imaginary parts on both sides


1 
 sin( x ) dx 
2

0
2 2

 ( x  a)
m 1
6. Evaluate i) (b  x ) n 1 dx and
a

 ( a  x)
m 1
ii)  (a  x ) n 1 dx in terms of Beta function.
a

Solution
b
i)

Given I  ( x  a ) m 1 (b  x ) n 1 dx
a
104 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Put xa  y x a b
dx  dy y 0 ba
b a
y m 1  (b  a )  y 
n 1
I  
0
dy

b a n 1
 y 
 
0
y m 1 (b  a) n 1 1  
 (b  a) 
dy

b a n 1
 y 

n 1 m 1
 (b  a) y 1  (b  a)  dy
0  
y dy
In (1), Put  t ; then  dt ; (ie) dy  (b  a) dt
ba (b  a )

y 0 ba
t 0 1
1
I  (b  a)n1  t(b  a)
m1
[1 t]n1(b  a)dt
0

 (b  a )n 1  t m1 (b  a )m 1[1  t ]n 1 (b  a )dt


0
1
 (b  a )n 1 m 11  t m1[1  t ]n 1 dt
0
1
 (b  a )m  n 1  t m 1[1  t ]n 1 dt
0

 I  (b  a) m n 1  (m, n)

 ( a  x)
m 1
ii) Consider I  ( a  x) n 1 dx
a

Put a  x  y ; then dx  dy

x a a
y 0 2a

2a

 y  2a  y 
m 1 n 1
I  dy
0

2a   y  
n 1

y
m 1
  2a  1     dy
0   2a   
2a n 1
 y 
 y  2a 
m 1 n 1
 1   dy
0  2a 

105 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

2a n 1
 y 
y
n 1 m 1
 (2a) 1   dy ______(1)
0  2a 

y
In (1), Put  t ; then dy  2adt
2a

y 0 2a
t 0 1

1
 I  (2a) n 1  (2at ) m 1 (1  t ) n 1 2adt
0

1
 (2a) n 1  (2a) m1 t m 1 (1  t )n 1 2adt
0
1
  2a 
m n 1
t
m 1
(1  t ) n1 dt
0

  2a 
m n 1
 (m, n)
  2
e x 
0 x 0 x e dx  4 2
2  x4
7. Prove that dx 

Proof:
 2
e x
Given I1   dx
0 x

dt dt
Put x  t ; then dx  
2
, (ie) x  t
2x 2 t

x 0 
t 0 

e t dt
I   14

0 t 2 t

1 t 3 4
2 0
 e t dt  n  1  n n 
 
1 1  3 1 
  4  1  4 
2 4

I 2   x 2 e  x dx
4
Also Given,
0

ds ds 1
Put x  s ; then dx   3 , (ie) x  s 4
4
3
4x 4s 4

106 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

x 0 
s 0 

ds
 I 2   se  s 3
0 4s 4


1 1 2  s ds
4 0
 s e 3
4s 4

1 13
  s 2 4 e  s ds
40


1 1 4  s
4 0
 S e ds

1 3

4 4
 2 
e x 1 1 3 _______(1)
 dx X  x 2e x dx 
4

0 x 0 8 4 4

1  1
W.k.t, B(n,n)    n, 
22 n 1  2 

nn 1  n
 2 n 1 
2n 2 1
n
2
(ie)
1  2n
 n. n  
2 22 n 1

1
Put n  , we get
4

1 3  12
 1 2
4 4 2

 
  2
21 2
using (2) in (1)

 2 
e x  2 
0 x 0 x e dx  8  4 2
2  x4
dx 

107 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 
x m 1 
x m1  dx 
8. Evaluate  dx and deduce that  dx  . Hence show that  1 x 
0 (1  x )
n p 4
1  xn  m  0 2 2
0 n sin  
 n 
Solution :

x m1
Given I 
0 (1  x n ) p dx
1 1 t n 1 1
Put t  n ; then
xn  ;  nx dx  2 dt
1 x t t
x 0 
t 1 
m 1
 1 t  n
0  
t   dt
I    p
 n 1
1 1 2 1  t 
n
  t n
t  t 

m1  m1 


1
1 t  n  n 
t

dt
p n1  n1
0
t  
nt (1 t)
2 n
t  n 

1 m m
1 p 1 1

n 0
 t n
(1 t ) n
dt

1  m m
  p , 
n  n n

 mm 
 p  
1  n  n 
 ______(1)
n ( p)

