Module-3-HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 2 (QUALITATIVE):

• Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung
physiology - COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine).
• Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis systems).
• Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering solutions for
muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis).
Lungs as a purification system
Introduction:
Every cell in your body needs oxygen to live. The air we breathe contains oxygen and other gases. The
respiratory system's main job is to move fresh air into your body while removing waste gases. Once in the lungs,
oxygen is moved into the bloodstream and carried through your body, oxygen is exchanged for a waste gas called
carbon dioxide. Your bloodstream then carries this waste gas back to the lungs where it is removed from the
bloodstream and then exhaled.
In addition to gas exchange, our respiratory system performs other roles important to breathing.
• Bringing air to the proper body temperature and moisturizing it to the right humidity level.
• Protecting your body from harmful substances. This is done by coughing, sneezing, and filtering.
• Supporting your sense of smell.
In the nostrils, the air gets warmed and moistened. Tiny hairs called cilia filter out dust and other particles.
Lung's architecture
1. Lobes: The human lungs are divided into two main sections called the left and right lungs. The right lung
has three lobes (superior, middle, and inferior lobes), The left lung is slightly smaller and has two lobes:
(superior and inferior lobes)
2. Bronchi: The trachea, or windpipe, divides into two main bronchi—one leading to each lung. These bronchi
then branch out into smaller bronchi, which further divide into bronchioles.
3. Alveoli: At the end of the terminal bronchioles, these grape-like structures are the primary sites of gas
exchange. It allows oxygen diffusion from the alveoli into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide into the
alveoli.
4. Pulmonary Capillaries: Deoxygenated blood enters the pulmonary arteries from the right side of the heart
and is delivered to the pulmonary capillaries. It is the smallest blood vessel inside of the lungs, attached to
the walls of the alveoli, which exchange gases between the alveoli and the bloodstream.

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

 5. Pleura: The lungs are covered by a double-layered pleura membrane.
6. Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the lungs.

Gas exchange mechanisms

• Air enters the body through the mouth or nose and

quickly moves to the throat.
• It passes through the voice box and enters the trachea.
• Within the lungs, the trachea branches into the left and
right bronchus. These further divide into smaller and
smaller branches called bronchioles. The smallest
bronchioles end in tiny air sacs. These are called
alveoli.
• During gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream from alveoli. At the same time,
the carbon dioxide molecules in the alveoli are blown out of the body the next time a person exhales. The
gas exchange allows the body to replenish the oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Doing both is
necessary for survival.

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

Spirometry:
Spirometry is a standard office test used to assess how well your lungs work by measuring.
• How much air you inhale,
• how much do you exhale, and
• how quickly you exhale.
• Spirometry diagnoses asthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), and other conditions that
affect breathing.
We will be asked to breathe into a specialized spirometer device during a spirometry test. The spirometer
measures various lung volumes and capacities as you breathe in and out. The test is typically performed while
you are sitting or standing.
How to calculate the normal rate of respiration in a spirometer:
Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume
sensor. The patient is asked to exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer, and the spirometer measures
the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a flow-volume loop graph,
which provides information about lung function.

Abnormal Lung Physiology – Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

It is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or blocked, leading to difficulty
in exhaling air. This results in decreased lung function, leading to shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing.
Over time, these symptoms can worsen and limit a person's ability to perform everyday activities.

Causes due to Symptoms:

• long-term exposure to irritating gases. • Breathing difficulty
• Cigarette smoke. • Cough
• Age-related issues. • Mucus (sputum) production, and Wheezing.

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

Ventilators
Mechanical ventilators are automated machines that breathe for patients who cannot use their lungs.
Ventilators are commonly used when patients are experiencing
severe shortness of breath, such as that caused by a respiratory
infection or by conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD). They may also be used in persons with traumatic
brain injury or stroke when the nervous system can no longer control
breathing.
Working of Ventilators
• Ventilators deliver oxygen directly to the lungs and pump out carbon dioxide for patients who cannot exhale
on their own.
• The ventilator delivers oxygen via a tube inserted through the patient’s nose or mouth in a procedure known
as intubation, or that is placed directly into the trachea, or windpipe, in a surgical procedure known as
tracheostomy.
• The opposite end of the tube is connected to a machine (the ventilator) that pumps air and oxygen through
the tube and into the lungs.
• The air is warmed and humidified before it goes into the body.
• The ventilator further plays a vital role in maintaining positive air pressure to help prevent small air sacs
(alveoli) in the lungs from collapsing.
• Ventilators are set to pump air into the lungs several times per minute. The patient’s heart, respiratory, and
blood pressure are monitored constantly.
Heart Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also called a cardiopulmonary bypass
machine (CBM) or a heart-lung bypass machine, is equipment that
temporarily takes over the work of the heart and/or lungs, providing blood
and oxygen to the body. This machine is used during serious procedures
that require the heart to be stopped and
Components of heart-lung machine:
The heart-lung machine includes Pump, Oxygenator, Filters,
Temperature Control, And Monitoring Devices. The pump is

