Definitions:

A system is a group of related objects that perform a task (tasks). System

and design are a group of methods that used to describe or specify the system
requirements (needs), then determine the suitable software. A systems analyst
is a person who looks at the existing system and suggest a number of solu-
tions.
The systems analyst may suggest a manual, paper-based system, or, a
computer-based operation for the tasks. The main stages in the systems life
cycle are:
1) Analysis stage
Look at the current system and then find the problems.
2) Design stage
Plan the proposed new system.
3) Development and testing stage
Create the new system and test it.
4) Implementation stage
Place the new system to the company
5) Documentation stage
Create user-guides for everyday users and those who will develop it further
6) Evaluation stage.
Decide how well the new system is working.

There are many stages in the systems life cycle, which have been summarised in the
figure below:

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What is the purpose of systems and design?
Systems are developed and designed:
1- To design a new system that can carry out the same tasks better.
2- To prevent having serious faults and defects.
3- Faults always are high cost and time consuming to be discovered or cor-
rected.
4- Minimse the potential faults by proper planning.

1- Analysis stage
Analysis is the first stage in the process of the current system. It looks at
the current system and then find the problems.
Definition: It's a study used to collect data (information), describe the problems
and specify the system requirements (needs).
This stage contains the following procedures to analyse the system:
1- Research the current system
2- Identification of input and output
3- Processing that take places
4- Problems with the current system
5- User requirements for the new system
6- Required information for the new system
7- Identify hardware and software for the new system

The Analysis stage depends on the following three concepts: -

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 1) Analyse the current system
2) Record and analyse information about the current system
3) System specification

Concept 1:
Analyse the current system

Here the analyst used to research the current system and collect data (or informa-
tion). There are four methods to collect this data, and they are:
1) Observation
2) Questionnaires
3) Interviews
4) Existing documents.

Methods of researching the current system

(Methods of collecting information from the current system)

1) Observation
Description (Definition):

It's watching workers using the current system to

see how it works. It gives the analyst an exact picture
of what it can do and can’t do.

Advantages Disadvantages
● Obtain reliable data. ● Uncomfortable method (by
● Getting an overall view of the being watched).
system. ● Employers may work in a dif-
● Inexpensive method. ferent way.
● All inputs and outputs of the cur- ● Workers may not do contra-
rent system are seen. vene procedures while being
watched.

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 2) Interviews
Description (Definition):

It's a face- to-face question-and-answer session be-

tween the analyst and the user.

Advantages Disadvantages
● Giving honest answers. ● Time- consuming.
● The analyst can extend his ● Expensive.
questions for more feedback. ● The interviewee may hide in-
● Can modify and ask specific formation or not be honest with
questions. their answers.
● Analyst can see body language ● Interviewees may not be avail-
and facial expressions. able at some times.

3) Questionnaires
Description (Definition):

It's distributing papers (questionnaires) to the

workers, clients or system users to find out their
views of the current system.
Questionnaires are quick ways of gathering basic information about a current
system.
Advantages Disadvantages
● Quickly answered. ● The returned questionnaires
● Inexpensive method. can be low.
● Quick to analyse the data. ● It is not possible to ask follow-
● Interviewees fill in questionnaire in up questions
their own time. ● The interviewees may not take it
● Allows many people to take part. seriously

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 4) The existing documents
(Definition (Description):

It is looking at paperwork for the current system

which contains needed information to implement
the processes.
Paperwork can include:
1- Stock items
2- Pay scales – payrolls – bills
3- Technical documentation (describes how exactly the current system has
been built).

The existing documents The existing documents allows the analyst to:
1- see how existing files are kept
2- look at instructions and training manuals
3- scale of the problem
4- memory size requirements
5- type of input/ output devices needed, etc.

Advantages Disadvantages
● Allows information to be obtained rather ● Time- consuming.
than any of other methods. ● Expensive.
● The analyst can understand how the cur- ● Wasting time (if it’s not
rent system operates. relevant to the current sys-
tem)
Concept 2:
Record and analyse information about the current system

Here we specify Inputs, outputs, processing and current problems. This stage or
process requires the analyst to find out:
 Input and output that takes place.
 Processing which has to be done.
 Problems in the current system.
 User and information requirements for the new system.
Analyst can use a data flow diagram (DFD) to specify the requirements, why?
Because the DFD displays the following information:
1) What inputs take place.
2) What outputs are produced.
3) What processing is done.
4) What storage may be needed.
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The DFD process can help the analyst to identify:
 Any problems that occur in the current system.
 User and information requirements.