Putting p=1 in (1), we get

1 m m
 1
x m1 n n n
0 1  x n dx  (1)


 m 
n sin  
 n 
Put m = 1, n = 4 in (2), we get

dx   
 1 x 4

 
 
 1  2 2
0 4 sin   4 
4  2

108 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions


t 2 dt 
9. Prove that  
0 1 t
4
2 2
Solution :

Put t  tan 
1  12
dt  tan  (sec 2  )d
2
sec 2  d
dt 
2 tan 

1  tan 2  t 0 
(ie) dt  d
2 tan  0 0  2

  2
t 2 dt tan  (1  tan 2  )
0 1  t 4  
0 (1  tan 2  )2 tan 
d

 2
1
  tan  d
12

2 0
 2
1
  sin  cos1 2  d
12

2 0

1  2 1  2 1 
1 1
  , 
2  2 2 
 
1 3 1
  , 
2 4 4
3 1
,
1 4 4

2 1

1 3
we know that  2
4 4

t 2 dt 1  2
  
0
1 t4 4 1



2 2

109 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Exercise proplems:
PART - A

2
1) Find the value of 
0
tan  d in terms of Gamma Functions.


2
1 1 3
2) Prove that 
0
cot  d 
2 4 4

 
2 2
d
3) Find the value of 
0
sin  d  
0 sin 

 
2 2
dx
4) Prove that 
0
cos xdx  
0 cos x


1 n 1
 1
5) Prove that  log  dx  n
0  x


xn
6) Find the value of  x dx , n  1
0 n


x 1  
7) Assuming that  dx  , prove that   (1   )  , where  is neither
0 1 x sin  sin 
zero nor an integer [Hint : put x  tan
2
]

e
 kx 2
8) Find the value of dx


 (m  1, n) m
9) Prove that 
 (m, n  1) n

 (m  1, n)  (m, n  1)  (m, n)
10) Prove that  
m n m n

x m1 a
11) Find the value of  m n
dx in terms of a Beta functions [Hint : put x  t]
0 ( a  bx ) b

12) Prove that  ( m  1, n)   ( m, n  1)   (m, n)

2
1
 (8  x )
3
13) Find the value of
3
dx in terms of Gamma functions.
0

x ( a  x ) n dx  a m  n 1 (m  1, n  1)
m
14) Prove that
0

110 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

PART - B


1
 e
 ( ax 2  by 2 )
15) Prove that x 2 m 1 y 2 n 1dxdy  mn
0 4a mb n

1
( 1) n n !
16) When n is a +ve integer and m>-1, prove that  
m n
x (log x ) dx
0 ( m  1) n 1

n 1
x m 1 (1  x )
1
 ( m, n ) x 
17) Prove that  mn
dx  n [Hint : put  ]
0
( a  bx ) a (a  b )m a  bx a  b

18) Express  2 2 
 n  1 , n  1 in terms of Gamma functions in two different ways, and hence

1  2n  1
prove that n  2 
2 ( n  1)
2n

  2
e x 
 xe  x dx  
2

19) Prove that dx 


0 0 x 2 2

 

20) Prove that  xe dx   x e dx 
8 4
x 2 x

0 0 16 2

 1
x 2 dx dx 
21) Prove that 
0 1 x 4

0 1 x 4

4

  
dx x 2 dx x 2 dx
22) Evaluate i)  , (ii) 0 (1  x 4 )2 and (iii) 0 (1  x 4 )3
0 1 x
4

111 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

ANSWERS
PART - A

1 1 3
1)
2 4 4
3) 

1
6) n 1
(logn)n 1


8)
k

1
10)  ( m, n )
n m
ab

1 1 2
13)
3 3 3
PART - B


22) i)
2 2


ii)
8 2

5 2
iii)
128

112 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Problem based on Gamma and Beta functions:


 2

 sin  d using Gamma functions.