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responsible for circulating the blood, while the oxygenator replaces the function of the lungs by adding oxygen
and removing carbon dioxide.
Working:
• During surgery, the surgeon attaches special tubing to a large blood vessel.
• The machine draws deoxygenated blood from the body, pumps it through the oxygenator to add oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide, and then returns the oxygenated blood to the body, thus maintaining blood
circulation.
• To prevent blood from clotting within the machine, anticoagulants (blood-thinning medications) such as
heparin are administered.
• A third tube is inserted near or directly into the heart but not connected to the CPM.
• It is used to flush the heart with cardioplegia, a potassium solution that stops the heart. Once the
cardioplegia takes effect, the CBM is initiated and takes over the heart and lung function.
• Cannulas (tubes) are inserted into large blood vessels. The arterial cannula is placed in the aorta to deliver
oxygenated blood back into the systemic circulation. In contrast, the venous cannula is inserted into the
right atrium or superior vena cava to draw blood from the body into the machine.

Cardio
Plegia
5

9
6 1

Blood Resorvoir

7
8 Oxygenator Air
2

3 Heat
Venous Atrium
Pump exchange
cannula Cannula

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

 Kidney as a filtration system
Introduction Kidneys are two bean-shaped organs located just below the rib cage; they function as a filtration
system by removing toxic wastes and extra fluid from the body. Healthy kidneys filter about half a cup of blood
every minute, removing waste and extra water in the form of urine. The urine flows from the kidneys to the
bladder through ureters connected to the bladder and stored in it.
Parts of kidney
• Each kidney comprises about a million filtering units called nephrons.
• Each nephron includes a filter, called the glomerulus, and a tubule.
• Glomerulus filters blood, and the Tubule removes wastes (Urine).

Mechanism of filtration:
As blood flows across each nephron and enters to glomerulus through blood vessels, the thin walls of the
glomerulus filter the smaller molecules and allow larger molecules, such as proteins and blood cells stay in the
blood vessel. The tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes in urine. The tubule helps
remove excess acid from the blood.

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

Chronic kidney disease:
chronic kidney disease includes conditions that damage kidneys and decrease the ability to filter wastes from the
blood. People with CKD may not feel ill or notice any symptoms. But CKD can be diagnosed through specific
blood and urine tests which include measuring both the creatinine level in the blood and the protein in the urine.
Chronic kidney disease includes conditions that damage kidneys and decrease the ability of filtering wastes
from your blood
• High blood pressure
• Anaemia (low blood count)
• weak bones
• Poor nutritional health
• Nerve damage
Symptoms
• People with CKD may not feel ill or notice any symptoms.
• CKD diagnosed through specific blood and urine tests.
• These tests include the measurement of both the creatinine level in the blood and the protein in the urine
DIALYSIS:
it is a procedure to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys stop working
correctly. Dialysis can be done in two methods
1. Peritoneal dialysis involves pumping dialysis fluid into the space inside your abdomen (tummy) to
draw out waste products from the blood, It involves using the peritoneal membrane, a thin, natural
lining surrounding the abdominal organs, as a filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from
the blood.
2. Hemodialysis involves diverting blood into an external machine, where it's filtered before being returned
to the body. Hemodialysis is typically performed by artificially filtering and purifying blood under the
supervision of trained healthcare professionals.
Mechanism of Peritoneal Dialysis
• Catheter Placement: A soft, flexible catheter is surgically placed into the abdominal cavity. This
catheter serves as the access point for the dialysis solution to enter and exit the peritoneal cavity.

Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.

• Dialysis Solution (Dialysate): A sterile dialysis solution consisting of electrolytes, glucose, and other
substances, is infused into the peritoneal cavity through the catheter. The solution is left in the cavity for
a specific period, absorbing waste products and excess fluids from the bloodstream.
• Diffusion and Osmosis: The peritoneal membrane acts as a semipermeable barrier. Waste products,
excess fluids, and electrolytes move across the membrane from the blood vessels into the dialysis solution
through diffusion and osmosis.
• Drainage: After a prescribed dwell time, the dialysate, now containing waste products and excess fluids,
is drained out of the abdominal cavity, and discarded.

Peritoneal dialysis is typically performed in cycles, with multiple daily and night exchanges. The
frequency and duration of exchanges depend on the individual's needs and the type of peritoneal dialysis
being performed.

Mechanism of Hemodialysis
• Vascular Access: a synthetic tube connection between an artery and a vein.
• Blood Circulation: The patient's blood is diverted from their body through the vascular access point into
the dialysis machine.
• Dialysis Machine: The dialysis machine has a special filter called a dialyzer or artificial kidney. The
dialyzer contains two compartments separated by a semipermeable membrane. Blood flows through one
compartment, and a dialysis solution (dialysate) flows through the other.