User requirements
The problem to solve is this: computer system developers do not really understand
how a business works: business managers do not really know how computer systems
could help them.

The user requirements are designed to help with this problem:

 Written by the analyst for the business managers (the customers).
 Written in natural language with few technical details.
 Their purpose is to allow the customers to check that what the analyst pro-
poses, following the investigations, is exactly what they originally specified; for
example, if the company employs people with disabilities, does the new hard-
ware take that into account?
 It describes what the analyst thinks the customer does with their system.

Information requirements
It means the information needed to support the business.
The information requirements are made up of:
 what? (which data that exactly needed)
 when? (what is data that needed in timing for processing).
The system analyst turns the information and user requirements into a functional re-
quirements specification (and this is by how the new system will be developed and
implemented, including timescales).

The requirements must be typically defined as a list of needs, for example:

 Define the customers and describe how they interface (or interact) with the sys-
tem.
 Define the vendors and describe how they interface (or interact) with the system.
 Define the employees and describe how they interface (or interact) with the sys-
tem.

Concept 3:
System specification

The analysis team must identify the hardware and software that is needed to run the
new system, so they need to:
1- Identify and justify hardware.

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 2- Identify and justify software.
Identify and justify hardware means to specify:
 The needed input devices.
 The needed output devices.
Identify and justify software means to specify:
 which software is required.
 Storage requirements also need to be considered.

2- Design stage
It's the second stage in the process is design. It plans the proposed new system. And
that’s by specify and determine the file, forms, reports, validation structures.

In the design stage the analyst has to specify:

1) File structures and data structures
2) Input formats (including data forms)
3) Output formats (including screen and report layouts)
4) Validation routines

1- file structures and data structures

This process describes how the files will be structured and the format of the data
types being stored in the files.
Example:

Each field in the record must be defined as follows:

1) Field name.
2) Field length (the maximum number of characters needed to be stored).
3) Data type.
4) Some extra characters can be used to speed up and verify entry and also re-
duces errors.
5) Specify the primary key field.

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Data types
Are organised categories used to classify stored data. We will now consider data
types in the following table:
Data type Description examples
Alphanumeric letters or text and numeric data A345FF or 0743201
character Single letter X or d
String of letters or numbers or other
Text A3_45%FF##
symbols
Stores data in a Yes/No or True/False
Boolean Y or N
format (logical options)
Store numeric data which is used to
perform calculations
There are different types of numeric data
as follows:
Integer (whole numbers) 234 or −1245
Numeric
Decimal / real (non-integer values) 25.54 or −150.22
currency (contains currency symbols) $24.55 or €123.50
Date/time (allows dates and time to be
14/05/2020 or 12:45
stored)

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Example of file structure:
Field name Field length Data type
Product_code 30 Text
Year_of_manufacture 4 Numeric: integer
Product_description 40 Text
Price 6 Numeric: currency
Department 1 Character/text

Notice:
In assigning a field length, use a good estimate for the value needed to store.
Example:
If you assigned a field length to 50, and the largest expected data item is only five
characters, then this will be a large waste of memory space in a database.

2- Input formats (data capture forms)

Data capture forms are used to input data into a computer. These forms ensure data
is input into the computer in the correct format, and matches this format of the data
when being stored in the database.
Data capture forms – according to the application - are either:
● paper-based
● or electronic-based.

Paper-based forms need to – or must (Paper-based forms features are:):

1. Have a heading (describes the purpose of the form).
2. Clear when filling the form with answers.
3. Use text boxes according to the amount of collected information.
4. Use character boxes (such as surnames).
5. Use printed text boxes (for easy input of items).
6. Use tick boxes (for easier choices).
7. Make suitable space to write answers.
8. Use clear fonts and clear text colours to make the form easy to read.

Paper-based form:
The following figure shows an example, for a Paper-based form that allows data
about selling a car to complete it manually, for later input into a computer database.

