Meaning of Power

Definition of Power by Max Weber

- Power is defined as the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in
a position to carry out his own will despite resistance.

- Max Weber, a sociologist, emphasized the ability of one person to influence others and get
them to comply with their wishes.

Definition of Power by Green

- Green (1967) defines power as the extent of capability to control others so that they will do
what they are wanted to do.

Power as Influence
- Power refers to the capacity of person X to influence the behavior of person Y so that
person Y acts according to person X's desires.
- In an organizational context, power is the degree to which individuals or groups can restrict
or regulate the available options for action of other individuals or groups, with or without their
agreement.
- It involves the ability to shape and direct the actions of others.

Organizational Power
- Organizational power is the capacity of the organizational structure to utilize all necessary
resources, including human, mechanical, and other resources, to advance organizational
development.
- It involves the ability of the organization to allocate and control resources effectively.

Dependence and Power

- Dependence is a key aspect of power. The greater B's dependence on A, the more power
A has over B.
- When one possesses something that others require and control, it creates dependence,
and thus, power over them.
- Emerson (1962) highlights the concept of dependence as a means for individuals to gain
power over others.

Classification of Power

French and Raven (1959) identified five traditional forms of power: reward, coercive,
legitimate, referent, and expert. These forms of power help understand the different
sources and mechanisms through which individuals can influence others.

1. Reward Power
- Reward power is based on a person's ability to control resources and provide rewards
to others.
- Managers in an organizational context have various potential rewards at their disposal,
such as pay increases, promotions, valuable information, favorable work assignments,
praise, feedback, and recognition.
- The effectiveness of reward power depends on whether the target values the rewards
offered.
- Managers can administer positive reinforcers through operant learning or provide positive
valences in expectancy motivation terms.

2. Coercive Power
- Coercive power relies on fear and the ability to inflict punishment or aversive
consequences.
- The person with coercive power can directly or indirectly threaten others with punishment
or undesirable outcomes.
- In an organizational setting, managers may possess coercive power through their ability to
fire, demote, or penalize employees.
- Coercive power can be explained using operant learning as the power to administer
punishment or negatively reinforce behaviors.
- In expectancy motivation terms, power stems from the expectation of punishment for
non-compliance.

3. Legitimate Power
- Legitimate power is derived from the internalized values of others that grant the agent
the right to influence them.
- It is closely associated with authority and is aligned with reward and coercive power.
- Legitimate power is based on the person's position or role rather than personal
characteristics.
- Managers often have legitimate power in organizations due to the belief in private property
laws, hierarchical structures, and functional positions.
- Legitimacy can also come from accepted social structures within society or specific
organizations.
- Being designated as the agent or representative of a powerful person or group can also
confer legitimate power.

4. Referent Power
- Referent power stems from the desire of others to identify with and be associated with
a powerful person.
- People grant power to others who are attractive and possess desirable resources or
personal characteristics.
- Emotional arguments from attractive individuals have been found to be more influential.
- Timing plays a role in testimonial advertising, using influential figures when they are visible
and have referent power.
- In an organizational context, referent power requires managers to be personally attractive
to subordinates, irrespective of other sources of power.

5. Expert Power
- Expert power is based on others attributing knowledge and expertise to the power holder.
- It depends on the perception of the person's credibility, trustworthiness, and relevance.
- Credibility is established through credentials and tangible evidence of knowledge.
- Trustworthiness is crucial, requiring a reputation for honesty and straightforwardness.
- Relevance and usefulness are also necessary for expert power to be granted.
- In organizations, staff specialists have expert power in their respective areas, such as
engineers in technical matters.
- Expert power is highly selective but can become vital as organizations become more
technologically complex and specialized.

Political Implications of Power

- Power and politics are closely related concepts within organizations.

- Alvin Toffler observed that internal political struggles, power struggles, and infighting
are inherent to organizational life.
- Recognizing the relationship between power and politics is essential for effectively
operating within organizations.

Political Perspective of Power in Organizations

The classical view of organizations depicted them as rational structures where authority
followed a strict chain of command, and managers held legitimate power. However, a more
realistic perspective recognizes the political nature of organizations.

Walter Nord proposed four postulates that shed light on power in organizations:

1. Organizations are composed of competing coalitions vying for resources, energy, and
influence.
2. Various coalitions seek to protect their interests and positions of influence.
3. The unequal distribution of power can have dehumanizing effects.
4. The exercise of power within organizations is interconnected with power dynamics in the
larger social system.

