Di

ode

I
ntr
oduct
ion
I
tisasemi
conduct
ordevi
cet
hatcont
ainst
wo-
elect
rodep-
njunct
ion.
Thi
sdi
odei
smadeofN-
mat
eri
alandP-
mat
eri
al(
Posi
ti
veand
Negat
ivedev
ices)t
hatar
ejoi
nedi
nasi
ngl
epackage.t
hatar
ejoi
ned

i
nasi
ngl
epackage.

 Si
li
condi
odeshav
eaf
orwar
dvol
tageofappr
oxi
mat
ely0.
7vol
ts.
  Germanium diodeshaveaforwardvol
tageofapproxi
mately0.3
vol
ts.
 Themaxi mum rever
se-bi
asvoltaget
hatadiodecanwithstand
wit
hout“breakingdown”iscal
ledthePeakInver
seVoltage,orPIV
rat
ing.

Rect
if
ierDi
ode:
.I
tisusedf
orl
owf
requencyr
angemost
lyf
or
powersuppl
y.
ZenerDiode:
.Iti
susedf
orr
efer
encev
olt
agemost
lyf
orr
egul
ator
’s
r
efer
ence.

Schemat
icSy
mbolofZenerDi
ode.
.

A.Schott
kyDiode:-
Thisdi
odeisdesi
gnedtohaveav er
yfastswit
chi
ng
ti
mewhi chmakesitagreatdi
odefordi
git
alci
rcui
tappl
icati
ons.I
tis
verycommoni ncomputer
sbecauseofit
sabil
it
ytobeswi t
chedon
andoffsoquickl
y.

•
Adi
odei
sa2l
eadsemi
conduct
ort
hatact
sasaonewaygat
etoel
ect
ron
f
low.
–Diodeal
lowscur
rentt
opassi
nonl
yonedi
rect
ion.
•
Apn-
junct
iondi
odei
sfor
medbyj
oini
ngt
oget
hern-
typeandp-
typesi
lcon.
i
•
Inpr
act
ice,
ast
hen-
typeSicr
yst
ali
sbei
nggr
own,
thepr
ocessi
sabr
upt
ly
alteredtogr owp- ty
peSicr y
st al
.Finally,agl assorpl ast i
ccoatingis
placedar oundt hej oinedcr ystal.
•Thep- sidei scalledanodeandt hen- sidei scall
edcat hode.
•Whent heanodeandcat hodeofapn- j
unct i
ondiodear econnectedt o
externalv oltage
sucht hatt hepot entialatanodei shi ghert hanthepot entialatcathode,the
diodei ssai d
tobef or wardbi ased.
–Inaf or ward-biaseddi odecur r
entisal lowedt of l
owt hr oughthedev ice.
•Whenpot ent i
alatanodei ssmal lerthant hepot entialatcat hode,the
diodei ssai dto
ber eversebi ased.Inar everse-biaseddi odecur rentisbl ocked

Whenadi odeisconnectedtoabat t
eryasshown, el
ectr
onsf r
om then-
si
deandhol esfrom t
hep-si
dear eforcedtowardthecenterbythe
el
ectri
calfi
eldsuppl
iedbythebattery.Theelect
ronsandholescombine
causi
ngthe
curr
enttopassthroughthediode.Whenadi ode
i
sar r
angedinthisway,i
tissaidtobef orwar
dbiased
 For
war
d-bi
ased(
“opendoor

Di
ode:Howi
tdoesn’
twor
k
Whenadi odei sconnectedtoabat t
eryasshown, holesinthensideare
for
cedt othel eftwhileelect
ronsint hep- si
dearefor
cedtot heri
ght.
Thisresultsinanempt yzonear oundt hepn-junct
ionthatisfr
eeofcharge
carr
iescreat ngadepl
i et
ionregi
on.
Thisdepletionr egi
onact sasani nsulatorprevent
ingcurrentfr
om fl
owing
thr
ought hedi ode.
Whenadi odei sarrangedinthisway ,itissaidt
ober ever
sebiased
 Rev
erse-
biased(
“cl
oseddoor
”)
Test
ingDi
odes

AMul
ti
Mat
ecanbeusedasaf
astandsi
mpl
ewayt
ocheckadi
ode.As
y
ouknow,
agooddi
odewi
llshowanext
remel
yhi
ghr
esi
stance(
oropen)
wi
thr
ever
sebi
asandav
eryl
owr
esi
stancewi
thf
orwar
dbi
as.