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Computer-based form:
A computer-based data capture form is different. Computer-based often have the fol-
lowing features:
1. Use text boxes (to capture key data clearly (input data)).
2. Use on-screen (to help in completing the form).
3. Use drop-down / combo boxes (for limited choices).
4. Use radio buttons and tick boxes (for single click to select).
5. Automatic validation of data as it is entered.
6. Control buttons (such as next form, clear entry, save, etc.).
7. Double entry boxes (with verification rules) to check correctness of key data
(for example, when keying in an email address).

3- Output formats – screen and report layouts

The output from any system is the result of some form of processing.
Screen outputs should be designed and contained:
 Ensure the size of all the output fields is correct.
 Clear instructions or descriptions.
 Utilise the full screen (no large blank areas).
 Clear colours and fonts (size and type) of the output.
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If the output is on paper, then consider: arrange headers and footers, Fit the page
correctly and so on.
Reports are the output from a database process. Reports show all the fields that were
included in the search criteria (or process) usually in the form of a table.

Like the following Example outputs a list of all sales managers over 40:

4- Validation routines

When data is input into a computer system, we need to check that the data is accept-
able.
Validation is the process where data is checked when it’s entered into a computer to
see if it satisfies certain criteria.
It is an automatic check carried out by the computer as part of its programming.
Validation is not a check on whether the data is correct or accurate; it is only a
check to see if it is reasonable or acceptable.

Example for validation criteria:

1- Only positive numbers entered (your criteria will be your number must be
greater than zero).
2- or eight characters must be entered (your criteria will be your text must be not
greater than eight letters or symbols).
any data failing these criteria should be rejected (rejected means it will be entered
and saved in your database file).

There are many validation routines that can be used. There are the six common vali-
dation are described in the following Table: -
Validation check Description Examples
The data input is be- Temperature range between
Range tween an acceptable up- 10 to 50 degrees
per and lower value
Type/ The data entered is of A person’s name should not con-
the correct type (letter
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 tain numbers
character or number only) A person’s height should not con-
tain letters
If a password contains eight
The data input contains characters, then an input with
Length only the required num- seven characters or nine charac-
ber of characters ters, for example, should pro-
duce an error message
Ensures the date is entered in a for-
The data input is in
Format mat such as dd/mm/yyyy (e.g.
the correct format
10/12/2023)
When using an online form, a per-
son’s telephone number may be a
data has been entered
Presence ‘required field’; if no data is en-
into a field (not empty)
tered, this should give rise to an
error message
Check digits can identify three
types of error:
1 if two digits have been trans-
posed during input; for ex-
ample, 13597 instead of
13579
This is an extra digit 2 an incorrect digit has been
added to a number entered; for example, 13559
Check digit which has been calcu- instead of 13579
lated from the other dig- 3 a digit has been missed out or
its extra digit added; for example,
1359 or 135799 instead of 13579
(in all three cases, the check
digit (usually the last digit) would
not be 9 if an error had been
made)

3- Development and testing stage

In this stage we create the new system by Starting writing the
programming modules and coding and then test it by entering
some data).

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The need for testing:
The need for testing is to create the system and fully test (check) it (to write program
codes).

For the need of testing the system analyst will follow the following points:

1) Finalizing files structures (Specify data type that is being stored in each field,
length of each field, specify the key field, linking data files be, etc.).

And then fully test it to ensure that it is stored and saved correctly and accurately.

2) Use validation routines and verification methods to ensure that the correct data
is stored in files.
Also test the validation routines and verification methods to ensure that any data
transferred (entered) from a paper-based system to an electronic system has been
done accurately.

3) Identify all the forms of user interfaces and needed hardware to actually inter-
face with the new system.

For example:
Ensure the user screens are user- friendly (and any other input devices) or specify
any specialist hardware is needed, all this will be used to collect the data and the way
the output will be presented.

