R.S.

KRISHNAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL

(Managed by DAV Group of Schools, Chennai.)

BHEL Township, Kailasapuram,

Tiruchirappalli – 620 014.

PHYSICS PRACTICAL OBSERVATION BOOK

(2024-2025)
CLASS XII

Name :

Std/Sec :

Exam .No :

Batch No :
 INDEX

NAME OF THE STUDENT: ___________________________

STD/SEC: ______________ EXAM NO: ________

EXPERIMENTS

Page Teacher
S.No. Date Experiment
No. Sign

1
Ohm’s law

2
Metre bridge

3
Metre bridge – Series combination

4
Sonometer – frequency of ac

5 Focal length of concave mirror

Focal length of a concave lens using a convex

6
lens
The angle of minimum deviation for a given
7
prism

8 PN junction in forward and reverse bias

 ACTIVITIES

Page Teacher
S.No. Date Experiment
No. Sign

6
PRACTICALS (Total Periods60)

The record to be submitted by the students at the time of their annual examination has to
include:
Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section] , to be performed by the students.
Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B] , to be performed
by the students.
The Report of the project carried out by the students.
.

Evaluation Scheme

Time Allowed: Three hours Max. Marks:30

Two experiments one from each section 7+7 Marks

Practical record [experiments and activities] 5 Marks

One activity from any section 3 Marks

Investigatory Project 3 Marks

Viva on experiments, activities and project 5 Marks

Total 30 marks
 SECTION–A

Experiments
1. To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4. To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.

Activities
1. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
2. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct
the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

SECTION-B

Experiments
1. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length.
2. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
3. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.

Activities
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
2. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
3. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (i) convex lens, or (ii) concave mirror, on a
screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).
EXPERIMENTS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

For determination of resistances of wires A and B:

Range of voltmeter = ______ to _________V

Range of ammeter = _______ to _________A

Least count of Voltmeter = _________V

Least count of ammeter = _________V

Zero error for Voltmeter, e1 = _________V

Zero Correction for Voltmeter, C1 = -e1 = _________V

Zero error for ammeter, e1 = _________A

Zero Correction for ammeter,C2 = -e2 = _________A

Length of the resistance wire, l1=_____________cm

Length of the resistance wire, l2=_____________cm

 1. OHM’S LAW

AIM:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.

APPARATUS REQURIED:
A resistance wire, a voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, battery (battery
eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper.

THEORY:

According to Ohm's law, the current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference V applied across its ends provided the physical conditions
(temperature and pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged,

V α I Or V = IR

𝑉
=𝑅
𝐼

where ,
R is the resistance of the conductor.
Obviously, the graph between the current 1 and the applied voltage V will be a
straight line passing through the origin.

1
𝑅=
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼 − 𝑉 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

But the resistance R of a wire of length 1, area of cross-section A and specific resistance ρ is
given by

R= 𝜌 =𝜌

where r is the mean radius of the wire.

×
Specific resistance, ρ =
TABULATION:

Wire Used S.No Voltmetre Reading V (V) Ammeter Reading I (A)

2
Wire A
3

2
Wire B

.
PROCEDURE

(a) To measure resistance of the wire:

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig.

2. Let us lebel the two resistance wires as A and B. Arrange the required apparatus on the
working table in accordance with Fig.
3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires with the help of a sand paper
4. Remove the plug from the key K and make neat and tight connections as shown in Fig.
Ensure that the resistance wire A is connected in series with a ammeter A, battery E a key K
and a low resistance rheostat Rh, while the voltmeter V is joined in parallel with it.
5. See that the positive terminals of the ammeter and the voltmeter have been connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the rheostat is connected through its upper terminal at
one end and through one of its lower terminals at the other end.
6. Record the ranges and the least counts of the ammeter and the voltmeter
7. Note that the pointers of the ammeter and the voltmeter are at the zero mark when the key
K is off .If it is not so, adjust their pointers to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the
screw provided near the base of the front penal using a screw driver. Even then if the error
persists, note the zero error of the ammeter and voltmeter.
8. Insert the plug in the key K and adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat at one extreme,
away from the lower terminal from which one connection of the rheostat has been made. This
allows only a small current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly adjusting the sliding
contact so that the pointer of the ammeter lies exactly on same marking of its graduated scale
and not in between two markings .Note the readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter
9. Now increase the current in steps by adjusting the sliding contact of the rheostat and in
each step note the readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter for at least six-sets of such
observations. Note that the plug in the key is inserted only at the time of taking a reading, so
that the resistance wire does not get heated.