Test
ingadi
odewi
thaMul
ti
Mat
e

Thet
echni
quesusedf
oreacht
ypeofmet
erar
ever
ydi
ff
erentsot
heyar
e
t
reat
edsepar
atel
y:

Di
odes
Test
ingadi
odewi
thaDI
GITALMul
ti
Mat
e a=anode
k=cat
hode
Manydi
git
alMul
ti
Mat
e(DMMs)hav
easpeci
al
set
ti
ngf
oradi
odet
est
ingposi
ti
onandusual
lyl
abel
edwi
tht
hedi
ode
sy
mbolwhi
chpr
ovi
desaconv
eni
entwayt
otestadi
ode.

 Connectt
her
ed(
+)l
eadt
otheanodeandt
hebl
ack(
-)t
othecat
hode.
Thedi
odeshoul
dconductandt
hemet
erwi
lldi
spl
ayav
alue(
usual
ly
t
hev
olt
ageacr
osst
hedi
odei
nmV,
1000mV=1V)
.
 Rev
erset
heconnect
ions.Thedi
odeshoul
dNOTconductt
hiswayso
t
hemet
erwi
lldi
spl
ay"
offt
hescal
e"(
usual
lybl
ankexceptf
ora1on
t
hel
eft
).
 Whensett
odi
odet
est
,themet
erpr
ovi
desani
nter
nalv
olt
age
suf
fi
cientt
ofor
war
dbi
asandr
ever
sebi
asadi
ode,

 Thi
sint
ernalv
olt
agemayv
aryamongdi
ff
erentmakesofDMM,
but
2.
5Vt
o3.
5Vi
sat
ypi
calr
angeofv
alues.

 Themet
erpr
ovi
desav
olt
ager
eadi
ngorot
heri
ndi
cat
iont
oshowt
he
condi
ti
onoft
hedi
odeundert
est
.

Whent
heDi
odeI
sWor
king

I
nFi
gur
e(a)
,ther
ed(
posi
ti
ve)l
eadoft
hemet
eri
sconnect
edt
othe
anodeandt
hebl
ack(
negat
ive)l
eadi
sconnect
edt
othecat
hodet
o
f
orwar
dbi
ast
hedi
ode.

 I
fthedi
odei
sgood,y
ouwi
llgetar
eadi
ngofbet
ween0.
5Vand0.
9
V,
wit
h0.
7Vbei
ngt
ypi
calf
orf
orwar
dbi
as.
 I
nFi
gur
e(b)
,thedi
odei
stur oundt
nedar orev
ersebi
ast
hedi
odeas
shown.I
fthedi
odei
swor
kingpr
oper
ly,y
ouwi
llgetav
olt
ager
eadi
ng
basedont
hemet
er'
sint
ernalv
olt
age

Test
ingadi
odewi
thanANALOGUEMul
ti
Mat
e

 Sett
heanal
ogueMul
ti
Mat
etoal
owv
aluer
esi
stancer
angesuchas
×10.
 I
tisessent
ialt
onot
ethatt
hepol
ari
tyofanal
ogueMul
ti
Mat
eleadsi
s
r
ever
sedont
her
esi
stancer
anges,sot
hebl
ackl
eadi
sposi
ti
ve(
+)
andt
her
edl
eadi
snegat
ive(
-)!Thi
sisunf
ort
unat
e,buti
tisduet
o
t
hewayt
hemet
erwor
ks.
  Connectt
hebl
ack(
+)l
eadt
oanodeandt
her
ed(
-)t
othecat
hode.
Thedi
odeshoul
dconductandt
hemet
erwi
lldi
spl
ayal
owr
esi
stance
(
theexactv
aluei
snotr
elev
ant
).
 Rev
erset
heconnect
ions.Thedi
odeshoul
dNOTconductt
hiswayso
t
hemet
erwi
llshowi
nfi
nit
eresi
stance(
ont
hel
eftoft
hescal
e).