Changing Nature of Organizational Politics: While organizational politics continues to be

prevalent, its nature and expression evolve over time. Younger workers often reject older
forms of politics, viewing them as outdated. This changing perception reflects shifting values
and expectations within the workforce.

Specific Political Strategies for Power Acquisition

Research studies have identified specific strategies that can enhance an individual's power
acquisition in organizations. One study found that a supervisor-focused political strategy
resulted in higher levels of career success, while a job-focused political strategy led to lower
levels of success. Furthermore, a taxonomy of political strategies includes:

1. Information strategy: Targeting political decision-makers by providing information through

lobbying, position papers, or technical reports.
2. Financial incentive strategy: Targeting decision-makers by offering financial incentives
such as honoraria for speaking engagements or paid travel.
3. Constituency building strategy: Indirectly targeting decision-makers through grassroots
mobilization of employees, suppliers, customers, or public relations efforts.
Noteworthy Political Tactics

Yukl and Falbe identified eight common political tactics used in organizations. Among these,
consultation and rational persuasion were found to be the most frequently used and effective
tactics. Inspirational appeal also proved to be influential. Other approaches to political
strategies include analytical methods that consider uncertainty, resource control, and
alliance building. Alternatively, some managers employ pragmatic approaches, such as
keeping people satisfied, cultivating relationships, and engaging in negotiation and
deal-making.

Theresa Beiner introduced the concept of "reindeer games," referring to social activities that
selectively exclude certain employees from accessing power and influence, potentially
leading to discriminatory practices.

Strategies for Modern Managers

Several strategies can help modern managers navigate power dynamics within
organizations:
- Maintaining alliances with powerful individuals: Forming coalitions with influential
members from other departments or upper-level management can enhance an individual's
power.
- Application of Machiavellian principles: Machiavellian strategies can be applied in the
contemporary corporate world, such as welcoming or dismissing senior managers during
takeovers to weaken potential opposition.
- Divide and rule strategy: Creating conflicts between different departments or individuals
can prevent coalition formation and maintain control over limited resources.
- Manipulation of classified information: Controlling and selectively disseminating
information can create dependencies and foster power relationships.
- Quick showing strategy: Demonstrating competence and achieving immediate success in
a project or task can attract attention and provide a foundation for future endeavors.
- Attacking and blaming others: Deflecting responsibility and making others look bad can
elevate one's own status and protect their power.
- Progress one step at a time strategy: Implementing change incrementally, gaining small
victories, and gradually building support for larger initiatives.
- Utilizing crises: Leveraging crises to gain attention, resources, and support for necessary
actions or changes.
- Caution in seeking counsel: Being selective in seeking advice and guidance to protect
and maintain one's own power and influence.
- Resource dependence and control: Gaining control over vital resources can provide a
significant power advantage.

Addressing Dysfunctional Political Behavior

Recognizing that political games can be counterproductive and dysfunctional, organizations

may implement initiatives to prevent excessive game playing and turf wars. Trust-building
programs, fostering open communication, and promoting a shared organizational vision and
goals can reduce political behavior that hinders collaboration and productivity. Additionally,
crisis management and interventions can help address disruptive political agendas and
restore organizational harmony.
Final Word on Power and Politics

Understanding the implications of power and politics in organizations is crucial for managers.
While the strategies discussed are not exhaustive, they provide insights into acquiring
power. However, there is a need for a better framework to evaluate the ethics of power and
politics in organizations.

Ethical Concerns and Guidelines

To address the negative impact of organizational politics on ethics, the following guidelines
can be employed:
1. Keeping lines of communication open.
2. Role-modeling ethical and nonpolitical behaviors.
3. Being wary of game players driven by self-interest.
4. Protecting individual privacy interests.
5. Applying the value judgment of fairness.

Ethical Implications and Dysfunctional Effects

- ethical implications, such as arrangements for personal gain, favoritism, and unfair
hiring practices.
- Dysfunctional effects include weakened morale, creation of victors and victims, and
diversion of energy and time from job tasks.
- Politics can also influence pay decisions and hinder gainsharing plans.

Impact of Political Activity on Managerial Success and Performance

- Managers who engage in political activity may achieve promotions but experience
lower subordinate satisfaction, commitment, and unit performance.
- Research suggests that political maneuvering can be important for advancement but
detrimental to overall effectiveness across cultures.

Power and Politics in a Modern Organizational Climate

- Modern organizations inherently promote power seeking and political maneuvering.
- These activities extend beyond organizational boundaries, requiring firms to adopt
suitable political approaches when dealing with external agencies and individuals.
- Learning from past mistakes, organizations are recognizing the effectiveness of
ingratiating political tactics over coercive strategies.

