Good Laboratory Practice

Quality Assurance of Analytical Measurements

• SOP – provide detailed descriptions of activities performed
by the laboratory. Ex. Sample handling and preparation,
analytical method, instru maintenance, record keeping,
etc
• QAU – responsible that GLP is being implemented on a
continuing basis includes audit
 Chapter One / Introduction

Measurement in chemistry

• Some properties in chemistry can be measured.

• Different instrument enable us to measure a substance’s
properties:
Graduated cylinder Volume Balance Mass Thermometer Temperature
Chapter One / Introduction

Measurement in chemistry
 • In every measurement there is a number followed by a unit.
• Units are essential to stating measurements correctly.
• The international system of units (SI) is used world wide to report results. ( from the French name,
Le Système International d'Unités)

• There are two types of units:

• a) fundamental (or base) units;
• b) derived units.
There are seven SI base units
as following:
 Base physical
Name of unit Symbol
Quantity

Length meter m
In analytical chem, for
Mass kilogram kg expression of mass kg, g ,
mg or micrograms are
Time second s often used. For volume, L,
mL or microliters.

In SI unit definition, liter is

defined as exactly 1L = 10^-
3 m^3 1mL = 10^-6 m^3 or
1 cm^3

Electrical current A
ampere
Derived units are obtained from the 7 base SI
units.
Example:
units of distance
Units of velocity =
units of time
 meters
=
seconds
= m/s
Chapter One / Introduction

Measurement in chemistry

• Derived units are unit made up of combination of SI base units such as:
Properties unit symbol Definition

Force Newton N Kg m/s2

 N/m2 or
Pressure Pascal pa
Kg /m s2

Energy Joule J Kg/m2 s2 or N m

• SI units are modified in decimal fashion by a series of prefixes.

• A prefix may be added to a unit to produce a multiple of the original unit.
• Powers of ten are used for convenience with smaller or larger units in the SI system.
• Example: color yellow wavelength = 5.9 x 10^-7 m or 590 nanometers or nm
• Volume of liquid in chromatographic column = 50x10^-6 L = 50 microliters
• Memory on computer hard disk = 20x10^9 bytes = 20 Gbytes
Measurement in chemistry
Chapter One / Introduction
Prefix Symbol Meaning Example

tera- T 1,000,000,000,000 or 1012 1 terameter (Tm) = 1 x

1012 m

giga- G 1,000,000,000 or 109 1 gigameter (Gm) = 1

x 109 m

mega- M 1,000,000 or 106 1 megameter (Mm) =

1 x 106 m

kilo- K 1,000 or 103 1 kilometer (km) = 1 x

103 m

deci- d 1/10 or 10-1 1 decimeter (dm) = 1

x 10-1 m

centi- c 1/100 or 10-2 1 centimeter (cm) = 1

x 10-2m

milli- m 1/1,00 or 10-3 1 millimeter (mm) =1

x 10-3 m
micro- µ 1/1,000,000 or 10-6 1 micrometer (µm) =
1 x 10-6 m

nano- n 1/1,000,000,000 or 10-9 1 nanometer (nm) = 1

x 10-9 m

pico- p 1/1,000,000,000,000 or 10-12 1 picometer (pm) =1 x

10-12 m
Dimensional Analysis
Method of calculation utilizing a knowledge of units.

• Conversion factors represent “1” (unity).

• Conversion factors are simple ratios.

Example: 1 m or 100 cm are equivalent

100 cm 1m

Example: 1L or 1000 mL are equivalent.

 1000 mL 1L
Another approach of prefix unit
1kg = 1000g = 103𝑔 1Gm = 109𝑚
1g = 10−3𝑘𝑔 1m = 10−9𝐺𝑚

1mL = 10−3L 1dg = 10−1𝑔

1L = 1000mL = 103𝑚𝐿 1g = 10dg
Dimensional Analysis or factor-label
method
Example: Convert 5.6 km to m:

5.6 km x 1000 m = 5600 m

km

Convert 10kg to mg
1000𝑔 1𝑚𝑔
7
mg
 10kg ( 1𝑘𝑔 ) 10−3𝑔 =10

18

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT

FIGURES
• Scientific notation is the way that
scientists easily handle very large numbers
or very small numbers. For example,
instead of writing 0.0000000056, we write
5.6 x 10-9.
▪the width of a human hair (0.000 008 m) is written
8 x 10-6 m
▪a large number such as 4 500 000 s is written
4.5 x 106 s
• SIGNIFICANT FIGURES - each of the digits of
a number that are used to express it to the
required degree of accuracy, starting from
the first nonzero digit.
- are important part of scientific and
mathematical calculations, and deals with the accuracy and precision
of numbers. It is important to estimate uncertainty in the final result,
and this is where SF becomes very important.
Scientific Notation
▪ A number in scientific notation contains a coefficient and a power of 10.
coefficient power of ten coefficient power of ten
1.5 x 102 7.35 x 10-4