(b) To measure length of the resistance wire:

10. Mark sharp marks on the resistance wire at the points where it just comes out of the
binding terminals. Measure the length l of the wire between these two marks with a metre
scale, keeping the wire fully stretched

(c)To measure diameter of the resistance wire:

11. Find the pitch and least count of the screw gauge .Determine its zero error and zero
correction.
12. Measure the diameter of the resistance wire with screw gauge at four different positions
of the wire and that also in two mutually perpendicular directions.
13. Find mean corrected diameter by applying zero correction to the observed diameter.
14. Repeat all the above observations for second wire B
15. Record all the observations in a tabular form.
MODEL GRAPH:

∆
In ABC, tanθ = = =
∆

From graph, the resistance can be

calculated

To determine the radius of the wire:

Least count of the screw gauge = 0.01mm

S.No PSR mm HSC HSR mm Diameter =

(PSR + HSR) mm
1

4
RESULT
1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential
difference across the ends.
2. Specific resistance of wire A = Ωm
3. Specific resistance of wire B = Ωm

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

AB – Metre bridge wire LC – Leclanche cell

K – Key R – Resistance box
X – Unknown resistance G – Galvanometer
H.R – High resistance J - Jockey

To find the resistance of the given coil :

X in the left gap (cm)

𝑙
𝑋=𝑅
S.No R (ohm) 𝑙
l1 l2=(100-l1) (ohm)

Mean
X
 2. METRE BRIDGE

AIM:
To find resistance of a given wire /standard resistor using metre bridge..

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Metre bridge, leclanche cell, resistance box, sensitive galvanometer, plug key, high
resistance, connecting wires, metre scale and screw gauge.

FORMULA:
The resistance of the wire, 𝑋 =𝑅

where R is the known resistance (ohm).

l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths when the unknown resistance is in the left gap and
known resistance is in the right gap.

PROCEDURE:

Metre Bridge:
1. To determine the unknown resistance, make the circuit as shown in fig, i.e., resistance
wire in the left gap and resistance box in the right gap.
2. Close the key and allow a steady current through the resistance wire by keeping a
resistance of 2Ω in the resistance box.
3. Press the jockey at different points from A to B and locate a point J, where, when the
jockey is pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
4. Measure the length AJ = l1 and JC = l2.
5. Increase the resistance in steps of 1Ω and find l1 and l2 each time. The readings are
tabulated.
6. The unknown resistance is calculate using the formula

𝑙
𝑋=𝑅
𝑙
RESULT:
The resistance of the given coil of wire:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be neat and tight.

2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after
inserting
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2.. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
3. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero
by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Resistance S.No Resistance Length Length Resistance Mean

coil from the
AB = l BC =100-l r= .R
resistance box
(cm) (cm) (ohm)
R (ohm)

r1 only 1.
2.
3.

r2 only 1.
2.
3.

r1 and r2 1.
in series 2.
3.
 3. METRE BRIDGE – SERIES COMBINATION
AIM:
To verify the laws of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge (slide wire
bridge) .

APPARATUS:
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two
resistance wires or two resistance coils, a set square, sand paper and connecting wires .

THEORY : (Formula used)

1. The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by r = ∗𝑅

Where, R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of
the metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
2. When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance
Rs = r1 + r2

PROCEDURE :
1. Mark the resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To determine the unknown resistance, make the circuit as shown in fig, i.e., resistance
wire in the left gap and resistance box in the right gap.
3. Close the key and allow a steady current through the resistance wire by keeping a
resistance of 2Ω in the resistance box.
4. Press the jockey at different points from A to B and locate a point J, where, when the
jockey is pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
5. Measure the length AJ = l1 and JC = l2.
6. Increase the resistance in steps of 1Ω and find l1 and l2 each time. The readings are
tabulated.
7. The unknown resistance is calculate using the formula
r1= 𝑅

8. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as in experiment 2

9. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in the right gap of Metre Bridge
and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations.
10. Record your observations as follows
CALCULATIONS :
RESULT :
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are
same. Hence law of resistances in series is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after
inserting
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
2. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
3. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero
by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver.
OBSERVATION:

Linear mass density, σ = πr2ρ

Density of the sonometer wire, ρ = 7800kgm-3

√𝑻
To find the value of :
𝒍

Resonating
Load T =Mg √𝑇
S. No. Length (l)
-3 (𝑁//𝑚)
M X 10 kg (N) 𝑙
10-2m

5
 4. SONOMETER – FREQUENCY OF AC
AIM:
To find the frequency of the A.C. mains with a sonometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sonometer, weight hanger with slotted weights, a bar magnet, a wooden stand to hold
the magnet.