We will consider for testing the new system two strategies:

1- Test designs
2- Test strategies

Test designs
Test designs cover how a system is to be tested. We consider, and ensure the
following aspects:
 Testing the data structures
 Testing the file structures
 Testing the input methods
 Testing the output formats
 Testing the validation rules.
In details look at the following table:

Table shows: Testing designs

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 To test that all data is in a correct format and
Data structures
stored in the correct way.
To test that the file structures function correctly
file structures (data stored in correct format and can be correctly
retrieved)
To test that all data can be entered into the system
Input formats
correctly.
To test that screen outputs and reports are all in
the correct format (for example, are the output re-
Output formats
sults clear, complete and correctly match the input
data)
The test design should determine what data is
Validation rou- needed to test to see if all the validation rules work
tines (for example, does the system correctly reject un-
reasonable data being input)

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Test strategies
Software is often created in modular form.
Modular form is a method that allows the system to be broken down into
smaller parts (known as modules).
Each module is created and developed separately by a programmer (or team
of programmers).
Each module needs to be tested separately to see if it functions correctly.
Any problems resulting from the testing require the module to be modified
and then tested again.
Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs
to be tested as a whole (with all modules functioning together).
Also, any problems resulting from testing the whole new system require the
modules to be modified and then tested again.
The modifications could be:
 improve the input and output methods
 file/ database structures
 validation and verification methods, etc.
and then fully test everything again. It is a very time-consuming process, but
has to be as perfect as possible before the new system uses live data (real
data).

Test plan, test data and live data:

Once the testing designs and strategy have been determined, it then becomes
necessary to formulate a test plan for each module. That means we need to enter
some data to check the processes of the new system.
Example:
To input a date into a database field. The entered data must take the format dd / mm /
yyyy and all data must be numeric.

The types of data in Test plan (to be entered to the new system) are three:
1) Normal
2) Abnormal
3) Extreme
 Live data

1- Normal:

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 This is data that would normally be entered into the system. The system should
accept it, process it, then we can get and check the result (output) to make sure they
are correct.
So, it is data which is acceptable / valid and has an expected (known) outcome.

Example (1): the month can be any whole number in the range 1 to 12
The values from 1 to 12 are Normal data value.

Example (2):
In a system that was designed to accept and process test marks (percent-
ages), then Normal test values would include: 10 , 25 , 63 , 89 …

2- Extreme:
Extreme values they are still normal data. However, the values are chosen to be at
the absolute limits of the normal range.
Extreme values are used in testing to make sure that all normal values will be ac-
cepted and processed correctly.

Example (1):
The data at the limits of acceptability / validity, the month can be between the two end
values 1 or 12.

Example (2):
In a system that was designed to accept and process test marks (percentages), then
extreme test values would be:
0 (lowest possible value).
100 (highest possible value).

Example (3):
In a system that deal with text, the extreme data values are defined by how long the
text can be. The limits would be:
- “” (nothing entered).
- “ABCDEF ……” (max length).

3- Abnormal:
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 This is data that should not normally be accepted by the system- the values are in-
valid.
The system should reject any abnormal values.
Abnormal values are used in testing to make sure that invalid data does not break the
system.

So, this data is outside the limits of acceptability / validity and should be rejected or
cause an error message.

Example (1): the month cannot be any of the following values:

(None of the following values are allowed as inputs for the month)

– any value less than 1 (like: 0, −1, −15, etc.)

– any value greater than 12 (like: 32, 45, etc.)
– letters or other non-numeric data (like: July, etc.)
– non-integer values (fractions - like: 3.5, 10.75, etc.).

Live data

Once a system has been fully tested, it is then tested with live data.
Live data is the real data of the company.
This is data with known outcomes.
Live data is entered into the new system and the results compared with those pro-
duced from the existing system.
If the two outcomes do not match, then the new system may needs some modifica-
tions.

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Example of a test plan
The test plan shown in the following table is designed to test a module where temper-
atures are input which must be in the correct range (21 °C to 50 °C). Any tempera-
tures outside this range should be rejected. The input temperatures can be integer or
real (decimal).

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 4- Implementation stage
Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully imple-
ment it.
We place the new system to the company and running the real
program in the company. So, there will be a need to train the
staff.

There are four common methods used for changing over from the old system to the
new system. The methods are:
1) Direct
2) Parallel
3) Pilot
4) Phased

1- Direct method:
Definition (Description):

The old system is stopped and the new system started immediately.

