1. Briefly explain the traffic capacity study.

Ans:-

1. Purpose: Traffic capacity studies evaluate road efficiency, identify congestion points, and plan for
infrastructure improvements by measuring the maximum traffic volume a road can handle.
2. Components: The study includes traffic volume (vehicle counts), speed studies (vehicle speeds),
and delay studies (delays due to signals or congestion).
3. Methods: Data is collected through manual counts by observers, automatic electronic devices, and
various surveys (origin-destination, speed and delay, vehicle classification).
4. Applications: The data helps in designing roadways, regulating traffic control devices, conducting
economic analyses, and planning traffic management strategies.
5. Cyclical Variations: Studies account for hourly (peak times), daily (weekdays vs. weekends), and
seasonal (changes throughout the year) traffic patterns.
6. Data Utilization: Results are used for road design, traffic management improvements, and cost-
benefit analyses in highway financing.

2. With neat sketch explain LOS.

Ans:-
The Level of Service (LOS) is a qualitative measure used to describe the operational conditions within a
traffic stream and the perception of these conditions by motorists and passengers.
The LOS is graded from A to F, with each letter representing a range of operating conditions and the
corresponding traffic flow.

1. LOS A (Free Flow):

• Characteristics: Low volumes, low densities, and high speeds.
• Driver Experience: Drivers can maintain their desired speed with little or no delay.
2. LOS B (Stable Flow):
 • Characteristics: Operating speeds with some restrictions due to other vehicles.
• Driver Experience: Normal traffic volumes with few delays and little traffic restrictions.
3. LOS C (Stable Flow):
• Characteristics: High traffic volumes leading to controlled speeds.
• Driver Experience: Drivers have limited ability to choose their speeds due to increased volume.
4. LOS D (Approaching Unstable Flow):
• Characteristics: High densities with significant restrictions and fluctuations in traffic flow.
• Driver Experience: Drivers face lower comfort and convenience with more delays.
5. LOS E (Unstable Flow):
• Characteristics: Operating at capacity with lower speeds and frequent traffic interruptions.
• Driver Experience: High levels of congestion with very limited freedom to manoeuvre.
6. LOS F (Forced or Breakdown Flow):
• Characteristics: Traffic volume exceeds roadway capacity leading to stop-and-go conditions.
• Driver Experience: Very high delays and low speeds, often resulting in traffic gridlock.

3. Define intersection. Explain the types of intersections.

Ans:-
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross, including the
carriageway and roadside design features that facilitate orderly traffic movements in that area
Types of Intersections
Intersections can be broadly classified into two main categories:
1. At-Grade Intersections
2. Grade-Separated Intersections
1. At-Grade Intersections
• Channelized Intersections: These intersections are designed with traffic islands to direct traffic
flow into specified paths. The primary objectives of channelization are to reduce vehicle conflicts,
control crossing angles, reduce approach speeds, and provide safe refuges for pedestrians .
• Unchannelized Intersections: Here, the entire intersection area is paved without physical
obstructions to guide traffic, making them simpler but more prone to accidents. These intersections
are suitable for areas with very low traffic volumes .
• Rotary Intersections: A form of intersection control where traffic flows in one direction around a
central island, converting severe conflicts into milder weaving, merging, and diverging conflicts. It
is designed to allow free-turn movements while forcing through and right-turn traffic to move
around the central island in a clockwise direction .
2. Grade-Separated Intersections These intersections allow roads to cross at different levels, eliminating
crossing conflicts. They typically involve structures like overpasses or underpasses. Grade-separated
intersections are beneficial for high-traffic areas, providing uninterrupted traffic flow and enhanced safety
. They can be further classified based on the number of legs served:
• Three-Leg Interchange: Includes T-type, Y-type, and rotary types.
• Four-Leg Interchange: Includes diamond, partial cloverleaf, full clover-leaf, rotary, and directional
interchanges.
• Multi-Leg Interchange: Typically rotary interchanges are designed to handle multiple intersecting
roads .

4.Briefly explain the types of traffic sign.