FORMULA:

√
The frequency of AC main is given by 𝑛 =
√

Where,
T = Mg
T = tension of the sonometer wire (newton)
l = resonating length (metre)
σ = πr2ρ
σ = linear mass density of the material (kg m-1)
r = radius of the sonometer wire
ρ = density of the sonometer wire

PROCEDURE:

1. The AC main voltage is brought down to 6V using a suitable step down transformer.
The secondary of the transformer is connected to the two ends of the sonometer wire.
A bar magnet is held at the centre of the sonometre wire, so that the magnetic field is
at right angles to the length of the wire.
2. The sonometer wire is subjected to a suitable load(say 0.15kg). when the AC current
is passed through the wire, a periodic force sets the wire in forced vibrations.
3. The distance between the bridges is adjusted until the wire resonates and a paper rider
placed on the wire shakes vigourously and falls down. The distance between the
bridges (L1) is measured. The experiment is repeated again and the length L2 is
measured. The average of L1 and L2 is taken as the resonance length(l).
√
4. The experiment is repeated for different loads. For each load is calculated. The
mean value is found.
5. The radius of the wire is determined by using a screw gauge. The linear density of the
wire is determined using the formula 𝑚 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌 where ρ is the density of the material
wire.
6. By substituting all the values in the above formula, the frequency of A.C. is
calculated.
To determine the radius of the wire:
Least count of the screw gauge = 0.01mm

S.No PSR mm HSC HSR mm Diameter =

(PSR + HSR) mm

1
2
3
4
RESULT:
The frequency of AC mains using sonometer = Hz

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All precautions of sonometer experiment should be observed.
2. The wire should be of soft iron or of any other magnetic material.
3. Tip of electromagnet should be very close to the wire in its middle.
4. Length should be noted when the amplitude of vibrations is maximum.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Wire may not be rigid and of uniform cross-sectional area.
2. Pulley may not be frictionless.
3. Weights may not be correct.
4. Knife edges (bridges) may not be sharp.
Ray Diagram:

Observation:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens, f =........cm

u v
S.No cm cm 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
 5. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find
the focal length.

APPARATUS:
an optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement), concave mirror ,a mirror holder, two optical needles(one thin, one thick),a
knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory:
from mirror formula, = +

We have,𝑓 =

Where,
f=focal length of concave mirror
u=distance of object needle from pole of the mirror
v=distance of image needle from pole of the mirror
Note: according to sign convention u and v have negative values. Hence f comes negative.

PROCEDURE:
To determine rough focal length:
1. Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the
mirror forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall
4. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). this will be equal to the
rough focal length of the mirror
(note: similar procedure is adopted for determining rough focal length of a convex mirror)

To set the mirror

5. Place fixed upright near zero end of the optical bench and the two uprights (with lateral
movement) near the other end
6. Clamp the holder with mirror in the fixed upright keeping mirror face towards other end of
the bench and surface perpendicular to it’s length
7. Make mirror surface vertical using levelling screws of the optical bench. (in final
adjustment, the principal axis of the mirror must be horizontal and parallel to the optical
bench)
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of mirror upright.
Calculations:
To set the object needle.
9. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0).mount it in second upright
10. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length of the mirror
11. Adjust height of the object needle to make it’s tip lie on horizontal line through the pole
of the mirror
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench.
An inverted and enlarged image of the needle will be seen Tip of the image must be in the
middle of the mirror (if image is not seen, move object needle upright away from the mirror)
13. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright. To set the
image needle.