Contingency Approaches to Power

The contingency model of power is a concept that suggests power within organizations is not
fixed or absolute, but rather depends on specific circumstances and factors. It recognizes
that different situations call for different types of power and that individuals can exert power
based on their position, control over resources, access to information, and ability to influence
others.

In simpler terms, the contingency model of power means that the amount of power someone
has in a given situation depends on various factors, such as their role in the organization, the
resources they control, and their ability to influence others. It acknowledges that power is not
a one-size-fits-all concept and can change depending on the specific context.
- Power is contingent upon specific organizational circumstances.
- The "right" position in the organization provides power, characterized by control over
resources such as budgets, facilities, and positions that can cultivate allies and supporters.
- Control over or extensive access to information is another source of power.
- Research supports the observation that referent power has a stronger influence on group
members with a high professional orientation.
- The allocation of power relevant to a task tends to be higher for lower-ranking participants
when high-ranking participants show less effort and interest in that task.
- Control of strategic contingencies, such as organizational interdependence and the control
of critical operations of other departments, affects power dynamics.
- Influence behaviors and the influenceability of targets also play a role in the perception of
power.

Influenceability of the Targets of Power:

- Power involves a reciprocal relationship between the agent and the target.
- Characteristics of the target influence their influenceability.

- Dependency on the relationship, uncertainty, personality traits, intelligence, gender, age,

and cultural values impact the susceptibility to influence.

- The target's dependency on the agent, lack of alternatives, and perception of unique
rewards increase their susceptibility to influence.
- Uncertainty about appropriate behavior makes people more likely to be influenced.
- Personality traits such as intolerance to ambiguity, high anxiety, and high affiliation needs
affect influenceability.
- Intelligence does not have a straightforward relationship with influenceability, as highly
intelligent individuals may be more resistant to influence.
- Gender differences in influenceability have diminished over time.
- Influence susceptibility generally increases in young children, decreases with age until
adolescence, and then levels off.
- Cultural values influence the influenceability of individuals, with Western cultures
emphasizing individuality and dissent and Asian cultures emphasizing cohesiveness and
agreement.

An Overall Contingency Model for Power:

- An overall contingency model of power incorporates various variables in the power

relationship.
- The model combines French and Raven's sources of power with Kelman's sources of
power.
- Compliance, identification, and internalization are the three major processes of power.

Compliance process: In this process, the target complies with the agent's influence
attempts to gain a favorable reaction or avoid punishment. The agent's power to reward,
punish, and monitor the target's behavior plays a significant role in achieving compliance.
The target's perception of the agent's ability to control resources, provide incentives, and
impose sanctions shapes their compliance behavior.

Identification process: Identification occurs when the target identifies with the agent,
finding them attractive and salient. The agent's referent power, stemming from their
interpersonal relationships, charisma, or personal characteristics, is crucial for successful
identification. When individuals identify with an agent, they are more likely to adopt the
agent's behaviors and attitudes as their own.

Internalization process: Internalization takes place when the target internalizes the agent's
influence because it aligns with their own value structure. The agent's expert or legitimate
power, coupled with the relevance of the influence attempt to the target's values and beliefs,
is instrumental in facilitating internalization. Internalized power has a lasting impact and does
not require continuous surveillance or salience by the agent.

The Two Faces of Power:

- David McClelland identified two major types of power: personal power and social power.

Personal power: Personal power refers to power used for self-oriented behaviors and
personal interests. It often involves the pursuit of individual goals and the advancement of
one's own position. Personal power can manifest in behaviors such as self-promotion,
self-serving bias, and a focus on personal gain. However, relying solely on personal power
can hinder collaboration and teamwork, leading to a lack of cooperation and trust among
team members.

Social power: Social power, on the other hand, is focused on group goals and collective
interests. Individuals who possess social power use their influence to shape group
processes, facilitate coordination, and promote the achievement of shared objectives. Social
power contributes to the development of a sense of strength and competence among group
members, fostering a positive group dynamic and enhancing overall performance.

Misuse and Ethics of Power:

- Power can be misused or abused, leading to negative consequences.

- Inappropriate use of power includes sexual harassment, creating a hostile work
environment, and intimidating subordinates.
- Ethical use of power involves responsible decision-making and considering the well-being
of others.
- Understanding power dynamics and ethical considerations is essential for effective
leadership.