Whent
heDi
odeI
sDef
ect
ive

 When a di
ode hasf
ail
ed open,y
ou getan open ci
rcui
tvol
tage
r
eadi
ng(
2.6Vi
sty
pical
)forbot
hthef
orwar
dbi
asandt
her
ever
se-
bi
ascondi
ti
on,

I
fadi
odei
sshor
ted,t
hemet
err
eads0Vi
nbot
hfor
war
d-bi
asand
r
ever
se-
biast
est
s

Adef
ect
iveopendi
odewi
llshow anext
remel
yhi
ghr
esi
stance(
oropen)
f
orbot
hfor
war
dandr
ever
sebi
asandA def
ect
iveshor
tedorr
esi
sti
ve
di
odewi
llshowzer
ooral
owr
esi
stancef
orbot
hfor
war
dandr
ever
sebi
as.
Anopendi
odei
sthemostcommont
ypeoff
ail
ure

 Di
sconnectoneoft
hedi
odel
eadf
rom t
heci
rcui
tthenmeasur
ethe
r
esi
stanceoft
hedi
odeandagai
nrev
erset
hepol
ari
tyoft
hemet
er
 andmeasur
ether
esi
stance.

 agooddi
odewi
llshowanext
remel
yhi
ghr
esi
stance(
oropen)wi
th
r
ever
sebi
asandav
eryl
owr
esi
stancewi
thf
orwar
dbi
as.

 Onet
hingy
oushoul
dkeepi
nmi
ndaboutt
heohmmet
ercheeki
tis
notconcl
usi
on.

I
tisst
il
lpossi
blef
oradi
odet
ocheckgoodundert
hist
estbutbr
eak
dowenwhenpl
acedbacki
ntot
heci
rcui
t.

 Thepr
obl
em i
sthatt
hemet
erusedt
ocheekt
hedi
odeusesal
ow
v
olt
aget
hant
hedi
odeusual
lyoper
atesati
ntheci
rcui
t.

 Anot
herwayofchecki
ngadi
odei
swi
tht
hesubst
it
uti
onmet
hod.

 Thi
stechni
queshoul
dbeusedonl
yaf
tery
ouhav
emadev
olt
ageand
r
esi
stancemeasur
ementt
omakecer
tai
nthatt
her
eisnoci
rcui
t
def
ectt
hatmi
ghtdamaget
hesubst
it
uti
ondi
ode.

Li
ght
-Emi
tt
ingDi LEDs .
odes( I
ti )
susedf
orl
ighti
ndi
ctormost
ly
f
orr
unni
ngl
ightef
fect
s.
2l
eadsemi
conduct
ordev
ice.
•Li
ghtemi
tt
ingPN-
junct
i ode.
ondi
–Vi
sibl
eori
nfr
aredl
i .
ght
•Haspol
ari
ty.
•Recalldi
odesactasaonewaygat etocurrentf
low.
–Af orward-bi
asedPN-junct
iondiodeall
owscurrentf
lowfr
om anodeto
cathode.
•AnLEDconduct sandemi tsli
ghtwhenitsanodeismademor eposi
ti
ve
(approx.
1.4V)thanit
scathode.
–Wi threver
sepolar
ity
,LEDst opsconducti
ngandemitti
ngl
ight.
Vi
sibl
e-Li
ghtLED
•Inexpensiv
eanddur abl
e.
•Typicalusage:asindicatorl
ights.
•Commoncol ors:green(~565nm) ,yell
ow(~585nm) ,or
ange(
~615nm)
,
andr ed
(~650nm) .
•Maxi mum forwardv ol
tage:»1.8V.
•Typicaloperati
ngcur r
ents:1to3mA.
•Typicalbri
ghtnesslevels:1.
0t o3.0mcd/1mAt o3.0mcd/2mA.
•High-bri
ghtnessLEDsexi st.
–Usedi nhigh-bri
ghtnessf l
ashers(e.g.
,bi
cycl
eflashers