Advantages Disadvantages
● New system used immedi- ● Big problem if the new system
ately. fails (because the old system is not
● The benefits are immediate. available).
● Fastest way to change. ● Training the staff.
● Cheap (less expensive). ● Time Consuming.
● Less chance for the new system to ● Data can be lost permanently
fail. (when remove the old system com-
pletely)

2- Parallel method:

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 Definition (Description):

The old and new systems run together for a time before the new system takes
over altogether.

Advantages Disadvantages
● If this new system fails, the old sys- ● It is more expensive than direct
tem is still available as a backup. (because extra staff are needed to
● Staff training made gradually. run both systems together)
● More time consuming than direct
because data needs to be entered
into two systems

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 3- Pilot method:
Definition (Description):

The new system is introduced into one branch the company and its performance
assessed before being introduced elsewhere in the company.

Advantages Disadvantages
● If the new system fails, only one ● It takes a long time to change the
part is affected; the remainder is un- new system for whole company
affected ● If the new system fails the depart-
● Training staff in one area only ment will lose its data
(faster and less costly than parallel)
● Less expensive costs than parallel
because only one part of the system
is being used
● The implementation is in smaller
scale and is easier to manage

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 4- Phased method:
Definition (Description):

Only part of the new system is introduced and, when it works properly, then
the next part introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully replaced.

Advantages Disadvantages
● If the new system fails in the de- ● More expensive than direct
partment you can still use old system (because of evaluating each
data (failure is not disastrous). phase before moving to the next
● Be sure that the system works stage)
properly before expanding. ● Very time consuming (each
● Staff training is made gradu- part needs to be evaluated before
ally. making any changes to the sys-
● Easier to find system errors as tem)
you are dealing with one part. ● Only suitable for systems that
can be split into separate parts

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 5- Documentation stage

Documentation is a printed copy that describes all the new system de-
scription.
In this stage we create a user-guides for everyday users and those who
will develop the new system further.
There are two types of documentation:
1) Technical documentation.
2) User documentation.

Technical documentation
Technical documentation is designed to help programmers/analysts to
make improvements to the system/repair /maintain the system.

It consists of any of the following:

 Program code.
 Programming language used.
 Program flowcharts/algorithms.
 System flowcharts.
 Purpose of the new system.
 Limitations of the system.
 Input formats.
 Hardware requirements.
 Software requirements.
 Minimum memory requirements.
 Known ‘bugs’ in the system.
 All variables used and their
meaning (or description).
 File structures.
 Sample runs (with results and actual test data used).
 Output formats.
 Validation rules.
 Meaning of error messages.

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User documentation
User documentation is designed to help users to learn how to use the new
system.
It consists of any of the following:
 Loading / installing / running the software.
 Saving files.
 Doing a search.
 Sorting data.
 Printing out.
 Adding, deleting records.
 The purpose of the new system.
 Limitations of the new system.
 Screen layouts (input format).
 Print layouts (output format).
 Hardware requirements.
 Software requirements.
 Sample runs (with results and ac-
tual test data used).
 Error handling/meaning of errors.
 Troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs (frequently asked questions).
 How to log in/log out.
 Tutorials.
 Error messages/meaning of error messages.
 Glossary of terms.

6- Evaluation stage
To Decide (check) how well the new system is working. We need to see
if the new system solves all old system problems.
We consider the following things:
 Compare the final solution with the original task requirements.
 Identify limitations of the system.
 Identify necessary improvements that
needed.
 Evaluate the users’ responses of using the
new system.

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  Compare test results from both the new and the old system.
 Compare performance of both the new system and the old system.
 Observe users performing set tasks (compare old with new).
 Measure the time period to complete tasks (compare old with new).
 Interview users to gather their responses about working by the new
system.
 Give out questionnaires to evaluate the ease of use of the new sys-
tem.

Some results from the evaluation may lead to two things happening:
 Update of hardware.
 Update of software.

 Update of hardware, because of:

 Feedback from end-users.
 New hardware comes on the market.
 The company require to add or update new devices.
 Update of software, because:
 Feedback from end-users
 The company structure changes or require modifications to
the software.

After all this either accept and use the new system, or reject and then
redesign some requirements.

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