10
1. Evaluate
0

Solution
we know that
n 1 1
 2
1
0 sin  d  2 n2 22
n

2
11 1
 2
1 2 2
  sin 10  d  
0
2 12
2
Since n 1  n n
11 9 9 9
 1 
2 2 2 2
9 7
 1
2 2
9 7 7
 
2 2 2
9 7 5 3 1 1
    
2 2 2 2 2 2
12 1
 6  5!,  
2 2

2
1 9 7 5 3 1  
  sin10  d       
0 2 2 2 2 2 2 5!
63
 
512

2

 cos  d using Gamma functions


9
2)
0

Solution:
we know that

  n 1   1
2
1  2   2
0 cos  d  2 n  2
n

 5  
 1
2
1  2
0 cos  d  2  11
9

 
 2
113 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 1
since  5   4! and   
 2

 1
2 4!  
1 2
0 cos  d  2  9 7 5 3 1  1 
9

     
2 2 2 2 2 2

128

315

2

 sin
6
3) x cos 7 xdx using Gamma functions
0

Solution:
we know that

  p  1   q  1
2
1  2   2 
0 sin  cos  d  2  p  q  2 
p q

 
 2 

 7 8
2   
1 2 2
  sin x cos xdx 
6 7

0
2 15
2

7
1    3!
  2
2 13 11 9 7  7 
    
2 2 2 2 2
1 6  24
 
2 13 11 9  7
16

3003

1 1

Express  x (1  x ) dx in terms of Gamma functions and Evaluate  x (1  x ) dx


m n p 5 3 10
4)
0 0

Solution:

1
Let I  x (1  x n ) p dx
m

put t  x n  dt  nx n 1dx

when x  0, t  0, x  1, t  1
114 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

1 m
dt
I   t n (1  t ) p n 1
0
nt n

1 m 1
1 1

n 0
 t n
(1  t ) p dt

1 mn1 1
1

n 0
 t (1  t )( p 1) 1 dt

1  m 1 
  , p  1
n  n 
By defn of the Beta functions

 m 1 
,  p 1
1  n 

n  m 1 
  p 1
 n 

sub. m=5, n=3 and p=10

1 211
1

 x (1x ) dx  3 13
5 3 10

1

396

y n 1
5) show that  ( m, n )   mn
dy
0 (1  y )

x n 1  x m1
1
 dx
0 (1  x ) m n

Solution:
since


y n 1
 ( m, n )   mn
dy
0 (1  y )


y n 1 y n 1
1
 mn
dy  1 (1  y)m  n dy ____(1)
0 (1  y )

consider


y n1
1 (1  y )mn dy
115 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

1
Let y when y  , z  0 and y  1, z  1
z
1
dy  2 dz
z

1  z m n
1
 1 
 n 1 mn
  2  dz
0
z (1  z ) z 
z m 1
1
 mn
dz
0 (1  z )

(1) becomes

y n 1 z m1
1 1
 ( m, n)   mn
dy  0 (1  z) m n dz
0 (1  y )

x n 1 x m1
1 1
 m n
dx  0 (1  x)m  n dx
0 (1  x )

on changing the dummy variable of integration in both.

x n 1  x m1
1
 dx
0 (1  x ) m n

 1
6) Show that   m,   22 m1  (m, m)
 2
Solution
we know that

 2

  m, n   2  sin 2 m 1  cos 2 n1  d _____(1)


0

1
put n 
2

 2
 1
  m,   2  sin 2m 1 d
 2 0

put n  m in (1)
 2

  m, m   2  sin 2 m1  cos 2 n1  d


0

116 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 2

 2  (sin  cos  )2 m1 d


0
 2 2m 1
 sin 2 
2   d
0  2 
(Put 2   and changing the limits)