Bl
inki
ngLED
•Cont
ainami ni
atur
eintegr
atedci
rcui
tthatcausesLEDt
ofl
ashfrom 1to
6ti
mes/second.
•Typi
calusage:i
ndi
catorfl
asher
s.Mayalsobeusedassimpleosci
ll
ator
s
Tr
icol
orLED
•TwoLEDspl
acedi
npar
all
elf
aci
ngopposi
tedi
rect
ions.
•OneLEDi sr edoror ange,t heotheri sgreen.
•Curr
entflowi nonedi rectiont urnsoneLEDONwhi l
etheotherremai
ns
OFFdue
torev
ersebi as.
•Curr
entflowi ntheot herdi recti
ont urnsthefi
rstLEDOFFandt hesecond
LEDON.
•Rapidswitchingofcur rentf lowdirectionwil
lalt
ernat
ivel
yturnthet
wo
LEDsON
giv
ingyell
owl i
ght.
•Usedasapol ari
tyindicator .
•Maximum v oltagerating:3V
•Operat
ingr ange:10t o20mA

7-
SegmentLEDDi
spl
ay
•Usedf
ordi
spl
ayi
ngnumber
sandot
herchar
act
ers.
•7i
ndi
vidualLEDsar
eusedt
omakeupt
hedi
spl
ay.
•Whenavol
tagei
sappl
iedacr
ossoneoft
heLEDs,
apor
ti
onoft
he8
l
i sup.
ght
•Unl
ikel
iqui
dcr
yst
aldi
spl
ays(
LCD)
,7-
segmentLEDdi
spl
ayst
endt
obe
more
r
ugged,
butt
heyal
soconsumemor .
epower
HowLEDWor
ks
•Thel i
ght-emittingsectionofanLEDi smadebyj oi
ningn-typeandp- t
ype
semiconduct ors
togethert
of orm apnj uncti
on.
•Whent hepnj uncti
oni sforward-biased,elect
ronsi nthensi deare
excit
edacr osst hepn
j
unctionandi ntot hepsi de,wheretheycombi newi thholes.
•Ast heelectronscombi newiththehol es,photonsar eemi t
ted.
•Thepn- j
unct i
onsect ionofanLEDi sencasedi nanepoxyshel lt
hatis
dopedwi t
hl i
ghtscat teri
ngpar t
iclestodi f
fuselightandmaket heLED
appearbrighter.
•Oftenaref l
ect orpl
acedbeneat hthesemi conduct orisusedt odirectthe
l
ightupwar d
Phot
oresi
stor
s—I
•Lightsensiti
v evariabl
eresistors.
•Itsresi
stancedependsont heintensi
tyofl
ightincidentuponi t
.
–Underdar kcondi t
ion,r
esistanceisquit
ehigh( MW:cal l
eddar k
resist
ance).
–Underbr ightcondi ti
on,resist
anceislowered(fewhundr edW) .
•Responset ime:
–Whenaphot or esi
storisexposedt oli
ght,
ittakesaf ewmi l
liseconds,
beforeit
l
ower sitsresistance.
–Whenaphot or esi
storexper i
encesremovaloflight,i
tmayt akeaf ew
seconds
toreturntoitsdar kresi
stance.
 Sy
mbol
HowPhot
oresi
storWor
ks
•Speci
alsemi
conduct
orcr
yst
al,
suchascadmi
um sul
fi
deorl
eadsul
fi
de
i
susedt omakePhot oresist
ors.
•Whent hi
ssemiconductorisplacedindark,el
ectronswi t
hini
tsstructur
e
resistfl
owt hr
oughtheresist
orbecauset heyaretoostronglyboundt othe
crystal’
satoms.
•Whent hi
ssemiconductorisil
luminated,i
ncomingphot onsofli
ghtcol l
ide
witht heboundelect
rons,str
ippingthem f
rom t
hebi ndi
ngat om,thus
creati
nghol
esint ocess.
hepr
•Liberat
edel
ectr
onscont
ri
but
etot
hecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
hedev
ice.
Phot
odi
ode
•Phot odiodeisa2l eadsemi conduct ordev i
cet hattransf ormsl i
ghtener
gy
toelectri
c
curr
ent .
•Supposeanodeandcat hodeofaphot odi
odear ewi redtoacur rentmet
er.
–Whenphot odiodeispl
acedi ndar k,thecur r
entmet erdi splayszero
curr
entf l
ow.
–Whent hephot odiodeisexposet oli
ght,i
tact saacur r
entsour ce,
causingcur rentflow
fr
om cat hodet oanodeofphot odi odethrought hecur rentmet er.
•Phot odiodeshav ever
ylinearlightv /
scur rentchar acteristi
cs.
–Commonl yusedasl i
ghtmet ersi ncamer as.
•Phot odiodesof t
enhavebuilt-i
nl ensesandopt icalfi
lters.
•Responset imeofaphot odi
odesl owswi t
hi ncreasingsur facearea.
•Phot odiodesar emoresensi
tiv
et hanphotoresi
stor.

