Introduction to Essential Ideas in

Chemistry
Unit 1
 The Scientific Method
Scientific Method - Approach to acquire knowledge through the
observation of phenomena
Experiment - An observation of natural phenomena tested in a
controlled and repeatable process and a rational conclusion can
be made
Hypothesis - A tentative and testable explanation for an
observation or a series of observations
Theory - A tested explanation of basic natural phenomena
Law - A statement that summarizes a vast number of
experimental observations, and describes or predicts some
aspect of the natural world

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 The Scientific Method
Observe a natural Make predictions to Test the
Phenomena test hypothesis hypothesis
Try to explain it Design an
(hypothesis) Modify the experiment
hypothesis and test

Analyze the
Reject the results Refine the
hypothesis Accept the experiment
hypothesis

Continue to test to Establish a theory

reproduce results or more Report the findings to
observations peers
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 Making Measurements
Measurements
Essential for characterizing physical and chemical
properties of matter
Two parts of every measurement:
5,280 feet
Number Unit
Standardization of the units of measurement is
essential.

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 Uncertainty in Measurements
Almost all measurements contain uncertainty
• Different instruments can have different degrees of
uncertainty
• A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain
(last recorded digit)

± 0.01 g ± 0.0001 g

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 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Includes all digits known with certainty plus one digit that is uncertain
Nonzero integers are Zeros
always significant Leading zeros are not
• 7256 → 4 sig. figs. significant
• 8.29 → 3 sig. figs. 0.0392 → 3 sig. figs.
Trailing zeros are not
significant unless they
Exact numbers have an come after a decimal point
infinite # of sig. figs. 8200 → 2 sig. figs.
• 1 penny 6230.00 → 6 sig. figs.
• 1 L = 1000 mL Captive zeros are always
• 1 in = 2.54 cm significant
43.07 → 4 sig. figs.
 Scientific Notation
The representation of a number in the form
A.XX × 10n
1 ≤ A < 10
where n is an integer and every digit included in A
is significant

For 437000 proper scientific notation: 4.37 x 105

For 0.009740 proper scientific notation: 9.740 x 10-3

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 Practice: Counting Sig. Figs.
How many significant figures are in the following
numbers?
0.04550 g = ??

100 lb = ??

101.05 mL = ??

350.0 g = ??

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 Precision and Accuracy
Precision – agreement among repeated measurements
Accuracy – agreement between a measured value and the
accepted or true value

Which is accurate? Which is precise?

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Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Rounding off
– Drop “insignificant” digits
– Only at the end of calculations!

“Weakest link” Principle

– The number of significant figures in the final
result cannot be greater than the “weakest link”
used in the calculation
– The actual rule depends on the mathematical
operation
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Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Multiplication/Division:
Answer based on least # of sig figs in calculation
6.38 x 2.0 = 12.76 = 13 (2 sig. figs.)
16.84/2.54 = 6.6299 = 6.63 (3 sig. figs.)
Addition/Subtraction:
# of sig figs in the result depends on the number of
decimal places in the least accurate measurement
68 + 1190 = 1258 = 1260 (3 sig. figs.)
ones place tens place tens place

3.43 x 10-2 – 9.8 x 10-4 = 0.03332 = 0.0333 (3 sig. figs.)

10,000ths place 100,000ths place 10,000ths place
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 Practice: Rounding
Round the answer for the mathematical
operation below to the appropriate number of
significant figures

(1.23 g - 0.567 g)
=
0.34442 cm3

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International System of Units
SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A

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 International System of Units
SI Derived Units

Quantity Definition of Quantity SI Unit

Area length × length m2
Volume length × length × length m3
Density mass per unit volume kg/m3
Speed distance per unit time m/s
Acceleration change in speed per unit time m/s2
Force mass × acceleration kg·m/s2
Pressure force per unit area kg/m·s2
Energy force × distance kg·m2/s2

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 Prefixes for SI Units
Prefix Symbol Sample conversion with meters
tera T 1 m = 1 x 10-12 Tm or 1 Tm = 1 x 1012 m
giga G 1 m = 1 x 10-9 Gm or 1 Gm = 1 x 109 m
mega M 1 m = 1 x 10-6 Mm or 1 Mm = 1 x 106 m
kilo k 1 m = 1 x 10-3 km or 1 km = 1 x 103 m
hecto h 1 m = 1 x 10-2 hm or 1 hm = 1 x 102 m
deca da 1 m = 1 x 10-1 dam or 1 dam = 1 x 101 m
deci d 1 m = 1 x 101 dm or 1 dm = 1 x 10-1 m
centi c 1 m = 1 x 102 cm or 1 cm = 1 x 10-2 m
milli m 1 m = 1 x 103 mm or 1 mm = 1 x 10-3 m
micro μ 1 m = 1 x 106 μm or 1 μm = 1 x 10-6 m
nano n 1 m = 1 x 109 nm or 1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m
pico p 1 m = 1 x 1012 pm or 1 pm = 1 x 10-12 m
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 Conversion Factors
Length Volume Mass
1 km = 0.62137 mi 1 L = 10-3 m3 1 kg = 2.2046 lb
1 mi = 5280 ft 1 L = 1 dm3 1 lb = 453.59 g
1 mi = 1.6093 km 1 L = 103 cm3 1 lb = 16 oz
1 m = 1.0936 yd 1 L = 1.0567 qt 1 amu = 1.6605388 x 10-24 g
1 m = 39.37 in 1 gal = 4 qt 1 amu = 1.6605388 x 10-27 kg
1 in = 2.54 cm (exact) 1 gal = 3.7854 L
1 cm = 0.39370 in 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 Å = 10-10 m 1 in3 = 16.4 cm3
1 cm3 = 1 mL

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 Practice: Unit Conversion
1. Change 18.0 mL to liters

2. Express 2.63 pounds in milligrams

3. Express a volume of 1.250 L in m3

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 Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit (F)
Celsius (C)
Kelvin (K)
Temperature
conversions:
K = C + 273.15
C = K – 273.15
C = 5/9 (F - 32)
F = C(9/5) + 32
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Practice: Temperature Conversions
The average temperature of the human body has been
commonly assumed to be 98.6 oF, but recently studies have
found that our average body temperature has been going down
over time – one study has suggested that the new average is
closer to 97.9 oF. What is this new average temperature in oC and
Kelvin?

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 Dimensional Analysis
Method for calculation where you carry along the units
for quantities
A way to convert units from what you start with to
what you need in the end

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 Dimensional Analysis
How would you convert the 2 to a 4, given the following dominoes?
given Answer:

How about converting 4 to a 5, given the following dominoes?

given Answer:

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 Dimensional Analysis
Convert 7.64 g to milligrams, given: 1 g equals 0.00220 lbs,
10 mg equals 1 cg,
1000 mg equals 1 g

Convert 7.64 g of copper to m3, given: dCu = 0.324 lb/in3

1 cm3 = 1x10-6 m3
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3
1 g = 0.00220 lbs

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 Dimensional Analysis Exercise
Blood flows through the human body at a speed of 4.0 miles
per hour, on average.
a) What would this speed be in meters per second?

b) How long would it take the blood in your body to

complete a marathon (26.2 miles)?

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 Summary
Concepts Equations
• Scientific Method • K = C + 273.15
• Measurements and • C = K – 273.15
Units
• C = 5/9 (F - 32)
• Precision and Accuracy
• Unit Conversion • F = C(9/5) + 32
• Temperature Conversion
• Sig figs
• Dimensional Analysis