1 d
 2 2m1  sin 2m1 2
0 2 2


1
 sin  d
2 m 1
 2 m 1
2 0
 2
1
 2 m 1
 2  sin 2 m1 d
2 0

 2

 2 m1   m, m   2  sin 2 m 1 d


0

 2

 2  sin 2 m1 d
0

 1
 2 m1   m, m     m, 
 2
7) Prove that duplication formula

22m1
 m  m 
1
 2m 
  2
Solution

 1
We know that   m,   22 m1  ( m, m)
 2

 m  
1
 2m1
 2   2  m  m
 1  m m
 m 
 2

 m  

22m1  m  m
 1  2m
 m 
 2

cancelling  m

 1
22 m1  m   m  
 2
 2m  

117 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

8) Prove that

 1 1
  m, m     m  , m     m 1  21 4 m
 2 2
Solution
 2
2
we know that   m, m   2 m 1  sin
2 m 1
 d _____(1)
2 0

 2  1
 1 1 2 2 m   1
Also,   m  , m     
 d
2
 1
sin
 2 2 2 m   1
 2 0
2
 2
2
 2m  sin  d
2m
_____(2)
2 0

multiplying (1) and (2) we get


 2  2
 1 1 4
  m, m     m  , m    4 m1  sin 2 m1  d   sin
2m
 d
 2 2 2 0 0

4 2  4  6.............(2m  2) 1 3  5............(2m  1) 
 4 m 1
  
2 1  3  5............(2m  1) 2  4  6.............2m 2
4 1 
 4 m 1  
2 2m 2
   m 1  21 4 m

dn
9) Show that  y    x y 1e x (log x)n dx
dy n 0

By definition

 y    e x x y 1dx
0


 xy 
  e x   dx
0  x 

dn dn e x y
 y  0 x  x dx
dy n dy n

e x d n y
 n
( x )dx
0 x dy

e x y
 x (log x) n dx
0
x

  x y 1e  x (log x )n dx
0

118 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 1   3
2   
tan d     
4 4
10) Show that

0
2

 2  2
sin 
0
tan  d  
0 cos 
d

 2 1 1

  0
sin 2  cos 2  d

We know that

  p 1   q 1 
2
1   
 2  2 
0    
p q
sin cos d
2  pq2
 
 2 

1 1
Put p  ,q  
2 2


1  34  14
2 1

 3  1 
 4 4
2

119 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Exercises:
1. Express the following integrals in terms of Gamma functions.

x e
4 x
a) dx
0

x e
6 3 x
b) dx
0

e
 x3
c) dx
0

x a 2  x 2 dx
4
d)
0

1 3
 1
0 x  log x  dx
4
e)


3
x e
4  x2
2. Show that dx  
0 8

1
dx   
1
n
3. Prove that
 1 x n

n 1 1
  
0

2 n

4. Show that
x e dx  an  n, a  0
n1  ax

5. Prove that
(i)  ( m  1, n)   (m, n  1)   (m, m)
(ii) n ( m  1, n)  n ( m, n  1)

(1) n n!
Show that  
m n
6. x (log x ) dx
0 (m  1)n1 where n is positive integer, m > -1.
Answers:
1
a) 5 b) 7
37
1 1
c)  
3 3

53
a6    
1 22
d)
2 4
1
e)  n 1 & 14  4
(m 1)n1 5

120 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

APPLICATIONS OF BETA AND GAMMA FUNCTIONS TO MULTIPLE INTEGRAL


The Gamma functions and Beta functions belong to the category of the special transcedental functions
and are defined interms of improper definite integrals.
These functions are very useful in many areas like asymptotic series, Riemann-Zeta function, number
theory etc and also have many applications in engineering and physics.
While the Gamma functions original intent was to model and interpolate the factorial function, the
mathematicians and geometers have discovered and developed many other interesting applications.
Many integrals which cannot be expressed interms of elementary functions can be evaluated in terms of
Beta and Gamma functions.

1. Evaluate 
R
xydxdy where R is the region bounded by x  0, y  0 and x  y  1

Solution:

The region of integration is the region enclosed by x  0, y  0 and x  y  1 which is the region of the
triangle OAB, x varies from 0 to 1-y & y varies from 0 to 1.