Phot
otr
ansi
stor
•Phot
otr
ansi
stori
sali
ghtsensi
ti
vet
ransi
stor
.
•I
nonecommont ypeofphot
otr
ansi
stor
,thebasel
eadofaBJTi
s
replacedbyal i
ght
sensitivesurface.
•Whent hel i
ghtsensiti
vesurface@ thebaseiskeptindar kness,the
coll
ect or-
emi t
ter
pairoft heBJTdoesnotconduct .
•Whent hel i
ghtsensiti
vesurface@ thebaseisexposedt ol i
ght,asmall
amountof
currentf l
owsf rom thebasetot heemitt
er.Thesmallbase-emi tt
ercurr
ent
cont r
ols
thelargercol l
ector-
emi t
tercurr
ent.
•Alternativel
y,onecanal souseaf iel
d-ef
fectphot
otransistor(PhotoFET)
.
•Inaphot oFET, theli
ghtexposuregeneratesagatev ol
tagewhi ch
cont r
olsa
drain-sourcecur r
ent.

Phot
otr
ansi
stor

Atransistor
:-i
sasemiconductordevi
ceusedt oamplif
yandswitch
el
ectronicsignal
sandelectr
icalpower
.Itiscomposedofsemiconductor
materialwit
hatleastthr
eeterminal
sforconnecti
ontoanexter
nalcircui
t.
ConsistsoftwoPNj uncti
ons.Thusatransist
ori
sliketwoPN-junct
ion
di
odes
Tr
ansi
storTy
pes:BJT,
JFET,
andMOSFET

•Bi
pol
arJunct
ionTr
ansi
stor(
BJT)

–NPNandPNP

•Junct
ionFi
eldEf
fectTr
ansi
stor(
JFET)

–N-
channelandP-
channel

•Met
alOxi
deSemi
conduct
orFET(
MOSFET)

–Depl
eti
ont
ype(
n-andp-
channel
)andenhancementt
ype(
n-andp-
channel
)

BJTTy
pes

NPNandPNP.

–NPN:asmal
linputcur
rentandaposi
ti
vev
olt
ageappl
ied@ i
tsbase
(
wit
hVB>VE)

al
lowsal
argecur
rentt
ofl
owf
rom col
lect
ort
oemi
tt
er.

–PNP:asmal
lout
putcur
rentandanegat
ivev
olt
age@ i
tsbase(
wit
h
VB<VE)al
lowsa
Tr
ansi
storTy
pes:BJT,
JFET,
andMOSFET
•Bi
pol
arJunct
ionTr
ansi
stor(
BJT)
–NPNandPNP
•JunctionFiel
dEffectTransi
stor(
JFET)
–N- channelandP-channel
•Met alOxideSemiconductorFET(MOSFET)
–Depl eti
ontype(n-andp-channel
)andenhancementt
ype(
n-andp-
channel)

MOSFET JFET BJT

BJTTy
pes
•NPNandPNP.
–NPN:asmal linputcurr
entandaposi t
ivev ol
tageappli
ed@ it
sbase
(wit
hVB>VE)
all
owsalargecurrentt
oflowfrom col
lectortoemi tt
er.
–PNP:asmal loutputcurr
entandanegat ivevoltage@ it
sbase(wi
th
VB<VE)al
lowsa
muchl
argercur
rentt
ofl
owf
rom emi
tt
ert
ocol
lect
or.