Ans:-
Traffic signs are essential components of road safety and traffic management, providing clear instructions
and information to road users.
They are classified into three main types: regulatory signs, warning signs, and informatorily signs.
1. Regulatory Signs:
o Shape and Colour: Generally circular with a few exceptions. They have specific colour
codes to distinguish different types of regulations.
o Purpose: These signs inform road users about traffic laws and regulations. Violation of these
signs is a legal offence.
o Examples:
▪ Stop Sign: Octagonal shape, red with white lettering, indicates vehicles must come
to a complete stop.
▪ Give Way Sign: Inverted triangle, red border with white interior, indicates drivers
must yield to other vehicles.
▪ No Entry: Circular with a red background and white horizontal stripe, indicates that
entry is prohibited.
▪ No Parking and No Stopping: Circular with blue interior and red border, indicates
restrictions on stopping or parking.
2. Warning Signs:
o Shape: Triangular with an apex pointing upwards.
o Purpose: These signs alert drivers to potential hazards or changes in road conditions ahead,
allowing them to take necessary precautions.
o Examples:
▪ Sharp Bend: Indicates a sharp turn ahead.
▪ Pedestrian Crossing: Alerts drivers to a pedestrian crossing point.
▪ Animal Crossing: Warns of areas where animals frequently cross the road.
3. Informatory Signs:
 o Shape and Colour: Generally rectangular with different colour schemes depending on the
type of information provided.
o Purpose: These signs provide useful information to road users, such as directions, distances,
services, and facilities.
o Examples:
▪ Direction and Place Identification Signs: Indicate directions to various locations
and places.
▪ Facility Information Signs: Provide information about facilities like petrol pumps,
hospitals, and rest areas.
▪ Parking Signs: Indicate designated parking areas and related restrictions.
▪ Flood Gauge: Installed at causeways and submersible bridges to indicate flood
levels.

5.What is rotary intersection. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of rotary intersection.
Ans:-
Rotary Intersection:
• A rotary intersection is a type of traffic control where traffic flows in one direction around a central
island.
• This design eliminates through and right-turn conflicts, making it safer and more efficient. It is an
"at-grade" intersection, meaning all traffic moves on the same level without bridges or tunnels.
• Vehicles are forced to slow down and move in a clockwise direction around the island.
Advantages:
1. Reduced Conflicts: Traffic moves in a single direction, minimizing severe conflicts.
2. Speed Reduction: Vehicles slow down upon entering, leading to fewer accidents.
3. Self-Governing: Requires minimal control by police or traffic signals.
4. Suitability for Moderate Traffic: Ideal for intersections with irregular geometry or multiple
approaches.
5. Equal Opportunity for All Directions: Vehicles turning right, left, or going straight have equal
access.
Disadvantages:
1. Forced Speed Reduction: Even with low traffic, vehicles must slow down.
2. Cumulative Delays: All vehicles slow down, increasing overall delay.
3. Space Requirements: Needs large land areas, which can be costly in urban settings.
4. High-Speed Exits: Vehicles accelerate when exiting, posing risks in areas with high pedestrian
traffic.
5. Close Interval Issues: Ineffective if placed too close to one another.
6. With neat sketch explain the design factors of rotary intersection.
Ans:-

• A rotary intersection, also known as a roundabout, is designed to manage traffic flow efficiently and
safely.
• The key design factors include the entry, circulating, and exit paths, as well as the central island and
splitter islands.

The main design factors:

a. Design Speed
• Vehicles must reduce their speed at a rotary, leading to a lower design speed for the rotary
compared to the connecting roads.
• Urban and rural areas typically have design speeds of 30 km/h and 40 km/h, respectively, to
balance construction costs and safety.
b. Shape of Central Island
• The shape depends on the number and layout of intersecting roads, aiming for curves with
large radii and no corners.
• Common shapes include circular, elliptical, turbine, and tangent, each suited to specific
intersection conditions.
c. Radius of Central Island and Rotary Roadway
• The radii vary at different points of the rotary based on the island's shape.
• Minimum recommended radius is 1.33 times the entry curve radius, with a minimum of 40m
for 40 km/h design speed and 20m for 30 km/h.
d. Weaving Angle and Weaving Distance
 • Weaving angle: The angle between paths of entering and exiting vehicles, ideally small but
not less than 15º to avoid excessively large central islands.
• Weaving distance: The length between channelizing islands, should be at least four times
the width of the weaving section, typically 45-90m for 40 km/h and 30-60m for 30 km/h.
e. Width of Carriageway at Entry and Exit
• Widths are governed by the traffic volume entering and exiting the rotary.
• Typical widths are 6.5m, 7.0m, 8.0m, and 13.0m for roads with two, three, four, and six
lanes, respectively.
f. Width of Rotary Roadway
• This width varies and is defined as the minimum distance between the central island edge
and the adjoining curb, accommodating all entering traffic.
g. Radius of Entrance and Exit Curves
• Entry radius depends on design speed, super-elevation, and friction, with typical values
being 20-25m for rural and 15-20m for urban areas.
• Exit radius is usually 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius, adjusted for higher pedestrian
movement if necessary.
h. Capacity of Rotary Intersection
• The practical capacity depends on the weaving section's minimum capacity, calculated using
specific formulas considering the width of weaving section, entry width, length of weaving
section, and traffic proportions.

7. Briefly explain methods of traffic signal designs.

Ans:-
i. Trial Cycle Method:
• Count the 15-minute traffic on the roads during peak hours.
• Assume a trial cycle time and calculate the number of cycles in 15 minutes.
• Calculate the green periods for roads based on an average headway time.
• Assume amber periods and calculate the trial cycle length.
• Adjust and repeat trials until the assumed and calculated cycle lengths match.
ii. Approximate Method Based on Pedestrian Crossing Requirement:
• Design the signal cycle based on the time required for pedestrians to safely cross the road.
iii. Webster’s Method:
• Calculate the optimum cycle time to minimize the total delay for all vehicles.
• Determine normal and saturation traffic flow on each approach road.
 • Use an analytical approach to find the signal cycle length that corresponds to the least overall
delay.
iv. Design as per IRC Guidelines:
• Follow specific guidelines and standards set by the Indian Roads Congress for signal design.

8. Explain the following.

Ans:-
(i) Overpass and its Advantages
An overpass, also known as a flyover, is a bridge that allows one road to cross over another road or a
railway. The primary purpose of an overpass is to enable uninterrupted flow of traffic at intersections by
separating different levels of traffic.
Advantages of Overpasses:
1. Eliminates Stopping: Vehicles do not need to stop while crossing the roads, which reduces delays
and improves traffic flow.
2. Safety: Overpasses reduce the risk of accidents by eliminating crossing conflicts between different
streams of traffic.
3. Higher Speed Limits: Grade-separated roads generally have higher speed limits, allowing vehicles
to maintain high speeds at intersections, thus saving travel time.
4. Versatility: Overpasses can be designed to accommodate all likely angles of intersecting roads,
making them versatile solutions for complex intersections.
5. Comfort and Convenience: Overall, overpasses enhance the comfort and convenience for
motorists, leading to savings in travel time and vehicle operating costs .
(ii) Pavement Markings
Pavement markings are a crucial aspect of road safety and traffic management, providing essential
information to drivers regarding lane usage, directions, and road conditions.
Types and Purposes of Pavement Markings:
1. Regulatory Markings: These include stop lines, yield lines, and other markings that indicate
mandatory actions for drivers, such as "STOP" and "YIELD" signs. They ensure that vehicles stop
or give way at intersections, improving safety.
2. Warning Markings: These are used to alert drivers to potential hazards ahead, such as pedestrian
crossings, school zones, or changes in road conditions. For example, a series of transverse lines may
indicate an upcoming stop sign.
3. Guidance Markings: Lane lines, centrelines, and edge lines guide drivers along the correct path,
helping to maintain orderly traffic flow and preventing accidents by delineating the road boundaries.
4. Informational Markings: These include markings that provide information such as directions,
route numbers, or distances to destinations. They assist drivers in navigation and route planning.
5. Special Markings: These are used for specific purposes, such as bus lanes, bicycle lanes, or
handicapped parking spaces, ensuring that different types of road users have designated areas and
improving overall traffic efficiency .