1 1 y


R
xydxdy  
0 0
 xydxdy

1y

 x3 2  (0,1)
1
B
 y   dy
3 
0
 2 0
1
x=0 x+y=1
2 12
 y 1 y0 dy
32

30
o x
2  3 5 y=0 A(1,0)
  , 
3  2 2
 3 5
2  2 2
   
3 4
1  1   3 1  1 
 
2 2  2   2 2  2
 
3 3!


24

 x
p
2. Evaluate y q dxdy over the region in the positive quadrant of the circle x2  y2  a2 and
hence find the area of the circle.
Solution

The quadrant of the circle is given by the x2  y2  a2

a a 2  y2

Let I 
 
0 0
x p y q dxdy

121 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

a2  y 2
 x p 1 
a
y  q
 dy
0  p  1 0
a p 1
1

p  1 0
y q
 a 2
 y 2
 2 dy
p 1

q p 1  y2 
a
1 2

p  1 0
 y a  1  2 
dy
 a 
y2 y  0, t  0
Put t If
a2 y  a, t 1
 2 ydy  a 2 dt
a 2 dt
 dy 
2a t
adt
 dy 
2 t
p 1
a p 1
1
adt
I  
q q 2
a t (1 t ) 2
p 1 0 2 t
q 1 p 1
a p  2 q
1

2( p  1) 0
 t 2
(1  t ) 2
dt

a p  2 q  q  1 p 1 
   1,  1
2( p  1)  2 2 

q 1 p 1
 1,
p  2q 1
a 2 2
I
2( p  1) q  1 p  1
 2
2 2
Put p = q = 0

 1   3  a2 1
 2 
a  2  2   
I   2 2
2  2 1

 a2
I
4
Area of the circle = 4 x quadrant of the circle

  a2

122 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 x
m 1
3. Evaluate y n1dxdy where R is the region bounded by x  0, y  0 & x  y  a
R
Solution:

Let I   x m1 y n 1dxdy


R
y
a ax

 x+y=a
0 0
 x m1 y n 1dydx

a
 yn 
ax
x=0
  x m 1   dx
0  n 0 x
a
y=0
1 m 1
 
n0
x (a  x) n dx

Let x  at The limits are


dx  adt when x  0, t  0
x  a, t  1
1
1

n0 (at )m1 (a  at )n adt

1
amn m1

n 0 t (1  t )n dt

amn
  (m, n  1)
n
a m n ( m) ( n  1)
I
n ( m  n  1)
x2 y2
 x y dxdy , over the positive quadrant of the ellipse   1 interms of
m 1 n 1
4. Find the value of
a2 b2
Gamma functions.
Solutions:

Let I   x m 1 y n1dxdy y
R
b 2 2
a x
a a
  x m1 y n 1dydx x
0 0
b
a2  x 2
a
 yn  a
  x m1   dx
0  n 
a n
1 m 1 b n 2
n 0
 x ( a  x 2 2
) dx
an
n

m 1 n  x2  2
n a
1b
n a n 0
 x a  1  2 
dx
 a 
n
1
a
 x2  2
 b n  x m 1  1  2  dx
n 0  a 
123 Sathyabama University
M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Put 1 
x2 x2 when x  0, t  1
 t   1 t
a2 a2
x  a, t  0
 x 2  a 2 (1  t )
2xdx
 dt
a2
a 2 dt
dx 
2 x
a 2 dt

2a 1  t
adt
dx  
2 1 t

0
1 m 2
  adt 
 b n  a m 1 1  t  2 t n 2  
n 1  2 1 t 
1
a mb n m 2
  1  t 
n 2
2 t dt
2 0

a mb n  m  2 n 
   1,  1
2  2 2 
m2 n
 1,  1
a mb n 2 2

2 m2 n
1 1
2 2

mn n
a b  2  2  2 
m n
I
2 mn
1
2

m  n
na b  2   2 
m n
I
4 mn
1
2

  xy(1  x  y)
1
5) Evaluate 2
dxdy , over the area enc losed by the linear x  0, y  0 and
x+y=1 in the positive quadrant.
Solution:

1 1 x
1 1 1
Let I  x
0 0
2
y 2 (1  x  y ) 2 dxdy

124 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

1 a
1 1 1
  x 2 dx  y 2 (a  y ) 2 dy
0 0
1
1 a
1  y 2
1 1
  x 2 dx  y 2 a 2  1   dy
0 0  a

Put y  t where y  0, t  0
a
y  a, t  1
y  at
dy  adt
1 1
1 1 1 1
  x 2 dx  (at ) 2 a 2 (1  t ) 2 adt
0 0
y
1
1  1 1 1 
  x 2 dx  a 2  t 2 (1  t ) 2 dt 
0  0  x+y=1
x=0
 
1
  x 2 dx  a 2  3 , 3 
1

0
 2 2  x
y=0
 
1
1
  x 2 (1  x) 2 dx  3 , 3
2 2 where a=1-x
0


  3 ,3  3 , 3
2 2 2   
1 1
3 3 3 3  
2 2 2 2 2 2
  
9 3 105 105
2 8
dx dy dz
6) Evaluate  1 x2  y2  z2
taken over the region space in the positive octant bounded by

the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  1
Solution:
dx dy dz
Let I  
V 1  x2  y 2  z 2
_____(1)

Put x2  X y2  Y z 2  Z
dX dY dZ
dx  dy  dz 
2 X 2 Y 2 Z
The region on integration in xyz space is defined by x  0, y  0, z  0 and x 2  y 2  z 2  1 .
The region of integration V in the XYZ space is defined by X  0, Y  0, Z  0 & X+Y+Z  1
(1) Becomes
1 1 1 1 1

I   X 2 Y 2 Z 2 (1 X  Y  Z ) dXdYdZ


2

V
8

125 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

 
1 (1 X ) (1 X Y )
1  12 1 1 1

8 0  
 X dX Y 2 dY Z 2
(1 X  Y  Z ) 2
dZ
0 0
1 (1 X ) a
1  12 1 1 1

8 0 
 X dX Y 2dY  Z 2
(a  Z ) 2
dZ
0 0

where a 1 X Y
(1 X )
1 1  12 1
a
1 1  Z
  X dX  Y 2
dY  Z 2
a 2
1  a 
80 0 0  

Z z  0 t 1
put t  1 when
a
za t 0
Z
 1 t
a
dZ  (dt ) a

(1 X )
1 1  12 1   12 0 
dY  a   a (1  t )  2 t 2 (adt ) 
1 1
  X dX  Y 2
80 0  1 
1 (1 x ) 1
1 1 1 1 1
  X 2 dX  Y dY (1  t )
2 2
t 2
dt
80 0 0
1 (1 x )
1 1 1 1 1
  X 2 dX  Y 2 dY  , 
80 0  2 2
(1 X )
1  12  Y 2 
1 1
1 1
  X dX    , 
80  1  2 2
 2 0
1
2  12 1 1 1
 
80
X dX(1  X) 2   , 
 2 2
1
1  12 1 1 1
 
40
X (1  X) 2 dX  , 
2 2
1 1 3 1 1
   ,   , 
4  2 2  2 2

1 3 1 1
1 2 2 2 2
I
4 (2) (1)

1 1
   
4 2
2

8

126 Sathyabama University


M aths Definite Integrals and Beta Gamma Functions

Exercise:

 x
m
1. Find the value of
y n dxdy , where R is the region bounded by x  0, y  0 & x  y  1
R

( m  1) ( n  1)
Ans : I
( m  n  3)

2 2

2. Evaluate  x
p
y q dxdy where R is the region bounded by x  0, y  0 & x  y  1 and
R a2 b2
hence find in area of the ellipse.

p 1 q  3
1 a p 1 bq 1 2 2
Ans : I
2 q 1 pq4
2

Area of the ellipse =  ab

 x
p 1
y q 1 z r 1dxdydz
3. Evaluate where V is the volume in the positive octant of the sphere
V

x2  y 2  z 2  1

I
1  p 2  q 2   r 2
Ans : 8  pqr 
  1
 2 

127 Sathyabama University

You might also like