JFETTy
pes
•Twot ypesofJFETs:
–n- channelandp- channel .
•Inn- channelJFET,a–v ev ol
tageappli
ed@ i
tsgat
e(wit
hVG<VS)
reducescur rent
fl
owf rom drai
ntosour ce.Itoperateswit
hVD>VS.
•Inp- channelJFET,a+v ev ol
tageappl
ied@ i
tsgat
e(wit
hVG>VS)
reducescur rent
fl
owf rom sourcetodrain.Itoperateswit
hVS>VD.
•JFETshav ev er
yhighi nputimpedanceanddrawli
ttl
eornoinputcur
rent
–®i fthereisanycircuit/componentconnect
edtothegateofaJFET,no
currentisdr awn
awayf
rom orsunki
ntot
hisci
rcui
t.
MOSFET
•MetaloxidesemiconductorFET.
•Si
milartoJFET.
•Amet aloxi
deinsulatori
splaced@ t
hegat
etoobt
ainahi
ghi
nput
i
mpedance@ t hegat e
–gat
einputi ox.1014Ω.
mpedanceappr
•Useofi
nsul
atorasdescr
ibedabov
eyi
eldsal
owgat
e-t
o-channel
capaci
tance.
–Iftoomuchstat
icel
ect
ri
cit
ybui
ldsupont
hegat
e,t
hent
heMOSFET
maybedamaged

MOSFETTy
pes
•Enhancementt
ype:
–Normal l
yof
f,t
husnocur
rentf
lowst
hroughdr
ain-
sour
cechannelwhen
VG=VS.
–Whenav olt
ageapplied@ t
hegat ecausesVG¹VSthedrain-
source
channelreduces
resi
stancet ocurrentf
low.
•Depleti
ont ype:
–Nor mallyon, t
husmaxi mum cur
rentfl
owsthr
oughdrai
n-sourcechannel
whenVG=VS.
–Whenav olt
ageapplied@ t
hegat ecausesVG¹VSthedrain-
source
channelincreases
resi
stancet ocurrentf
low.
VG>VSVG<VSVG<VSVG>VS
Current

Currentf
lowincreaseswi t
h Cur
rentf
lowdecr
eases
with
Bipol
arjunct
ionTr ansi
stor(BJT)
-chargecarr
iersareelectr
onsandhol
es
-Lowi
nputi
mpedance
-Cur
rentcont
roldev
ice
-Const
ruct
ioni
sNPNandPNP
-hav
ehi
ghnoi
se
-Base-Emi
tt
erj
unct
ioni
sfor
war
dbi
ase.
Uni
pol
arj
unct
ionTr
ansi
stor
-Gat
e–Sour
cej
unct
ioni
sal
way
srev
ersebi
ase.
-Char
gecar
ri
ersar
eonl
yel
ect
ronsorhol
es
-Ver
yhi
ghi
nputi
mpedance
-Vol
tagecont
roldev
ice
-Const
ruct
ioni
sP-
channelorN-
channel
-Lessnoi
sei
ncommuni
cat
ion

Opt
oel
ect
roni
cs
Inopt oelectr
onicswedealwi th2typesofelectr
onicdev ices.
Lightemi t
ti
ngel ectr
onicdevices:onesthatgenerateelectromagnetic
ener gyundert heact i
onofelectri
calfiel
d.Example:li
ghtemi tti
ngdiodes
(visibleandinfraredlight
).
•Li ghtdetecti
ngdev i
ces:onesthattransfor
m elect
romagnet icenergy
i
nputi nto
elect r
icalcur
rent /
volt
age.Exampl es:photoresi
stors,
phot odiodes,
phot otransi
stors

Li
ghtemi
tt
ingdi
odes I
nfr
areddet
ect
or