To set the image needle:

14. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third upright and move the upright near
the other end of the optical bench
15. Adjust the height of the image needle so that it’s tip is seen in line with the tip of the
image when seen with right open eye
16. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image
needle tip have parallax.
17. Remove the parallax as described. The parallax becomes removed tip to tip.
18. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upright
19. Record all the positions of the index marks in the table against observation2.To determine
index correction
20. Find index correction for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the object needle and
also for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the image needle as described
21. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1cm to get observation 2 and
1.repeat the experiment.
22. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2)in steps of
1cm to get observations 4,5 and 6.repeat the experiment.
23. Record all the observations as given ahead.
(Note: order of observations, is kept, 3, 2,1,4,5 and 6 to ensure that object always lies
between distance f and 2f, even when found rough focal length may be too rough)

RESULT:
Focal length calculated from 𝑓 = = cm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the
optical bench
2. The upright should be vertical
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle 1 and image of the needle 0
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30cm away from the needle.
RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
Rough focal length of convex lens = ____

TABULATIONS:
Focal Length,
S.No Object Distance (u) Image Distance (v) 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
Cm Cm 𝑢−𝑣

1
2

5
 6. FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE LENS USING A CONVEX LENS

AIM:
To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
An optical bench with four upright (two fixed uprights in middle, two outer uprights
with lateral movement), a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length),
twolens holders, two optical needles (one thin,one thick), a knitting needle and a half metre
scale.

FORMULA USED:

From lens formula,

We have , 𝑓=
Where, f =focal length of concave lens L2
u=distance of I from optical centre of lens L2
v=distance of I' from optical centre of lens L2
NOTE:
According to sign convention, u and v have positive value (being measured in
direction of incident light). Since v > u, u – v is negative. Hence f comes negative.

PROCEDURE:

To determine rough focal length of convex lens

1. Mount the convex lens in lens holder
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the
lens forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the
rough focal length of the lens.

To set the convex lens:

5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50cm mark.
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical
bench.
7. Keeping the upright fixed in this position throughout.

To set the object needle:

8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it in outer laterally moveable
upright near zero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length of the lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make it’s tip lie on horizontal line through the
optical centre of the lens.
11.Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the image needle at I

12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench.
An inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must be in
the middle of the lens.
13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in fourth upright near the other end of the
optical bench .
14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the
image when seen with right open eye
15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image
needle tip have parallax.
16. Remove theparallax tip to tip.
17. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upright
18. Record all the positions of the index marks in the table against observation 2.
To set the concave lens:
19.Clamp the holder with concave lens on fixed upright on the I side of the convex lens.
20. Fix this upright at some distance away from the convex lens.
21. Set the concave lens surface in same manner as convex lens surface with principal axes of
the lenses coinciding.
To set the image needle at I.
22. Repeat steps 4and5 of the experiment.

To get more observations:

23. Move object needle upright towards lens by 2cm to get observation 1. Repeat the
experiment.
24. Move object needle upright away from lens (from position of observation 2) by 2cm to
get observations 3. Repeat the experiment.
25. Record all the observations as given ahead.

RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave lens =…………. cm.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens so that
the combination is convex.
2. The lenses must be clean.
3.Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
4.Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30cm away
from the needle.
RAY DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH
 7. THE ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION FOR A GIVEN PRISM
AIM
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
APPARATUS
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale,
office pins, graph paper and a protractor.
THEORY (formula used)
The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by
𝐴+𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛= 2
𝐴
sin
2
Where,
𝐷 -Angle of minimum deviation and
A -angle of the prism.

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape.
2. Draw a straight line XX´ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the
paper.
3. Mark points Q1,Q2,Q3,…… on the straight line XX´ at suitable distances of about 5cm .
4. Draw normals N1Q1,N1Q2,N3Q3...on points Q1, Q2, Q3… as shown in diagram
5.Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… making angles of 35º,40º,…,60º(write value of
the angles on the paper)respectively with the normals.
6.Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all the
observation.
7.Put it prism with refracting face AB in the line XX´ and points Q1 in the middle of AB.
8.Mark the boundary of the prism
9.Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance between the
pins should be 10mm or more.
10.Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face .
11.Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images
12.Fix two office pins P3 and P4 and vertically, and 10cm apart such that the open right eye
sees pins P4 and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.
13. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircles their pricks on the paper.
14.Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2,Q3,…for 𝑖 = 40º,...,60º.
TABULATIONS:
Angle of prism ‘A’=…..

S.no Angle of incidence(i) Angle of Deviation(D)

CALCULATION

Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm=….