▪ To write a number in scientific notation, the decimal point is placed after the
first digit.
▪ The spaces moved are shown as a power of ten.
52 000. = 5.2 x 104 0.00378 = 3.78 x 10-3

4 spaces left 3 spaces right

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC

NOTATION
Significant Figures
• Compose of reliable or precise numbers and estimated or
uncertain numbers RULES:
1. All Non-zero digits are always significant.
Example : 845cm – 3SF
1.234 kg – 4SF
2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
Ex. 606 m – 3SF, 40,501 kg – 5SF, 40.063mL – 5SF
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant.
Ex. 1.00 – 3SF
3.040 dm – 4SF
0.10000 – 5SF
0.08L – 1SF
0.000349 – 3SF
0.090 kg – 2SF
0.3005 L – 4SF
0.00420 min – 3SF
760,000. – 6SF or 2,3,4,5 SF to avoid ambiguity express to SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
EXACT and INEXACT NUMBERS
A. Exact (integers) numbers are obtained by
 1. counting
2. definition
EXAMPLE: by counting 6chairs, 7balloons, 3computers etc.
By definition
B. Measured (INEXACT) numbers are obtained by
using measuring tool
Question: Why measurements are inexact?
• Because of human and equipment errors
Significant Figures : Rules In calculations
In calculations:
▪Answers must have the same number
of significant figures as the measured
numbers.
▪Calculator answers must often be
rounded off.
▪Rounding rules are used to obtain the
correct number of significant figures.
Rounding Off
▪ When the first digit dropped is 4 or less, the
retained numbers remain the same. To round
45.832 to 3 significant figures drop the digits 32
= 45.8

▪ When the first digit dropped is 5 or greater,

the last retained digit is increased by 1. To round
2.4884 to 2 significant figures drop the digits
884 = 2.5 (increase by 0.1)
• If it is 5, the rule is, if the number is odd increase it by one, if even then retain
Example: 5.55 to 2SF – 5.6
 5.85 to 2SF – 5.8
Multiplication and Division
When multiplying or dividing use
▪the same number of significant figures (SF) as the measurement with
the fewest significant figures

Example:
110.5 x 0.048 = 5.304 = 5.3
4SFs 2SFs calculator 2SFs
Addition and Subtraction
When adding or subtracting, use
▪the same number of decimal places as the measurement with the fewest
decimal places

25.2 one decimal place

+ 1.34 two decimal places
26.54 calculated answer
26.5 final answer (with one decimal place)
For each calculation, round the answer to give the
correct number of decimal places.
A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2
=
1) 257
2) 256.6
3) 256.65

B. 58.925 – 18.2 =
1) 40.725
2) 40.73
3) 40.7
 Chapter One / Introduction

Measurement in chemistry

Unit conversion: 1-
prefix to Base unit
eg. Km =====> m

2- Base unit to prefix

eg. m ==========>
km

3- prefix to prefix
eg. km ==========>nm
 Chapter One / Introduction

Measurement in chemistry

1- prefix to Base unit

• To remove a prefix from a value, insert the numerical value of the prefix in place of the symbol.
Example : convert 8.53 pm to meters?
Replace p with x 10-12, therefore the answer is 8.53 x 10-12 m

2- Base unit to prefix

• To insert a prefix into a value, insert both the prefix and the inverse of its numerical number.
Example: convert 0.000462 g to milligrams ?
0.000462 x 103 mg = 0.462 mg

3- prefix to prefix
Example : convert 6 km to nm?
First convert km to m
Replace k with x 103, therefore the answer is 6 x 103 m
Then convert m to nm
 Chapter One / Introduction

6 x 103 x 10+9 = 6x1012 nm

Measurement in chemistry

How many microseconds are in a second ?

(a) 1 x 10-1
(b) 1 x 10-6
(c) 1 x 10-15
(d) 1 x 10 6

Which of the following is the

smallest distance? (a) 21 m
Put all of them in the same unit
(b) 2.1 x 102 cm
 Chapter One / Introduction

(c) 21 mm
(d) 2.1 x 104 pm
Measurement in chemistry

The diameter of an atom is approximately 1  10-7

mm. What is this diameter when expressed in
nanometers?
(a) 1  10-18 nm
(b) 1  10-9 nm
(c) 1  10-1 nm
(d) 1  10-1 nm
 Chapter One / Introduction

Which of these quantities represents the largest

mass?
(a) 2.0  102 mg
(b) 0.0010 kg Put all of them in the same unit

(c) 1.0  105 g

(d) 2.0  102 cg

Measurement in chemistry

• There is also a set of non-SI units accepted for use with SI such as litter.
• One common unite of volume is litter (L). A litter is the volume occupied by one
cubic decimeter.
1 dm = 10 cm
 Chapter One / Introduction

1 dm3 = 1000cm3
1 dm3= 1 L
1000 cm3 = 1 L
1 cm3 = 1mL 1L=1000 ml
1mL = 10-3 L

1mL=1cm3
1L=1 dm3
Volume conversion. Convert 1 cubic meter to mL.