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 • Filtration and Purification: As blood passes through the dialyzer, waste products, excess fluids, and
electrolytes diffuse across the semipermeable membrane and into the dialysate. This process helps mimic
the kidneys’ natural function by filtering waste and excess substances from the blood.
• Return of Purified Blood: After filtration, the cleaned blood is returned to the patient's body through
the vascular access point.
Hemodialysis sessions typically last around 3 to 5 hours and are usually performed thrice weekly. While
hemodialysis effectively removes waste products and excess fluids from the blood, it may also cause
fluctuations in blood pressure and other potential complications.

MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS AS SCAFFOLDS

Skeletal System as the Scaffold
Scaffolds are temporary structures used during construction. Similarly, the Bones in the human body act as
a permanent scaffold Bones in the human body serve as a permanent scaffold. They are connected through
joints, which allow movement and flexibility.
Just as scaffolds are strategically designed to withstand forces during construction, the human skeleton is
designed to withstand various pressures, stresses, and loads the body encounters during daily activities and
movement.
Muscular System as the Scaffold
The muscular system can be likened to the workers on the scaffold who move and manipulate materials
during construction. Muscles are attached to bones; when they contract, they pull on the bones, causing joint
movement. This mechanism allows the body to perform various activities such as walking, running, lifting,
and grasping objects. With exercise and training, muscles can strengthen and become more efficient.

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Mechanism of the musculoskeletal system.
• Our nervous system (brain and nerves) sends a message to activate your voluntary muscles.
• Voluntary muscle takes up the muscle message and activates itself.
• Tendons attach muscles to bones. The tendon pulls the bone, making it move.
• To relax the muscle, your nervous system sends another message. It triggers the message to relax the
muscles. The relaxed muscle releases tension, moving the bone to a resting position.
Osteoporosis is a medical condition characterized by decreased bone mass and density, leading to an increased
risk of fractures. It occurs when the body's natural processes of bone resorption (breaking down bone tissue)
outpace bone formation, resulting in brittle and weak bones. Osteoporosis is often called the "silent disease"
because it typically progresses without noticeable symptoms until a fracture occurs.
BIO-ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR OSTEOPOROSIS
1. Biomechanical Implants and Assistive Devices:
• Implants: Engineers are working on developing bioresorbable implants that can be
placed in areas of weak bones to provide support during the healing process.
• Exoskeletons: Wearable exoskeletons can assist individuals with weakened muscles or
bones maintain proper posture and mobility, reducing the risk of falls and fractures.
2. Bone Regeneration and Tissue Engineering:
• 3D-Printed Implants: 3D printing technology can be used to create custom implants
that mimic the structure of bone tissue and encourage natural bone regeneration.
• Stem Cell Therapies: Stem cells can be manipulated to differentiate into bone-forming
cells, promoting bone regeneration.
3. Diagnostic and Monitoring Tools:
• Advanced Imaging: High-resolution imaging techniques, such as micro-CT and MRI,
can provide detailed information about bone structure and density, aiding in early
diagnosis and monitoring.
• Wearable Sensors: Wearable devices can monitor gait, posture, and physical activity,
providing insights into an individual's movement patterns and fall risk.
4. Biomechanical Research and Modeling:
• Computational Modeling: Advanced computer simulations can model bone
mechanics and predict fracture risk, aiding treatment planning and decision-making.

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5. Muscular dystrophy (MD) refers to a group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive weakening
and degeneration of the muscles. These conditions result from mutations in genes responsible for the
structure and function of muscles. Muscular dystrophy can affect people of all ages and is typically
inherited, meaning it is passed down from parents to their children.
BIO-ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
1. Gene Therapy:
• Gene Replacement: Gene therapy involves delivering functional copies of the
defective gene responsible for muscular dystrophy into muscle cells. Viral
vectors are often used to carry the corrected gene.
• CRISPR-Cas9: The CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system can correct mutations
in the dystrophin gene, potentially restoring proper protein production.
2. Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine:
• Stem Cell Transplantation: Stem cells, including mesenchymal stem cells and
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), can regenerate damaged muscle tissue.
• Muscle Cell Engineering: Muscle cells can be engineered in the lab and
transplanted into affected areas to promote muscle regeneration.
3. Muscle Tissue Engineering:
• 3D Muscle Constructs: Engineers are working on creating 3D muscle tissue
constructs in the lab using bioengineered scaffolds and muscle cells. These
constructs could potentially be used for transplantation or drug testing.
4. Exon Skipping:
• Exon skipping involves using synthetic molecules (oligonucleotides) to skip
over specific exons in the dystrophin gene during protein production. This
approach can lead to the production of a partially functional dystrophin protein.
5. Electrical Stimulation and Neuromuscular Interfaces:
• Neuromuscular Prosthetics: Electrodes and neural interfaces can stimulate
muscles and restore muscle function in individuals with muscular dystrophy.

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Biology for Engineers (21BE45) Department of Chemistry, ATMECE Mysore.