𝐴+𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑛=
𝐴
sin 2
To measure D is different cases
15.Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 to obtain emergent rays S1T1, S2T2,
S3T3….
16.Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3 ,..inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced
Incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3, …at the point F1,F2,F3,…
17.Write values of these angles on the paper.
To measure A

18.Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
19.Record your observation as given below.

RESULT
1) 𝑖 − 𝐷 graph indicates that as the angle of incidence(i) increases, the angle of
deviation(D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing
for further increase in the angle of incidence
2) Angle of minimum deviation, Dm=…

PRECAUTIONS
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 30º-60º
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10mm

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. pin pricks may be thick
2. measurement of angles may be wrong.
Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias:

Reverse Bias:
 8. PN JUNCTION IN FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS

Aim:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required:

A p-n junction diode, 3-volt battery, 50-volt battery, high resistance rheostat, One 0-3 volt
voltmeter, One 0-50 volt voltmeter, One 0-100 mA ammeter ,One 0-100 μA ammeter, One
way key, Connecting wires, Piece of sandpaper

Theory:
Forward bias characteristics:
The junction is said to be forward biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si
diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics:
The junction is said to be reverse biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small change in the current
but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the voltage.

Procedure:
For forward-bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), least count and zero error should be
noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be
brought near the negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards
the positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the VF becomes
0.7 V, the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward
breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if forward current won’t change as VF increased beyond forward
breakdown.
11. Record the observations.
Observations:
For forward bias
Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = ……..mA

Table for forward bias voltage and forward current

S.No Forward bias voltage Forward current IF

VF in V in mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K
and bring the rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so
as to flow the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V,
the current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse
breakdown stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.
For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V

Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = ……..μA

Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

S.No Forward bias voltage Forward current IF
VF in V in µA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Result:
Plotted the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias are
drawn.

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Sources Of Error :
Faulty junction diode might be supplied.
ACTIVITIES
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 1. TO ASSEMBLE THE COMPONENTS OF A GIVEN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

AIM

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way key.
An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in
diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.
Connect the items as shown in the above figure.

UTILITY

It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATION

Range of voltmeter = 3V
Least
east count of voltmeter = 0.05V
Zero correction of voltmeter = ………
Range of ammeter = 0.3A
L.C. of ammeter = 0.05A
Steady current shown by ammeter = ………

TABLE
E FOR LENGTH & POTENTIAL DROP
S.No Length of potential wire l Voltmeter reading
Ratio k =
(cm)
V (V)
V -1)
( Vcm
2.TO STUDY THE VARIATION IN POTENTIAL DROP WITH LENGTH OF A
WIRE FOR A STEADY CURRENT

AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

APPARATUS & MATERIAL

Potentiometer, A fully charged 4.5V battery or battery eliminator, a low Resistance
rheostat, a voltmeter of range (03.0) V, an ammeter(0-3) A,a one-way key, a jockey, a set
square, connecting Wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness (cross-sectional
area) carrying a steady current, potential drop is proportional to the length of the wire.
i.e..,
V α L
V = KL

K= = Constant

Where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradient.

PROCEURE
1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand
paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the battery(eliminator)(a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the
zero end(P) of the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one way key,an
ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.
4. Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the potentiometer and
the negative terminal to the jockey.
5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
6. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection
(3V).
7. Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.
CALCULATION FROM GRAPH

Plot a graph choosing a suitable scale, for the values of potential drop V along y-axis and
length L along x-axis as shown in fig.

∆
From Graph, slope = tan θ = = ……………(1)
∆

But 𝐾= ……………(2)

From equation (1) & (2),

K= tan θ
The slope of the straight line OB gives the value of the potential gradient.
8. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50cm of length of wire. Note the voltmeter reading
in each case.
9. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead.

RESULT
(1) The graph between V and L is a straight line. Therefore, the potential drop along the
length of the wire is directly proportional to its length.
Vα L

V = KL
(2)The potential drop per unit length of wire is K = … Vcm-1
DIAGRAM:
 ACTIVITY 3
AIM:
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery resistor/rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL:
A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6v), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100Ω), two or one
way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

THEORY:
An open circuit is the combination of primary of electric circuit in such a manner that on
closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

PROCEDURE:
Ammeter. It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter. It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat. It should be connected in series ( in place of resistance coil) with the battery
eliminator.
Resistance coil. It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key. It should be connect in series to the battery eliminator.
Correct circuit diagram(Components connected in proper order)
DIAGRAM
Refraction through a glass slab.
 4..ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVE:
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.