(100 cm)
3 3
3
1m x (1 m) x 1 mL = 1 x 106 mL
Convert the following. Express the answer
to proper exponential form and right
number of significant figures
1.) 31.9 ps to ks
2.) 0.0082 mg to cg
3.) 2.6 nm to cm
4.) 246.2 ML to cL
5.) 81.92 micrograms to cg
6.) 0.00588 Pg to dg
7.) 0.0596 micrograms to Pg
8.) 3.4x10^3 mm to m
9.)45.334 YJ to zJ
10.)5,605 nN to yN
Answers
1) 3.19x10-14 ks
2) 8.2x10-4 cg
3) 2.6x10-7 cm
4) 2.462x1010 cL
5) 8.192x10-3 cg
6) 5.88x1013 dg
7) 5.96x10-23 Pg

EXERCISES
Classify each of the following as exact (E) or
measured (M) numbers. Explain your answer.
A. __ 12pcs Gold coins
B. __ 1 yard = 3 feet
C. __ The diameter of a red blood cell is 6 x 10-4 cm.
D. __ There are 6 hats on the shelf.
E. __ The atom sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons.
Density

Density
compares the mass of an object
to its volume is the mass of a
substance divided by its volume

Density expression:
D = mass = g or g = g/cm3
volume mL cm3
• The density of the zinc object
can be calculated from its mass
and volume.

d = 68.6g/(45.0-35.5)mL;
68.6g/9.5 mL d = 7.2 g/mL

Chapter One / Introduction

 Mass Volume
Density = Density

Mass • Example:

Volume = A student determines that a piece of an unknown material has a mass of 5.854 g

Density and a volume of 7.57 cm . What is the density of the material?

3

Mass = Density  Volume d = m/V

= 5.854 (g) / 7.75 (cm3)
= 0.773 g/cm3
Mass (g) = 0.773 g/mL
Density Volume • Example
(g/ml) (ml)
A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m=d x V
 = 21.5 (g/cm3) X 4.49 (cm3)
= 96.5 g

Osmium is a very dense metal. What is its density in g/cm3 if 50.0

g of osmium has a volume of 2.22 cm3?
1) 2.25 g/cm3
2) 22.5 g/cm3
3) 111 g/cm3
Units of Measurement - Temperature
There are three temperature scales:
Kelvin Scale (used in science)
Same temperature increment as Celsius scale.
Lowest temperature possible (absolute zero) is zero Kelvin.
Absolute zero: 0 K = -273.15oC

Celsius Scale (used in science)

Also used in science.
Water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.

To convert: K = oC + 273.15

Fahrenheit Scale (used in US engineering and commerce)

Water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF.
54
To convert:

55
C= (F-32) F= (C)+32

56
Units of Measurement - Temperature

57
Units of Measurement -
Temperature
A user-friendly way to view the Celsius Scale:
0° - Cold! (coat)
10° - Cool (sweat shirt)
20° - Pleasant (long sleeves)
25° - Room temperature (short sleeves)
30° - Very warm (T-shirt)
40° - Hot! (swimming pool!)

58
English System : other conversion
factors
Length : 1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 m
1in = 2.54cm
1mile = 1.609 km
1m = 3.28 ft = 1.0936 yard
Mass : 1kg = 2.2 lb
1 lb = 453.59 g
1oz = 28.35 g
 Volume : 1 gallon = 3.7853 L
1ft3 = 28.32L = 0.028 m3 = 28316.846 cm3
ft to m
0.3048 𝑚
5.4ft ( ) = 1.64592 m = 1.6 m
1𝑓𝑡
1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 m
Ounce to pounds
28.35𝑔 1 𝑙𝑏
6 oz ( )( ) = 0.3750082674 lb = 0.4 lb
1𝑜𝑧 453.59𝑔
1 lb = 453.59 g
1oz = 28.35 g
Elements’ atomic weight
• Naturally occurring elements consist of mixtures of isotopes, the
chemical atomic weights will be the average of the isotope weights
of each element, taking into account their relative naturally
occurring abundances.
• Calculate the number of moles in 4.00 g of sodium hydroxide,
NaOH
• Calculate the amount of water, H2O, that contains 1.80
×10^24molecules.
• Calculate how many hydrogen atoms are present in 3.0 moles of
ethanol, C2H5OH
Mix Problems:
EXAMPLE
EXCESS AND LIMITING REAGENT