APPARATUS
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, office pins, protractor.

THEORY
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards
the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR)
travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal
since refraction takes from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is
called emergent ray.
From the following diagram
(i)The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. angle i = angle e.
(ii)The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a distance
d = t sec r sin (i – r)
PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
2. Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary
ABCD.
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal.
PQ will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins at points at point 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1cm or more between
themselves.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or
more apart) such that these two cover the images of first two, all being along a straight line.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw a straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent
ray. Join QR to represent emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.
7. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i.
8. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU Perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral
displacement d.
Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Angle of incidence (i) = angle of emergence (e)
2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).
 5. Activity
OBJECTIVE:
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a
mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Apparatus: Multimeter, battery, eliminator, reversing key
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

THEORY:
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.
1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does no it emit light while conducting.

2. A LED(light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting.

3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B)
and collector (C).

4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip.

5. A resistoris a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased.(Infact
there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor).It conducts even when operated with
A.C.voltage.
6. A capacitoris also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward
biased or reverse biased.(Hence it does not conduct with D.C.voltage).However,it
conducts with A.C.voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip,it is an IC(integrated
circuit)
2. If the item has three terminals ,it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals,it may be a diode, a LED,a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead.
Make a series circuit with battery eliminator,reversingkey,the item and the multimeter with
range set in Milliamperes. Switch on the battery eliminator and watch the movement of the
multimeter pointer.
If the pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed
and there is no light emission , the item is a diode
1. If the pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed amd there is no light emission, the item is a diode
2. If the pointer moves when voltage is apllied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a resistor
3. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one awy and also when reversed,
the item is a capacitor.
 6. Activity
AIM
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by using a
candle and screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens of small focal length, a candle, a
cardboard screen/ground glass screen, metre scale and a match box.
THEORY
The position, nature and size of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of
the object with respect to the lens.

PROCEDURE
1. Determine the rough focal length of the convex lenses by obtaining a sharp image of the
Sun/distant object on a plain wall and measuring the distance between the lens and the wall
with a metre scale .
2. Mound the convex lens L in the clamp of the central upright and make its plane vertical so
that its principal axis becomes parallel to the length of the optical bench .
3. Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece on the optical bench on both sides of the lens, at
distances.equal to rough focal and twice the rough focal length from the lens L. respectively.
4. Mount the lighted candle in the clamp of the left upright so that the tip of the flame lies on
the principal axis of the convex lens. In this position, the height of the tip of the flame
becomes equal to the height of the optical centre of the lens
5. Hold the screen vertically in the right upright so that its centre lies at the same height as
that of the optical centre of the lens.
6. Place the candle upright far away (2 m) from the lens, Shift the screen slowly towards the
lens till a sharp image of the candle's flame is obtained on the screen. Note the distances of
the candle and the screen uprights from the lens. The screen will be nearly at the focus of the
convex lens. The image be real, inverted and very small in size.
7. Shift the candle towards the lens to a position little beyond 2 on the optical bench Move
the screen slowly away from the lens till a sharp image is obtained on the screen. Note the
positions of the candle and screen uprights. The image will be real, inverted and smaller in
size
8. Repeat the experiment by placing the candle at 2F and adjust the screen to get a sharp
image which will be almost at the same distance from the lens as the candle. The image will
be real, inverted and of same size as that of candle's flame
9. Place the candle between 2F and F and obtain the image as before. It will lie beyond 2F
and will be real, inverted and magnified.
10. Place the candle at the focus of the lens: Only a diffused image is obtained, being formed
at infinity
11. Place the candle between the focus F and the lens L. It will be seen that the image cannot
be obtained on the screen, being virtual and on the same side as the object.
12.The similar methods can be used to determine the position of the image in concave mirror
also.

CONCLUSIONS
1. As the object moves from infinity towards the focus of the lens, the size of the image
increases and the image moves away from the focus. In all these positions the image is real
and inverted and is
2. When the object is at the focus, the image is real, inverted and blurred being highly
magnified.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The experiment must be performed at a shaded place free from the air droughts
2. The candle flame should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
3. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench.